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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Information Security:
The concept of information will be taken to be an understood quantity. To introduce cryptography, an understanding of issues related to information security in general is necessary. Information security manifests itself in many ways according to the situation and requirement. Regardless of who is involved, to one degree or another, all parties to a transaction must have confidence that certain objectives associated with information security have been met. Over the centuries, an elaborate set of protocols and mechanisms has been created to deal with information security issues when the information is conveyed by physical documents. Often the objectives of information security cannot solely be achieved through mathematical algorithms and protocols alone, but require procedural techniques and abidance of laws to achieve the desired result.
For example, privacy of letters is provided by sealed envelopes delivered by an accepted mail service. The physical security of the envelope is, for practical necessity, limited and so laws are enacted which make it a criminal offense to open mail for which one is not authorized. It is sometimes the case that security is achieved not through the information itself but through the physical document recording it.
For example, paper currency requires special inks and material to prevent counterfeiting. Conceptually, the way information is recorded has not changed dramatically over time. Whereas information was typically stored and transmitted on paper, much of it now resides on magnetic media and is transmitted via telecommunications systems, some wireless. What has changed dramatically is the ability to copy and alter information. One can make thousands of identical copies of a piece of information stored electronically and each is indistinguishable from the original. With information on paper, this is much more difficult.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data What is needed then for a society where information is mostly stored and transmitted in electronic form is a means to ensure information security which is independent of the physical medium recording or conveying it and such that the objectives of information security rely solely on digital information itself. One of the fundamental tools used in information security is the signature. It is a building block for many other services such as non-repudiation, data origin authentication, identification, and witnessing, to mention a few. Having learned the basics in writing, an individual is taught how to produce a handwritten signature for the purpose of identification. At contract age the signature evolves to take on a very integral part of the persons identity. This signature is intended to be unique to the individual and serve as a means to identify, authorize, and validate.
With electronic information the concept of a signature needs to be redressed; it cannot simply be something unique to the signer and independent of the information signed. Electronic replication of it is so simple that appending a signature to a document not signed by the originator of the signature is almost a triviality. Analogues of the paper protocols currently in use are required. Hopefully these new electronic based protocols are at least as good as those they replace. There is a unique opportunity for society to introduce new and more efficient ways of ensuring information security. Much can be learned from the evolution of the paper based system, mimicking those aspects which have served us well and removing the inefficiencies. Achieving information security in an electronic society requires a vast array of technical and legal skills. There is, however, no guarantee that all of the information security objectives deemed necessary can be adequately met. The technical means is provided through cryptography.
1.2 Cryptography:
Cryptography has a long and fascinating history. The most complete non-technical account of the subject is Kahns The Code breakers. This book traces cryptography from its initial and limited use by the Egyptians some 4000 years ago, to the twentieth century where it played a crucial role in the outcome of both world wars. The most striking development in the history of cryptography came in 1976 when Diffie and Hellman published New Directions in Cryptography. This paper introduced the revolutionary concept of public-key cryptography and also provided a new and ingenious method for key exchange, the security of which is based on the intractability of the discrete
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data logarithm problem. Although the authors had no practical realization of a public-key encryption scheme at the time, the idea was clear and it generated extensive interest and activity in the cryptographic community.
In 1978 Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman discovered the first practical public-key encryption and signature scheme, now referred to as RSA. The RSA scheme is based on another hard mathematical problem, the intractability of factoring large integers. This application of a hard mathematical problem to cryptography revitalized efforts to find more efficient methods to factor. The 1980s saw major advances in this area but none which rendered the RSA system insecure. Another class of powerful and practical public-key schemes was found by ElGamal in 1985. These are also based on the discrete logarithm problem. One of the most significant contributions provided by public-key cryptography is the digital signature. In 1991 the first international standard for digital signatures (ISO/IEC 9796) was adopted. It is based on the RSA public-key scheme. In 1994 the U.S. Government adopted the Digital Signature Standard, a mechanism based on the ElGamal public key scheme. Cryptography is the study of mathematical techniques related to aspects of information security such as confidentiality, data integrity, entity authentication, and data origin authentication. Cryptography is not the only means of providing information security, but rather one set of techniques. 1.2.1 Cryptography Terminology Until modern times cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the process of converting ordinary information (called plaintext) into unintelligible gibberish (called ciphertext).Decryption is the reverse, in other words, moving from the unintelligible cipher text back to plaintext. A cipher (or cipher) is a pair of algorithms that create the encryption and the reversing decryption. The detailed operation of a cipher is controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance by a "key". This is a secret parameter (ideally known only to the communicants) for a specific message exchange context. A "cryptosystem" is the ordered list of elements of finite possible plaintexts, finite possible cipher texts, finite possible keys, and the encryption and decryption algorithms which correspond to each key. Keys are important, as ciphers without variable keys can be trivially broken with only the knowledge of the cipher used and are therefore useless (or even counter-productive) for most
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data purposes. Historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such as authentication or integrity checks. In colloquial use, the term "code" is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning. However, in cryptography, code has a more specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext (i.e., a meaningful word or phrase) with a code word (for example, wallaby replaces attack at dawn). Codes are no longer used in serious cryptography except incidentally for such things as unit designations (e.g., Bronco Flight or Operation Overlord) since properly chosen ciphers are both more practical and more secure than even the best codes and also are better adapted to computers. Cryptanalysis is the term used for the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information without access to the key normally required to do so; i.e., it is the study of how to crack encryption algorithms or their implementations. Some use the terms cryptography and cryptology interchangeably in English, while others (including US military practice generally) use cryptography to refer specifically to the use and practice of cryptographic techniques and cryptology to refer to the combined study of cryptography and cryptanalysis. English is more flexible than several other languages in which cryptology (done by cryptologists) is always used in the second sense above. In the English Wikipedia the general term used for the entire field is cryptography (done by cryptographers). The study of characteristics of languages which have some application in cryptography (or cryptology), i.e. frequency data, letter combinations, universal patterns, etc., is called crypto linguistics. 1.2.2 Cryptographic goals (1) Privacy or confidentiality (2) Data integrity (3) Authentication (4) Non-repudiation
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data 1. Confidentiality is a service used to keep the content of information from all but those authorized to have it. Secrecy is a term synonymous with confidentiality and privacy. There are numerous approaches to providing confidentiality, ranging from physical protection to mathematical algorithms which render data unintelligible. 2. Data integrity is a service which addresses the unauthorized alteration of data. To assure data integrity, one must have the ability to detect data manipulation by unauthorized parties. Data manipulation includes such things as insertion, deletion, and substitution. 3. Authentication is a service related to identification. This function applies to both entities and information itself. Two parties entering into a communication should identify each other. Information delivered over a channel should be authenticated as to origin, date of origin, data content, time sent, etc. For these reasons this aspect of cryptography is usually subdivided into two major classes: entity authentication and data origin authentication. Data origin authentication implicitly provides data integrity 4. Non-repudiation is a service which prevents an entity from denying previous commitments or actions. When disputes arise due to an entity denying that certain actions were taken, a means to resolve the situation is necessary. For example, one entity may authorize the purchase of property by another entity and later deny such authorization was granted. A procedure involving a trusted third party is needed to resolve the dispute. A fundamental goal of cryptography is to adequately address these four areas in both theory and practice. Cryptography is about the prevention and detection of cheating and other malicious activities.
There are number of basic cryptographic tools (primitives) used to provide information security. Examples of primitives include encryption schemes hash functions, and digital signature schemes provides a schematic listing of the primitives considered and how they relate. These primitives should be evaluated with respect to various criteria such as:
1. Level of security. This is usually difficult to quantify. Often it is given in terms of the number of operations required (using the best methods currently known) to defeat the intended objective. Typically the level of security is defined by an upper bound on the amount of work necessary to defeat the objective. This is sometimes called the work factor. 2. Functionality. Primitives will need to be combined to meet various information security
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data objectives. Which primitives are most effective for a given objective will be determined by the basic properties of the primitives. 3. Methods of operation. Primitives, when applied in various ways and with various inputs, will typically exhibit different characteristics; thus, one primitive could provide be evaluated very different functionality depending on its mode of operation or usage. 4. Performance. This refers to the efficiency of a primitive in a particular mode of operation. (For example, an encryption algorithm may be rated by the number of bits per second which it can encrypt.) 5.Ease of implementation. This refers to the difficulty of realizing the primitive in a practical instantiation. This might include the complexity of implementing the primitive in either a software or hardware environment. The relative importance of various criteria is very much dependent on the application and resources available. For example, in an environmentwhere computing power is limited one may have to trade off a very high level of security for better performance of the system as a whole. Cryptography, over the ages, has been an art practiced by many who have devised ad hoc techniques to meet some of the information security requirements. The last twenty years have been a period of transition as the discipline moved from an art to a science. There are now several international scientific conferences devoted exclusively to cryptography and also an international scientific organization, the International Association for Crypto logic Research (IACR), aimed at fostering research in the area.
Figure1.1: A Taxonomy Of Cryptographic Primitives

Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data 1.2.3 Cryptography Types i ) Classic Cryptography: The earliest forms of secret writing required little more than local pen and paper analogs, as most people could not read. More literacy, or literate opponents, required actual cryptography. The main classical cipher types are transposition ciphers, which rearrange the order of letters in a message (e.g., 'hello world' becomes 'ehlolowrdl' in a trivially simple rearrangement scheme), and substitution ciphers, which systematically replace letters or groups of letters with other letters or groups of letters (e.g., 'fly at once' becomes 'gmzbupodf' by replacing each letter with the one following it in the Latin alphabet). Simple versions of either have never offered much confidentiality from enterprising opponents. An early substitution cipher was the Caesar cipher, in which each letter in the plaintext was replaced by a letter some fixed number of positions further down the alphabet. Suetonius reports that Julius Caesar used it with a shift of three to communicate with his generals. Atbash is an example of an early Hebrew cipher. The earliest known use of cryptography is some carved cipher text on stone in Egypt (ca 1900 BCE), but this may have been done for the amusement of literate observers rather than as a way of concealing information. Cryptography is recommended in the Kama Sutra (ca 400 BCE) as a way for lovers to communicate without inconvenient discovery. The Greeks of Classical times are said to have known of ciphers (e.g., the scytale transposition cipher claimed to have been used by the Spartan military). Steganography (i.e., hiding even the existence of a message so as to keep it confidential) was also first developed in ancient times. An early example, from Herodotus, concealed a messagea tattoo on a slave's shaved headunder the re grown hair. Another Greek method was developed by Polybius (now called the "Polybius Square"). More modern examples of steganography include the use of invisible ink, microdots, and digital watermarks to conceal information. Cipher texts produced by a classical cipher (and some modern ciphers) always reveal statistical information about the plaintext, which can often be used to break them. After the discovery of frequency analysis perhaps by the Arab mathematician and polymath, Al-Kindi (also known as Alkindus), in the 9th century, nearly all such ciphers became more or less readily breakable by any informed attacker. Such classical ciphers still enjoy popularity today, though mostly as puzzles (see cryptogram). Al-Kindi wrote a book on cryptography
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data entitled Risalah fi Istikhraj al-Mu'amma (Manuscript for the Deciphering Cryptographic Messages), in which described the first cryptanalysis techniques.
16th-century book-shaped French cipher machine, with arms of Henri II of France
Enciphered letter from Gabriel de Luetzd'Aramon, French Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, after 1546, with partial decipherment Essentially all ciphers remained vulnerable to cryptanalysis using the frequency analysis technique until the development of the poly alphabetic cipher, most clearly by Leon Battista Alberti around the year 1467, though there is some indication that it was already known to Al-Kindi. Alberti's innovation was to use different ciphers (i.e., substitution alphabets) for various parts of a message (perhaps for each successive plaintext letter at the limit). He also invented what was probably the first automatic cipher device, a wheel which implemented a partial realization of his invention. In the poly alphabetic Vigenre cipher, encryption uses a key word, which controls letter substitution depending on which letter of the key word is used. In the mid-19th century Charles Babbage showed that the Vigenre cipher was vulnerable to Kasiski examination, but this was first published about ten years later by Friedrich Kasiski. Although frequency analysis is a powerful and general technique against many ciphers, encryption has still been often effective in practice; many a would-be cryptanalyst
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data was unaware of the technique. Breaking a message without using frequency analysis essentially required knowledge of the cipher used and perhaps of the key involved, thus making espionage, bribery, burglary, defection, etc., more attractive approaches to the cryptanalytically uninformed. It was finally explicitly recognized in the 19th century that secrecy of a cipher's algorithm is not a sensible or practical safeguard of message security; in fact, it was further realized that any adequate cryptographic scheme (including ciphers) should remain secure even if the adversary fully understands the cipher algorithm itself. Security of the key used should alone be sufficient for a good cipher to maintain confidentiality under an attack. This fundamental principle was first explicitly stated in 1883 by AugusteKerckhoffs and is generally called Kerckhoffs's Principle; alternatively and more bluntly, it was restated by Claude Shannon, the inventor of information theory and the fundamentals of theoretical cryptography, as Shannon's Maxim'the enemy knows the system'. Different physical devices and aids have been used to assist with ciphers. One of the earliest may have been the scytale of ancient Greece, a rod supposedly used by the Spartans as an aid for a transposition cipher (see image above). In medieval times, other aids were invented such as the cipher grille, which was also used for a kind of steganography. With the invention of poly alphabetic ciphers came more sophisticated aids such as Alberti's own cipher disk, Johannes Trithemius' tabula recta scheme, and Thomas Jefferson's multi-cylinder (not publicly known, and reinvented independently by Bazeries around 1900). Many mechanical encryption/decryption devices were invented early in the 20th century, and several patented, among them rotor machinesfamously including the Enigma machine used by the German government and military from the late '20s and during World War II.[16] The ciphers implemented by better quality examples of these machine designs brought about a substantial increase in cryptanalytic difficulty after WWI. ii) Symmetric-Key Cryptography: Symmetric-key cryptography refers to encryption methods in which both the sender and receiver share the same key (or, less commonly, in which their keys are different, but related in an easily computable way). This was the only kind of encryption publicly known until June 1976.
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Figure1.2: Symmetric Key Cryptography
One round (out of 8.5) of the patented IDEA cipher, used in some versions of PGP for high-speed encryption of, for instance, e-mail Symmetric key ciphers are implemented as either block ciphers or stream ciphers. A block cipher enciphers input in blocks of plaintext as opposed to individual characters, the input form used by a stream cipher. The Data Encryption Standard (DES) and the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) are block cipher designs which have been designated cryptography standards by the US government (though DES's designation was finally withdrawn after the AES was adopted). Despite its deprecation as an official standard, DES (especially its still-approved and much more secure triple-DES variant) remains quite popular; it is used across a wide range of applications, from ATM encryption to e-mail privacy and secure remote access. Many other block ciphers have been designed and released, with considerable variation in quality. Many have been thoroughly broken, such as FEAL. Stream ciphers, in contrast to the 'block' type, create an arbitrarily long stream of key material, which is combined with the plaintext bit-by-bit or character-by-character, somewhat like the one-time pad. In a stream cipher, the output stream is created based on a hidden internal state which changes as the cipher operates. That internal state is initially set up using the secret key material. RC4 is a widely used stream cipher. Block ciphers can be used as stream ciphers..
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data Cryptographic hash functions are a third type of cryptographic algorithm. They take a message of any length as input, and output a short, fixed length hash which can be used in (for example) a digital signature. For good hash functions, an attacker cannot find two messages that produce the same hash. MD4 is a long-used hash function which is now broken; MD5, a strengthened variant of MD4, is also widely used but broken in practice. The U.S. National Security Agency developed the Secure Hash Algorithm series of MD5-like hash functions: SHA-0 was a flawed algorithm that the agency withdrew; SHA-1 is widely deployed and more secure than MD5, but cryptanalysts have identified attacks against it; the SHA-2 family improves on SHA-1, but it isn't yet widely deployed, and the U.S. standards authority thought it "prudent" from a security perspective to develop a new standard to "significantly improve the robustness of NIST's overall hash algorithm toolkit."[25] Thus, a hash function design competition is underway and meant to select a new U.S. national standard, to be called SHA-3, by 2012. Message authentication codes (MACs) are much like cryptographic hash functions, except that a secret key can be used to authenticate the hash value upon receipt. Symmetric-key cryptosystems use the same key for encryption and decryption of a message, though a message or group of messages may have a different key than others. A significant disadvantage of symmetric ciphers is the key management necessary to use them securely. Each distinct pair of communicating parties must, ideally, share a different key, and perhaps each cipher text exchanged as well. The number of keys required increases as the square of the number of network members, which very quickly requires complex key management schemes to keep them all straight and secret. The difficulty of securely establishing a secret key between two communicating parties, when a secure channel does not already exist between them, also presents a chicken-and-egg problem which is a considerable practical obstacle for cryptography users in the real world. In a groundbreaking 1976 paper, Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman proposed the notion of public-key (also, more generally, called asymmetric key) cryptography in which two different but mathematically related keys are useda public key and a private key. A public key system is so constructed that calculation of one key (the 'private key') is computationally infeasible from the other (the 'public key'), even though they are necessarily related. Instead, both keys are generated secretly, as an interrelated pair. The historian David
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data Kahn described public-key cryptography as "the most revolutionary new concept in the field since poly alphabetic substitution emerged in the Renaissance". In public-key cryptosystems, the public key may be freely distributed, while its paired private key must remain secret. In a public-key encryption system, the public key is used for encryption, while the private or secret key is used for decryption. While Diffie and Hellman could not find such a system, they showed that public-key cryptography was indeed possible by presenting the Diffie Hellman key exchange protocol, a solution that is now widely used in secure communications to allow two parties to secretly agree on a shared encryption key. Diffie and Hellman's publication sparked widespread academic efforts in finding a practical public-key encryption system. This race was finally won in 1978 by Ronald Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman, whose solution has since become known as the RSA algorithm. The DiffieHellman and RSA algorithms, in addition to being the first publicly known examples of high quality public-key algorithms, have been among the most widely used. Others include the CramerShoup cryptosystem, ElGamal encryption, and various elliptic curve techniques. To much surprise, a document published in 1997 by the General Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), a British intelligence organization, revealed that cryptographers at GCHQ had anticipated several academic developments. Reportedly, around 1970, James H. Ellis had conceived the principles of asymmetric key cryptography. In 1973, Clifford Cocks invented a solution that essentially resembles the RSA algorithm. And in 1974, Malcolm J. Williamson is claimed to have developed the Diffie-Hellman key exchange. Public-key cryptography can also be used to implement digital signature schemes. A digital signature is reminiscent of an ordinary signature; they both have the characteristic that they are easy for a user to produce, but difficult for anyone else to forge. Digital signatures can also be permanently tied to the content of the message being signed; they cannot then be 'moved' from one document to another, for any attempt will be detectable. In digital signature schemes, there are two algorithms: one for signing, in which a secret key is used to process the message (or a hash of the message, or both), and one for verification, in which the matching public key is used with the message to check the validity of the signature. RSA and
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data DSA are two of the most popular digital signature schemes. Digital signatures are central to the operation of public key infrastructures and many network security schemes (e.g., SSL/TLS, many VPNs, etc.). Public-key algorithms are most often based on the computational complexity of "hard" problems, often from number theory. For example, the hardness of RSA is related to the integer factorization problem, while DiffieHellman and DSA are related to the discrete logarithm problem. More recently, elliptic curve cryptography has developed in which security is based on number theoretic problems involving elliptic curves. Because of the difficulty of the underlying problems, most public-key algorithms involve operations such as modular multiplication and exponentiation, which are much more computationally expensive than the techniques used in most block ciphers, especially with typical key sizes. As a result, public-key cryptosystems are commonly hybrid cryptosystems, in which a fast high-quality symmetric-key encryption algorithm is used for the message itself, while the relevant symmetric key is sent with the message, but encrypted using a public-key algorithm. Similarly, hybrid signature schemes are often used, in which a cryptographic hash function is computed, and only the resulting hash is digitally signed. iii) Public-Key Cryptography :
Figure1.3: Public Key Cryptography
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data In an asymmetric key encryption scheme, anyone can encrypt messages using the public key, but only the holder of the paired private key can decrypt. Security depends on the secrecy of that private key. In some related signature schemes, the private key is used to sign a message; anyone can check the signature using the public key. Validity depends on security of the private key. In the DiffieHellman key exchange scheme, each party generates a public/private key pair and distributes the public key... After obtaining an authentic copy of each other's public keys, Alice and Bob can compute a shared secret offline. The shared secret can be used, for instance, as the key for a symmetric cipher. Public-key cryptography refers to a cryptographic system requiring two separate keys, one to lock or encrypt the plaintext, and one to unlock or decrypt the cipher text. Neither key will do both functions. One of these keys is published or public and the other is kept private. If the lock/encryption key is the one published then the system enables private communication from the public to the unlocking key's owner. If the unlock/decryption key is the one published then the system serves as a signature verifier of documents locked by the owner of the private key. Although in this latter case, since encrypting the entire message is relatively expensive computationally, in practice just a hash of the message is encrypted for signature verification purposes. This cryptographic approach uses asymmetric key algorithms such as RSA, hence the more general name of "asymmetric key cryptography". Some of these algorithms have the public key/private key property; that is, neither key is derivable from knowledge of the other; not all asymmetric key algorithms do. Those with this property are particularly useful and have been widely deployed, and are the source of the commonly used name. Although unrelated, the key pair is mathematically linked. The public key is used to transform a message into an unreadable form, decryptable only by using the (different but matching) private key. By publishing the public key, the key producer empowers anyone who gets a copy of the public key to produce messages only s/he can readbecause only the key producer has a copy of the private key (required for decryption). When someone wants to send a secure message to the creator of those keys, the sender encrypts it (i.e., transforms it into an unreadable form) using the intended recipient's public key; to decrypt the message, the recipient uses the private key. No one else, including the sender, can do so.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data Thus, unlike symmetric key algorithms, a public key algorithm does not require a secure initial exchange of one, or more, secret keys between the sender and receiver. These algorithms work in such a way that, while it is easy for the intended recipient to generate the public and private keys and to decrypt the message using the private key, and while it is easy for the sender to encrypt the message using the public key, it is extremely difficult for anyone to figure out the private key based on their knowledge of the public key. They are based on mathematical relationships (the most notable ones being the integer factorization and discrete logarithm problems) that have no efficient solution. The use of these algorithms also allows authenticity of a message to be checked by creating a digital signature of a message using the private key, which can be verified using the public key. Public key cryptography is a fundamental and widely used technology. It is an approach used by many cryptographic algorithms and cryptosystems. It underpins such Internet standards as Transport Layer Security (TLS) (successor to SSL), PGP, and GPG.
How It Works
The distinguishing technique used in public key cryptography is the use of asymmetric key algorithms, where the key used to encrypt a message is not the same as the key used to decrypt it. Each user has a pair of cryptographic keys a public encryption key and a private decryption key. The publicly available encrypting-key is widely distributed, while the private decrypting-key is known only to the recipient. Messages are encrypted with the recipient's public key and can be decrypted only with the corresponding private key. The keys are related mathematically, but parameters are chosen so that determining the private key from the public key is prohibitively expensive. The discovery of algorithms that could produce public/private key pairs revolutionized the practice of cryptography beginning in the mid-1970s. In contrast, symmetric-key algorithms, variations of which have been used for thousands of years, use a single secret key which must be shared and kept private by both sender and receiver for both encryption and decryption. To use a symmetric encryption scheme, the sender and receiver must securely share a key in advance.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data Because symmetric key algorithms are nearly always much less computationally intensive, it is common to exchange a key using a key-exchange algorithm and transmit data using that key and a symmetric key algorithm. PGP and the SSL/TLS family of schemes do this, for instance, and are thus called hybrid cryptosystems.
Description
The two main branches of public key cryptography are:
Public key encryption: a message encrypted with a recipient's public key cannot be decrypted by anyone except a possessor of the matching private key, it is presumed that this will be the owner of that key and the person associated with the public key used. This is used for confidentiality.
Digital signatures: a message signed with a sender's private key can be verified by anyone who has access to the sender's public key, thereby proving that the sender had access to the private key (and therefore is likely to be the person associated with the public key used), and the part of the message that has not been tampered with. On the question of authenticity, see also message digest.
An analogy to public-key encryption is that of a locked mail box with a mail slot. The mail slot is exposed and accessible to the public; its location (the street address) is in essence the public key. Anyone knowing the street address can go to the door and drop a written message through the slot; however, only the person who possesses the key can open the mailbox and read the message. An analogy for digital signatures is the sealing of an envelope with a personal wax seal. The message can be opened by anyone, but the presence of the seal authenticates the sender. A central problem for use of public-key cryptography is confidence (ideally proof) that a public key is correct, belongs to the person or entity claimed (i.e., is 'authentic'), and has not been tampered with or replaced by a malicious third party. The usual approach to this problem is to use a public-key infrastructure (PKI), in which one or more third parties, known
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data as certificate authorities, certify ownership of key pairs. PGP, in addition to a certificate authority structure, has used a scheme generally called the "web of trust", which decentralizes such authentication of public keys by a central mechanism, substituting individual endorsements of the link between user and public key. No fully satisfactory solution to the public key authentication problem is known.
iv) Private Key (secret key) Cryptography

In cryptography, a private or secret key is an encryption/decryption key known only to the party or parties that exchange secret messages. In traditional secret key cryptography, a key would be shared by the communicators so that each could encrypt and decrypt messages. The risk in this system is that if either party loses the key or it is stolen, the system is broken. A more recent alternative is to use a combination of public and private keys. In this system, a public key is used together with a private key. See public key infrastructure (PKI) for more information.
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The Advanced Encryption Standard, in the following referenced as AES, is the winner of the contest, held in 1997 by the US Government, after the Data Encryption Standard was found too weak because of its small key size and the technological advancements in processor power. Fifteen candidates were accepted in 1998 and based on public comments the pool was reduced to five finalists in 1999. In October 2000, one of these five algorithms was selected as the forthcoming standard: a slightly modified version of the Rijndael. The Rijndael, whose name is based on the names of its two Belgian inventors, JoanDaemen and Vincent Rijmen, is a Block cipher, which means that it works on fixedlength group of bits, which are called blocks. It takes an input block of a certain size, usually 128, and produces a corresponding output block of the same size. The transformation requires a second input, which is the secret key. It is important to know that the secret key can be of any size (depending on the cipher used) and that AES uses three different key sizes: 128, 192 and 256 bits. While AES supports only block sizes of 128 bits and key sizes of 128, 192 and 256 bits, the Original Rijndael supports key and block sizes in any multiple of 32, with a minimum of128 and a maximum of 256 bits.
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CHAPTER: 2 DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD

2.1 Introduction
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a previously predominant algorithm for the encryption of electronic data. It was highly influential in the advancement of modern cryptography in the academic world. Developed in the early 1970s at IBM and based on an earlier design by Horst Feistel, the algorithm was submitted to the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) following the agency's invitation to propose a candidate for the protection of sensitive, unclassified electronic government data. In 1976, after consultation with the National Security Agency (NSA), the NBS eventually selected a slightly modified version, which was published as an official Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) for the United States in 1977. The publication of an NSA-approved encryption standard simultaneously resulted in its quick international adoption and widespread academic scrutiny. Controversies arose out of classified design elements, a relatively short key length of the symmetric-key block cipher design, and the involvement of the NSA, nourishing suspicions about a backdoor. While these suspicions eventually have turned out to be unfounded, the intense academic scrutiny the algorithm received over time led to the modern understanding of block ciphers and their cryptanalysis. DES is now considered to be insecure for many applications. This is chiefly due to the 56-bit key size being too small; in January, 1999, distributed.net and the Electronic Frontier Foundation collaborated to publicly break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes . There are also some analytical results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the cipher, although they are infeasible to mount in practice. The algorithm is believed to be practically secure in the form of Triple DES, although there are theoretical attacks. In recent years, the cipher has been superseded by the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES). Furthermore, DES has been withdrawn as a standard by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (formerly the National Bureau of Standards). Some documentation makes a distinction between DES as a standard and DES as an algorithm, referring to the algorithm as the DEA (Data Encryption Algorithm).
2.2 Description
DES is the archetypal block cipher an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of plaintext bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another cipher text bit string of the same length. In the case of DES, the block size is 64 bits. DES also uses a key to customize the transformation, so that decryption can supposedly only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt. The key ostensibly consists of 64 bits; however, only 56 of these are actually used by the algorithm. Eight bits are used solely for checking parity, and are thereafter discarded. Hence the effective key length is 56 bits, and it is never quoted as such. Every 8th bit of the selected key is discarded, that is, positions 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64 are removed from the 64 bit key leaving behind only the 56 bit key.
Figure2.1: DES Algorithm Structure The algorithm's overall structure is shown in Figure2.1 there are 16 identical stages of processing, termed rounds. There is also an initial and final permutation, termed IP and FP, which are inverses (IP "undoes" the action of FP, and vice versa). IP and FP have almost no
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data cryptographic significance, but were apparently included in order to facilitate loading blocks in and out of mid-1970s hardware. Before the main rounds, the block is divided into two 32-bit halves and processed alternately; this criss-crossing is known as the Feistel scheme. The Feistel structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes the only difference is that the sub keys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting. The rest of the algorithm is identical. This greatly simplifies implementation, particularly in hardware, as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms. The symbol denotes the exclusive-OR (XOR) operation. The F-function scrambles half a block together with some of the key. The output from the F-function is then combined with the other half of the block, and the halves are swapped before the next round. After the final round, the halves are not swapped; this is a feature of the Feistel structure which makes encryption and decryption similar processes.
2.3 Modes of Operation
ECB (Electronic Code Book)

o o o
This is the regular DES algorithm. Data is divided into 64-bit blocks and each block is encrypted one at a time. Separate encryptions with different blocks are totally independent of each other.
This means that if data is transmitted over a network or phone line, transmission errors will only affect the block containing the error.
It also means, however, that the blocks can be rearranged, thus scrambling a file beyond recognition, and this action would go undetected.
ECB is the weakest of the various modes because no additional security measures are implemented besides the basic DES algorithm.
However, ECB is the fastest and easiest to implement, making it the most common mode of DES.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data CBC (Cipher Block Chaining)

o
In this mode of operation, each block of ECB encrypted cipher text is XORed with the next plaintext block to be encrypted, thus making all the blocks dependent on all the previous blocks.
This means that in order to find the plaintext of a particular block, you need to know the cipher text, the key, and the cipher text for the previous block.
The first block to be encrypted has no previous cipher text, so the plaintext is XORed with a 64-bit number called the Initialization Vector, or IV for short.
So if data is transmitted over a network or phone line and there is a transmission error, the error will be carried forward to all subsequent blocks since each block is dependent upon the last.
This mode of operation is more secure than ECB because the extra XOR step adds one more layer to the encryption process.
CFB (Cipher Feedback)

o o
In this mode, blocks of plaintext that is less than 64 bits long can be encrypted. Normally, special processing has to be used to handle files whose size is not a perfect multiple of 8 bytes, but this mode removes that necessity (Stealth handles this case by adding several dummy bytes to the end of a file before encrypting it).
The plaintext itself is not actually passed through the DES algorithm, but merely XORed with an output block from it, in the following manner: A 64-bit block called the Shift Register is used as the input plaintext to DES. This is initially set to some arbitrary value, and encrypted with the DES algorithm. The cipher text is then passed through an extra component called the M-box, which simply selects the left-most M bits of the ciphertext, where M is the number of bits in the block we wish to encrypt. This value is XORed with the real plaintext, and the output of that is the final ciphertext. Finally, the ciphertext is fed back into the Shift Register, and used as the plaintext seed for the next block to be encrypted.
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o
As with CBC mode, an error in one block affects all subsequent blocks during data transmission.
This mode of operation is similar to CBC and is very secure, but it is slower than ECB due to the added complexity.
OFB (Output Feedback)

o
This is similar to CFB mode, except that the ciphertext output of DES is fed back into the Shift Register, rather than the actual final ciphertext.
The Shift Register is set to an arbitrary initial value, and passed through the DES algorithm.
The output from DES is passed through the M-box and then fed back into the Shift Register to prepare for the next block.
This value is then XORed with the real plaintext (which may be less than 64 bits in length, like CFB mode), and the result is the final ciphertext.
Note that unlike CFB and CBC, a transmission error in one block will not affect subsequent blocks because once the recipient has the initial Shift Register value; it will continue to generate new Shift Register plaintext inputs without any further data input.
This mode of operation is less secure than CFB mode because only the real ciphertext and DES ciphertext output is needed to find the plaintext of the most recent block.
Knowledge of the key is not required
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CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD
3.1 Introduction What is AES?

AES is short for Advanced Encryption Standard and is a United States encryption standard defined in Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS) 192, published in November 2001. It was ratified as a federal standard in May 2002. AES is the most recent of the four current algorithms approved for federal us in the United States. One should not compare AES with RSA, another standard algorithm, as RSA is a different category of algorithm. Bulk encryption of information itself is seldom performed with RSA.RSA is used to transfer other encryption keys for use by AES for example, and for digital signatures. AES is a symmetric encryption algorithm processing data in block of 128 bits. A bit can take the values zero and one, in effect a binary digit with two possible values as opposed to decimal digits, which can take one of 10 values. Under the influence of a key, a 128-bit block is encrypted by transforming it in a unique way into a new block of the same size. AES is symmetric since the same key is used for encryption and the reverse transformation, decryption. The only secret necessary to keep for security is the key. AES may configured to use different key-lengths, the standard defines 3 lengths and the resulting algorithms are named AES-128, AES-192 and AES-256 respectively to indicate the length in bits of the key. Each additional bit in the key effectively doubles the strength of the algorithm, when defined as the time necessary for an attacker to stage a brute force attack, i.e. an exhaustive search of all possible key combinations in order to find the right one Some Background on AES In 1997 the US National Institute of Standards and Technology put out a call for candidates for a replacement for the ageing Data Encryption Standard, DES. 15 candidates were accepted for further consideration, and after a fully public process and three open international conferences, the number of candidates was reduced to five. In February 2001, the final candidate was announced and comments were solicited. 21 organizations and individuals submitted comments. None had any reservations about the suggested algorithm. About AES Axantum Software AB Svante Seleborg2(3)AES is founded on solid and wellpublished mathematical ground, and appears to resist all known attacks well. Theres a strong
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data indication that in fact no back-door or known weakness exists since it has been published for a long time, has been the subject of intense scrutiny by researchers all over the world, and such enormous amounts of economic value and information is already successfully protected by AES. There are no unknown factors in its design, and it was developed by Belgian researchers in Belgium therefore voiding the conspiracy theories sometimes voiced concerning an encryption standard developed by a United States government agency. A strong encryption algorithm need only meet only single main criteria: There must be no way to find the unencrypted clear text if the key is unknown, except brute Force, i.e. to try all possible keys until the right one is found. A secondary criterion must also be met: The number of possible keys must be so large that it is computationally infeasible to actually stage a successful brute force attack in short enough a time. The older standard, DES or Data Encryption Standard, meets the first criterion, but no longer the secondary one computer speeds have caught up with it, or soon will. AES meets both criteria in all of its variants: AES-128, AES-192 and AES-256
The AES algorithm is a round-based, symmetric block cipher. It processes data blocks of fixed size (128 bits) using cipher keys of length 128, 196 or 256 bits. Depending on the key used, it is usually abbreviated as AES-128, AES-196 or AES-256 respectively. In this project only AES-128 is considered, as it is the most popular variant of the algorithm. The functional blocks of the algorithm are Key expansion and encryption. In this project we are concentrating on the key generation algorithm. The initial 128-bit cipher key has to be expanded to new eleven round keys of same length. In order to produce a new round key, two transformations have to be performed, RotWord and SubWord. The first one simply cyclically shifts the bytes of the first 32-bit word of the previous key by one position to the left. SubWord on the other hand performs the SubBytes transformation to each byte of the rotated word. Simple bit wise Xors are then needed in order to produce the final round key. The SubWord (SubBytes) transformation is implemented with a ROM (LUT).
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Figure3.1: AES Algorithm Structure
Figure3.2: Architecture of AES Key Expander
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3.2 Cipher
A cipher (pronounced SAI-fuhr) is any method of encrypting text (concealing its readability and meaning). It is also sometimes used to refer to the encrypted text message itself
although here the term ciphertext is preferred. Its origin is the Arabic sifr, meaning empty or zero. In addition to the cryptographic meaning, cipher also means someone insignificant, and a combination of symbolic letters as in an entwined weaving of letters for a monogram. Some ciphers work by simply realigning the alphabet (for example, A is represented by F, B is represented by G, and so forth) or otherwise manipulating the text in some consistent pattern. However, almost all serious ciphers use both a key (a variable that is combined in some way with the unencrypted text) and an algorithm (a formula for combining the key with the text). A block cipher is one that breaks a message up into chunks and combines a key with each chunk (for example, 64-bits of text). A stream cipher is one that applies a key to each bit, one at a time. Most modern ciphers are block ciphers
3.3 Description of the cipher

AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution-permutation network. It is fast in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor, DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES has a fixed block size of 128 bits and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits, whereas Rijndael can be specified with block and key sizes in any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 bits. The block size has a maximum of 256 bits, but the key size has no theoretical maximum. AES operates on a 44 column-major order matrix of bytes, termed the state (versions of Rijndael with a larger block size have additional columns in the state). Most AES calculations are done in a special finite field. The AES cipher is specified as a number of repetitions of transformation rounds that convert the input plaintext into the final output of ciphertext. Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key.
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3.3.1 Block cipher

A block cipher is a method of encrypting text (to produce ciphertext) in which a cryptographic key and algorithm are applied to a block of data (for example, 64 contiguous bits) at once as a group rather than to one bit at a time. The main alternative method, used much less frequently, is called the stream cipher. So that identical blocks of text do not get encrypted the same way in a message (which might make it easier to decipher the ciphertext), it is common to apply the ciphertext from the previous encrypted block to the next block in a sequence. So that identical messages encrypted on the same day do not produce identical ciphertext, an initialization vector derived from a random number generator is combined with the text in the first block and the key. This ensures that all subsequent blocks result in ciphertext that doesn't match that of the first encrypting. 3.3.2 Stream Cipher Stream ciphers can encrypt plaintext messages of variable length. The one-time pad can be thought of as an example each message uses a portion of the key with length equal to the length of the plaintext message. (Then that portion of the key is never re-used.) The ideas that resulted in modern stream ciphers originated with another AT&T Bell Labs engineer, Gilbert Vernam (1890 1960). In 1917, Vernam developed a scheme to encrypt teletype transmissions. Unlike Morse code, which uses symbols of different lengths to substitute for letters of the alphabet, teletype transmission used what we would today call a 5-bit code for the letters of the alphabet and certain keyboard commands. Its use was similar to the way that the 8-bit ASCII code is used today in computing.
3.3.3 Cipher text

Ciphertext is encrypted text. Plaintext is what you have before encryption, and ciphertext is the encrypted result. The term cipher is sometimes used as a synonym for ciphertext, but it more properly means the method of encryption rather than the result.
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3.4 Key size

In cryptography, key size or key length is the size measured in bits of the key used in a cryptographic algorithm (such as a cipher). An algorithm's key length is distinct from its cryptographic security, which is a logarithmic measure of the fastest known computational attack on the algorithm, also measured in bits. The security of an algorithm cannot exceed its key length (since any algorithm can be cracked by brute force), but it can be smaller. For example, Triple DES has a key size of 168 bits but provides at most 112 bits of security, since an attack of complexity 2112 is known. This property of Triple DES is not a weakness provided 112 bits of security is sufficient for an application. Most symmetric-key algorithms in common use are designed to have security equal to their key length. No asymmetric-key algorithms with this property are known; elliptic curve cryptography comes the closest with an effective security of roughly half its key length.
Significance
Keys are used to control the operation of a cipher so that only the correct key can convert encrypted text (ciphertext) to plaintext. Many ciphers are based on publicly known algorithms or are open source, and so it is only the difficulty of obtaining the key that determines security of the system, provided that there is no analytic attack (i.e., a 'structural weakness' in the algorithms or protocols used), and assuming that the key is not otherwise available (such as via theft, extortion, or compromise of computer systems). The widely accepted notion that the security of the system should depend on the key alone has been explicitly formulated by AugusteKerckhoffs (in the 1880s) and Claude Shannon (in the 1940s); the statements are known as Kerckhoffs' principle and Shannon's Maxim respectively. A key should therefore be large enough that a brute force attack (possible against any encryption algorithm) is infeasible i.e., would take too long to execute. Shannon's work on information theory showed that to achieve so called perfect secrecy, it is necessary for the key length to be at least as large as the message to be transmitted and only used once (this algorithm is called the One-time pad). In light of this, and the practical difficulty of managing such long keys, modern cryptographic practice has discarded the notion of perfect secrecy as a requirement for encryption, and instead focuses on computational security, under which the computational requirements of breaking an encrypted text must be infeasible for an attacker.
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data The preferred numbers commonly used as key sizes (in bits) are powers of two, potentially multiplied with a small odd integer.
3.4.1 Symmetric Algorithm Key Lengths

US Government export policy has long restricted the 'strength' of cryptography which can be sent out of the country. For many years the limit was 40 bits. Today, a key length of 40 bits offers little protection against even a casual attacker with a single PC, a predictable and inevitable consequence of governmental restrictions limiting key length. In response, by the year 2000, most of the major US restrictions on the use of strong encryption were relaxed. However, not all regulations have been removed, and encryption registration with the U.S. Bureau of Industry and Security is still required to export "mass market encryption commodities, software and components with encryption exceeding 64 bits" (75 F.R.36494). When the Data Encryption Standard cipher was released in 1977, a key length of 56 bits was thought to be sufficient. There was speculation at the time, however, that the NSA has deliberately reduced the key size from the original value of 112 bits (in IBM's Lucifer cipher) or 64 bits (in one of the versions of what was adopted as DES) so as to limit the strength of encryption available to non-US users. The NSA has major computing resources and a large budget; some thought that 56 bits was NSA-breakable in the late '70s. However, by the late 90s, it became clear that DES could be cracked in a few days' time-frame with custom-built hardware such as could be purchased by a large corporation.[5] The book Cracking DES (O'Reilly and Associates) tells of the successful attempt to break 56-bit DES by a brute force attack mounted by a cyber civil rights group with limited resources; see EFF DES cracker. 56 bits is now considered insufficient length for symmetric algorithm keys, and may have been for some time. More technically and financially capable organizations were surely able to do the same long before the effort described in the book. Distributed.net and its volunteers broke a 64-bit RC5 key in several years, using about seventy thousand (mostly home) computers. The Advanced Encryption Standard published in 2001 uses a key size of (at minimum) 128 bits. It also can use keys up to 256 bits (a specification requirement for submissions to the AES contest). 128 bits is currently thought, by many observers, to be
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data sufficient for the foreseeable future for symmetric algorithms of AES's quality. The U.S. Government requires 192 or 256-bit AES keys for highly sensitive data.
3.4.2 Asymmetric Algorithm Key Lengths

The effectiveness of public key cryptosystems depends on the intractability (computational and theoretical) of certain mathematical problems such as integer factorization. These problems are time consuming to solve, but usually faster than trying all possible keys by brute force. Thus, asymmetric algorithm keys must be longer for equivalent resistance to attack than symmetric algorithm keys. As of 2002, a key length of 1024 bits was generally considered the minimum necessary for the RSA encryption algorithm. As of 2003RSA Security claims that 1024-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 80-bit symmetric keys, 2048-bit RSA keys to 112-bit symmetric keys and 3072-bit RSA keys to 128-bit symmetric keys. RSA claims that 1024-bit keys are likely to become crackable sometime between 2006 and 2010 and that 2048-bit keys are sufficient until 2030. An RSA key length of 3072 bits should be used if security is required beyond 2030. NIST key management guidelines further suggest that 15360-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 256-bit symmetric keys. The Finite Field Diffie-Hellman algorithm has roughly the same key strength as RSA for the same key sizes. The work factor for breaking Diffie-Hellman is based on the discrete logarithm problem, which is related to the integer factorization problem on which RSA's strength is based. Thus, a 3072-bit Diffie-Hellman key has about the same strength as a 3072bit RSA key. One of the asymmetric algorithm types, elliptic curve cryptography, or ECC, appears to be secure with shorter keys than those needed by other asymmetric key algorithms. NIST guidelines state that ECC keys should be twice the length of equivalent strength symmetric key algorithms. So, for example, a 224-bit ECC key would have roughly the same strength as a 112-bit symmetric key. These estimates assume no major breakthroughs in solving the underlying mathematical problems that ECC is based on. A message encrypted with an elliptic key algorithm using a 109-bit long key has been broken by brute force. The NSA specifies that "Elliptic Curve Public Key Cryptography using the 256-bit prime modulus elliptic curve as specified in FIPS-186-2 and SHA-256 are appropriate for
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data protecting classified information up to the SECRET level. Use of the 384-bit prime modulus elliptic curve and SHA-384 are necessary for the protection of TOP SECRET information. 3.5 Effect Of Quantum Computing Attacks On Key Strength The two best known quantum computing attacks are based on Shor's algorithm and Grover's algorithm. Of the two, Shor's offers the greater risk to current security systems. Derivatives of Shor's algorithm are widely conjectured to be effective against all mainstream public-key algorithms including RSA, Diffie-Hellman and elliptic curve cryptography. According to Professor Gilles Brassard, an expert in quantum computing: "The time needed to factor an RSA integer is the same order as the time needed to use that same integer as modulus for a single RSA encryption. In other words, it takes no more time to break RSA on a quantum computer (up to a multiplicative constant) than to use it legitimately on a classical computer." The general consensus is that these public key algorithms are insecure at any key size if sufficiently large quantum computers capable of running Shor's algorithm become available. The implication of this attack is that all data encrypted using current standards based security systems such as the ubiquitous SSL used to protect ecommerce and Internet banking and SSH used to protect access to sensitive computing systems is at risk. Encrypted data protected using public-key algorithms can be archived and may be broken at a later time. Mainstream symmetric ciphers (such as AES or Twofish) and collision resistant hash functions (such as SHA) are widely conjectured to offer greater security against known quantum computing attacks. They are widely conjectured to be most vulnerable to Grover's algorithm. Bennett, Bernstein, Brassard, and Vazirani proved in 1996 that a brute-force key search on a quantum computer cannot be faster than roughly 2n/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared with roughly 2n in the classical case. Thus in the presence of large quantum computers an n-bit key can provide at least n/2 bits of security. Quantum brute force is easily defeated by doubling the key length, which has little extra computational cost in ordinary use. This implies that at least a 160-bit symmetric key is required to achieve 80-bit security rating against a quantum computer.
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3.6 Key Generation

Key generation is the process of generating keys for cryptography. A key is used to encrypt and decrypt whatever data is being encrypted/decrypted. Modern cryptographic systems include symmetric-key algorithms (such as DES and AES) and public-key algorithms (such as RSA). Symmetric-key algorithms use a single shared key; keeping data secret requires keeping this key secret. Public-key algorithms use a public key and a private key. The public key is made available to anyone (often by means of a digital certificate). A sender encrypts data with the public key; only the holder of the private key can decrypt this data. Since public-key algorithms tend to be much slower than symmetric-key algorithms, modern systems such as TLS and SSH use a combination of the two: one party receives the other's public key, and encrypts a small piece of data (either a symmetric key or some data used to generate it). The remainder of the conversation uses a (typically faster) symmetrickey algorithm for encryption. Computer cryptography uses integers for keys. In some cases keys are randomly generated using a random number generator (RNG) or pseudorandom number generator (PRNG). A PRNG is a computer algorithm that produces data that appears random under analysis. PRNGs that use system entropy to seed data generally produce better results, since this makes the initial conditions of the PRNG much more difficult for an attacker to guess. In other situations, the key is created using a passphrase and a key generation algorithm, usually involving a cryptographic hash function such as SHA-1. The simplest method to read encrypted data is a brute force attacksimply attempting every number, up to the maximum length of the key. Therefore, it is important to use a sufficiently long key length; longer keys take exponentially longer to attack, rendering a brute force attack impractical. Currently, key lengths of 128 bits (for symmetric key algorithms) and 1024 bits (for public-key algorithms) are common.
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Key Generation Steps a)The Rotate Word Step
Figure3.3: Rotate Word
b)The Subbytes Step
Figure3.4:The Sub Bytes In the SubBytes step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, S; bij = S(aij). In the SubBytes step, each byte in the matrix is updated using an 8-bit substitution box, the Rijndael S-box. This operation provides the non-linearity in the cipher. The S-box used is derived from the multiplicative inverse over GF(28), known to have good non-linearity
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible affine transformation. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a derangement), and also any opposite fixed points. 3.7 RCON Rcon is what the Rijndael documentation calls the exponentiation of 2 to a userspecified value. Note that this operation is not performed with regular integers, but in Rijndael's finite field. In polynomial form, 2 is
, and we compute
in
or equivalently,
in
Figure3.5: Operation of RCON
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3.8 S-BOX
In cryptography, an S-Box (Substitution-box) is a basic component of symmetric key algorithms which performs substitution. In block ciphers, they are typically used to obscure the relationship between the key and the ciphertext Shannon's property of confusion. In many cases, the S-Boxes are carefully chosen to resist cryptanalysis. In general, an S-Box takes some number of input bits, m, and transforms them into some number of output bits, n: an mn S-Box can be implemented as a lookup table with 2m words of n bits each. Fixed tables are normally used, as in the Data Encryption Standard (DES), but in some ciphers the tables are generated dynamically from the key; e.g. the Blowfish and the Twofish encryption algorithms. Bruce Schneier describes IDEA's modular multiplication step as a key-dependent S-Box.
Figure3.6: S-Box functioning
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3.9 Lookup Table

In computer science, a lookup table is a data structure, usually an array or associative array, often used to replace a runtime computation with a simpler array indexing operation. The savings in terms of processing time can be significant, since retrieving a value from memory is often faster than undergoing an 'expensive' computation or input/output operation.[1] The tables may be pre calculated and stored in static program storage or calculated (or "pre-fetched") as part of a programs initialization phase (memorization). Lookup tables are also used extensively to validate input values by matching against a list of valid (or invalid) items in an array and, in some programming languages, may include pointer functions (or offsets to labels) to process the matching input.
History
Part of a 20th century table of common logarithms in the reference book Abramowitz and Stegun. Before the advent of computers, lookup tables of values were used by people to speed up hand calculations of complex functions, such as in trigonometry, logarithms, and statistical density functions. In ancient India, Aryabhata created one of the first sine tables, which he encoded in a Sanskrit-letter-based number system. In 493 A.D., Victorius of Aquitaine wrote a 98-column multiplication table which gave (in Roman numerals) the product of every number from 2 to 50 times and the rows were "a list of numbers starting with one thousand, descending by hundreds to one hundred, then descending by tens to ten, then by ones to one, and then the fractions down to 1/144" . Modern school children are often taught to memorize "times tables" to avoid calculations of the most commonly used numbers (up to 9 x 9 or 12 x 12). Early in the history of computers, input/output operations were particularly slow even in comparison to processor speeds of the time. It made sense to reduce expensive read operations by a form of manual caching by creating either static lookup tables (embedded in the program) or dynamic pre fetched arrays to contain only the most commonly occurring data items. Despite the introduction of system wide caching that now automates this process, application level lookup tables can still improve performance for data items that rarely, if ever, change.
3.10 Encryption
Encryption is the conversion of data into a form, called a cipher text, that cannot be easily understood by unauthorized people. Decryption is the process of converting encrypted data back into its original form, so it can be understood. The use of encryption/decryption is as old as the art of communication. In wartime, a cipher, often incorrectly called a code, can be employed to keep the enemy from obtaining the contents of transmissions. (Technically, a code is a means of representing a signal without the intent of keeping it secret; examples are Morse code and ASCII.) Simple ciphers include the substitution of letters for numbers, the rotation of letters in the alphabet, and the "scrambling" of voice signals by inverting the sideband frequencies. More complex ciphers work according to sophisticated computer algorithms that rearranges the data bits in digital signals. In order to easily recover the contents of an encrypted signal, the correct decryption key is required. The key is an algorithm that undoes the work of the encryption algorithm. Alternatively, a computer can be used in an attempt to break the cipher. The more complex the encryption algorithm, the more difficult it becomes to eavesdrop on the communications without access to the key. Encryption/decryption is especially important in wireless communications. This is because wireless circuits are easier to tap than their hard-wired counterparts. Nevertheless, encryption/decryption is a good idea when carrying out any kind of sensitive transaction, such as a credit-card purchase online, or the discussion of a company secret between different departments in the organization. The stronger the cipher -- that is, the harder it is for unauthorized people to break it -- the better, in general. However, as the strength of encryption/decryption increases, so does the cost. In recent years, a controversy has arisen over so-called strong encryption. This refers to ciphers that are essentially unbreakable without the decryption keys. While most companies and their customers view it as a means of keeping secrets and minimizing fraud, some governments view strong encryption as a potential vehicle by which terrorists might evade authorities. These governments, including that of the United States, want to set up a key-escrow arrangement. This means everyone who uses a cipher would be required to
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data provide the government with a copy of the key. Decryption keys would be stored in a supposedly secure place, used only by authorities, and used only if backed up by a court order. Opponents of this scheme argue that criminals could hack into the key-escrow database and illegally obtain, steal, or alter the keys. Supporters claim that while this is a possibility, implementing the key escrow scheme would be better than doing nothing to prevent criminals from freely using encryption/decryption.
i)The Shiftrows Step
Figure3.7: The Shiftrows Step In the ShiftRows step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row. The ShiftRows step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. For blocks of sizes 128 bits and 192 bits, the shifting pattern is the same. In this way, each column of the output state of the ShiftRows step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets). For a 256-bit block, the first row is unchanged and the shifting for the second, third and fourth row is 1 byte, 3 bytes and 4 bytes respectivelythis change only applies for the Rijndael cipher when used with a 256-bit block, as AES does not use 256-bit blocks.
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ii)The Mix columns Step
Figure3.8: Mix Columns In the MixColumns step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial c(x). In the MixColumns step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation. The MixColumns function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes. Together with ShiftRows, MixColumns provides diffusion in the cipher.
iii)The Add roundkey Step
Figure3.9: The Add RoundKey Step
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In the AddRoundKey step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the XOR operation ( ). In the AddRoundKey step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main key using Rijndael's key schedule; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise XOR.
Figure3.10: Encryption
3.11 Read-Only Memory

Read-only memory (ROM) is a class of storage medium used in computers and other electronic devices. Data stored in ROM cannot be modified, or can be modified only slowly or with difficulty, so it is mainly used to distribute firmware (software that is very closely tied to specific hardware, and unlikely to need frequent updates). In its strictest sense, ROM refers only to mask ROM (the oldest type of solid state ROM), which is fabricated with the desired data permanently stored in it, and thus can never be modified. Despite the simplicity, speed and economies of scale of mask ROM, fieldDept. of ECE, ACTS Page 41
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data programmability often make reprogrammable memories more flexible and inexpensive. As of 2007, actual ROM circuitry is therefore mainly used for applications such as microcode, and similar structures, on various kinds of digital processors (i.e. not only CPUs). Other types of non-volatile memory such as erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM or Flash ROM) are sometimes referred to, in an abbreviated way, as "read-only memory" (ROM), but this is actually a misnomer because these types of memory can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times. When used in this less precise way, "ROM" indicates a nonvolatile memory which serves functions typically provided by mask ROM, such as storage of program code and nonvolatile data.
Use for storing programs:

Every stored-program computer needs some form of non-volatile storage (that is, storage that retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to "booting" or "booting up"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of mutable memory to record changes in its state as it executes. Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, such as ENIAC after 1948 (until then it was not a stored-program computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could take days to weeks). Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it needed only a mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see historical examples below). With the advent of integrated circuits in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart static RAM were implemented as arrays of transistors in silicon chips; however, a ROM memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since the latter needs a latch (comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of one transistor connecting a bit line to a word line. Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit than RAM for many years. Most home computers of the 1980s stored a BASIC interpreter or operating system in ROM as other forms of non-volatile storage such as magnetic disk drives were too costly. For
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data example, the Commodore 64 included 64 KB of RAM and 20 KB of ROM contained a BASIC interpreter and the "KERNAL" of its operating system. Later home or office computers such as the IBMPC XT often included magnetic disk drives, and larger amounts of RAM, allowing them to load their operating systems from disk into RAM, with only a minimal hardware initialization core and boot loader remaining in ROM (known as the BIOS in IBM-compatible computers). This arrangement allowed for a more complex and easily upgradeable operating system. In modern PCs, "ROM" (or flash) is used to store the basic bootstrapping firmware for the main processor, as well as the various firmware needed to internally control self contained devices such as graphic cards, hard disks, DVD drives, TFT screens, etc., in the system. Today, many of these "read-only" memories especially the BIOS are often replaced with Flash memory (see below), to permit in-place reprogramming should the need for a firmware upgrade arise. However, simple and mature sub-systems (such as the keyboard or some communication controllers in the ICs on the main board, for example) may employ mask ROM or OTP (one time programmable). ROM and successor technologies such as flash are prevalent in embedded systems. These are in everything from industrial robots to home appliances and consumer electronics (MP3 players, set-top boxes, etc.) all of which are designed for specific functions, but are based on general-purpose microprocessors. With software usually tightly coupled to hardware, program changes are rarely needed in such devices (which typically lack hard disks for reasons of cost, size, or power consumption). As of 2008, most products use Flash rather than mask ROM, and many provide some means for connecting to a PC for firmware updates; for example, a digital audio player might be updated to support a new file format. Some hobbyists have taken advantage of this flexibility to reprogram consumer products for new purposes; for example, the iPodLinux and OpenWrt projects have enabled users to run full-featured Linux distributions on their MP3 players and wireless routers, respectively. ROM is also useful for binary storage of cryptographic data, as it makes them difficult to replace, which may be desirable in order to enhance information security.
Use for Storing Data

Since ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it is really only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device.
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data To that end, ROM has been used in many computers to store look-up tables for the evaluation of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a floating-point unit might tabulate the sine function in order to facilitate faster computation). This was especially effective when CPUs were slow and ROM was cheap compared to RAM. Notably, the display adapters of early personal computers stored tables of bitmapped font characters in ROM. This usually meant that the text display font could not be changed interactively. This was the case for both the CGA and MDA adapters available with the IBM PC XT. The use of ROM to store such small amounts of data has disappeared almost completely in modern general-purpose computers. However, Flash ROM has taken over a new role as a medium for mass storage or secondary storage of files.
Endurance and Data Retention

Because they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of electrical insulation onto a floating transistor gate, rewriteable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EAROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the endurance may exceed 1,000,000, but it is by no means infinite. This limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that Flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic disk drives in the near future. The time span over which a ROM remains accurately readable is not limited by write cycling. The data retention of EPROM, EAROM, EEPROM, and Flash may be limited by charge leaking from the floating gates of the memory cell transistors. Leakage is accelerated by high temperatures or radiation. Masked ROM and fuse/anti fuse PROM do not suffer from this effect, as their data retention depends on physical rather than electrical permanence of the integrated circuit (although fuse re-growth was once a problem in some systems).
3.12 Register
In digital electronics, especially computing, a register stores bits of information, in a way that all the bits can be written to or read out simultaneously. The hardware registers inside a central processing unit (CPU) are called processor registers. Signals from a state
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data machine to the register control when registers transmit to or accept information from other registers. Sometimes the state machine routes information from one register through a functional transform, such as an adder unit, and then to another register that stores the results. Typical uses of hardware registers include configuration and start-up of certain features, especially during initialization, buffer storage e.g. video memory for graphics cards, input/output (I/O) of different kinds, and status reporting such as whether a certain event has occurred in the hardware unit. Reading a hardware register in "peripheral units" -- computer hardware outside the CPUinvolves accessing its memory-mapped I/O address or port-mapped I/O address with a "load" or "store" instruction, issued by the processor. Hardware registers are addressed in words, but sometimes only use a few bits of the word read in to, or written out to the register. Strobe registers have the same interface as normal hardware registers, but instead of storing data, they trigger an action each time they are written to (or, in rare cases, read from). They are a means of signaling. Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register". Registers can be implemented in a wide variety of ways, including register files, standard SRAM, individual flip-flops, or high speed core memory. In addition to the "programmer-visible" registers that can be read and written with software, many chips have internal micro architectural registers that are used for state machines and pipelining; for example, registered memory. Commercial design tools such as Socrates Bitwise by Duolog Technologies, simplify and automate memory-mapped register specification and code generation for hardware, firmware, hardware verification, testing and documentation. Using IP-XACT IEEE 1685, commercial design tools, such as Socrates Bitwise by Duolog Technologies and MRV Magillem Register View by MAGILLEM, provide a real synchronization between the register description and the RTL hardware platform description, then collaborative work in the design flow can be addressed. This hardware registers alignment becomes critical when multiple levels of abstraction are used when switching from TLM to RTL during IP integration.
Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data SPIRIT IP-XACT and DITA SIDSC XML define standard XML formats for memorymapped registers. Because write-only registers make debugging almost impossible, lead to the readmodify-write problem, and also make it unnecessarily difficult for the Advanced Configuration and Power Interface (ACPI) to determine the device's state when entering sleep mode in order to restore that state when exiting sleep mode, many programmers tell hardware designers to make sure that all writable registers are also readable. However, there are some cases when reading certain types of hardware registers is useless. For example, a strobe register bit that generates a one cycle pulse into specialized hardware will always read logic 0.
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CHAPTER 4 INPUT/OUTPUT PORTS DESCRIPTION
4.1 ROM 256X8:

ROM is a sequential circuit which stores information in the form of bits. In AES ROM stores look up table values.
Block Diagram
Figure4.1: Block Diagram of ROM
I/O Ports Description:

S.N0 1 Port Name SubByteAddr Mode In [7:0] 2 Rst In 1 bit When asserted Entity is initiliased to default values Enables sub byte generation Sub bytes are generated from the data taken from the subbyte address. Size Port Description Gives the address of the memory location
3 4
SubByteEna SubByte
In out
1 bit [7:0]
Table 1:I/O ports description of ROM256X8
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4.2 Key register

Block diagram:
Figure4.2: Block Diagram of Key Register I/O Ports Description:
S.N0
1
Port Name KeyI
Mode Size In [127:0] 128 bit input key
Port Description
Clk
In
1 bit
Entity function synchronized for Rising edge of the Write Clk and read Clk.
3 4
Ena Rst
In In
1 bit 1 bit
Device is enabled When asserted Entity is initiliased to default values
KeyO
Out
[127:0] 128 bit output key
Table 2: I/O Ports Description of Key Register
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4.3 Register 128

Block diagram:
Figure4.3: Block Diagram of Register 128 I/O Description: MODE SIZE PORT DESCRIPTION
S.NO
PORT NAME
1 2 3 4 5
Keyl Clk Regld Rst Keyo
Input Input Input Input Output
[127:0] Input key signal 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit On board synchronous clock Input register load signal Onboard reset signal
[127:0] Output key output signal
Table 3: I/O Ports Description of Key Register128
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4.4 AES Key generation

I/O Block Diagram:
Figure4.4: Block Diagram of AES Key Generation I/O Ports Description: S.N0 Port Name 1 keyIn Mode Size In Port Description
[127:0] The initial key is given as input
clk
in
1 bit
Entity function synchronized for Rising of the Clk
Rst
In
1 bit
When asserted
Entity is initiliased to
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data default values 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 KeyGenEna KeyLd Key0 Key1 Key2 Key3 Key4 Key5 Key6 Key7 Key8 Key9 Key10 KeyGenOvr In In Out Out Out Out Out Out Out Out Out Out Out Out 1 bit 1 bit When high, it enables key generation Key is loaded into the register
[127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key [127:0] 127 bit output key 1 bit Indicates key generation is completed
Table 4: I/O Ports Description of AES Key Generation
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4.5 AES Encryption

Block diagram:
Figure4.5: Block Diagram of Encryption Module
I/O Description:
S.N0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Port Name Datal Keyl Rkeyl Clk Dkld EncEna Rst Encdata Encovr keygenovr Mode Input Input Input Input Input Input Input Output Output Output Size [127:0] [127:0] [127:0] 1 Bit 1 bit 1 bit 1 bit [127:0] 1 bit 1 bit Input data signal Input key signal Input rkey signal On board clock signal Input load signal Encryption enable signal Asyncronous resets signal Encoded data output Output encoder over signal Key generator over signal Port Description
Table 5: I/O Ports Description of AES Encryption
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CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION RESULTS
TOP LEVEL ENVIRONMENT & SIMULATION RESULTS

This chapter explains the top level overview of the environment and simulation results. The following is the sequence of operations followed to verify the design
VHDL code is written for every module in key expander, encryption and Simulation of these modules is done in Active HDL. Test benches are written to give a required input to each block and check the outputs for their correctness. The simulation of each module is shown for both key expander and encryption and also for top module of key expander and encryption:
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5.1 Register 128:

Functional description: For every raising edge of the clock if RegLd is 1 then the data in the key register is given to the input key(KeyI) else the data register will remain same.
Figure5.1: Register128 Waveform
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5.2 Key Register

Functional description: Initially the 128 bit key is given as the input and for every rising edge of the clock and when enable is high the key is given to the register and parallel to it the key comes as the output.
Figure5.2: Key Register Waveform
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5.3 ROM256x8
Functional description: Here the subbyte address gives the address of the memory location and when reset is high, the subbyteEna enables the sub byte generation. And the data at the memory address is taken to generate the subbytes.
Figure5.3: ROM256X8 Waveform
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5.4 AES Key Generation

Functional description: Initially the 128 bit key is given as the input key. For every rising edge of the clock and rst=1, the key is loaded into the register and key generation is enabled, and finally eleven round keys are generated. After the key generation the key generation which was initially low becomes high indicating the completion of key generation.
Figure5.4: Key Generation Waveform

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5.5 AES Encryption

Functional description: If reset becomes 0 then dreg becomes zero. For every raising edge of the clock, if enable is high then our data will be XOR with the generated keys else the data in the dreg will not change.
Figure5.5: AES Encryption Waveform
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5.6 AES Decryption Waveform

Functional description: The process of AES decryption is similar to that of the AES encryption, but the difference arises at the point of operation. In decryption we perform the operations carried out in encryption in reverse or vice versa order.
Figure5.6: AES Decryption Waveform
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5.7 DES Key Generation Waveform

Functional description: Initially the 64 bit key is given as the input key. For every rising edge of the clock and rst=1, the key is loaded into the register and key generation is enabled, and finally sixteen round keys are generated. After the key generation the key generation which was initially low becomes high indicating the completion of key generation.
Figure5.7: DES Key Generation Waveform
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5.8 DES Encryption Waveform

Functional description: For every increment in the value of Counter, at the positive edge of the CLK, different Key (from Key1 to Key16) is used to perform the operation of encryption. The encrypted data is stored in Dreg internal register.
Figure5.8: DES Encryption Waveform
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5.9 DES Decryption Waveform

Functional description: In DES decryption, the operational steps of encryption are carried out in reverse way to extract the original data given as input at the time of encryption
Figure5.9: DES Decryption Waveform
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CHAPTER 6
RTL SYNTHESIS REPORT

6.1 AES Key generation
Device utilization summary: Selected Device Number of Slices : : 3s50pq208-4 3133 out of 768 407% (*)
Number of Slice Flip Flops : Number of 4 input LUTs Number of bonded IOBs Number of GCLKs Timing Summary: --------------Speed Grade: -4 : : :
1801 out of 1536 117% (*) 2061 out of 1536 134% (*) 1540 out of 1 out of 8 124 1241% (*) 12%
Minimum period: 5.792ns (Maximum Frequency: 172.652MHz) Minimum input arrival time before clock: 5.664ns Maximum output required time after clock: 8.630ns Maximum combinational path delay: No path found Total memory usage is 105024 kilobytes
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6.2 AES ENCRIPTION

Device utilization summary: --------------------------Selected Device: v50efg256-7
Number of Slices Number of Slice Flip Flops Number of 4 input LUTs Number of IOs Number of bonded IOBs Number of GCLKs
: : : : : :
1006 out of
768 130% (*) 81%
1256 out of 1536
1859 out of 1536 121% (*) 518 518 out of 1 out of 176 294% (*) 4 25%
Timing Summary: --------------Speed Grade: -7
Minimum period: 9.902ns (Maximum Frequency: 100.990MHz) Minimum input arrival time before clock: 15.021ns Maximum output required time after clock: 10.050ns Maximum combinational path delay: No path found
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CHAPTER 7 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Advantages of AES Encryption Algorithm:
Advanced Encryption Standard not only assures security but also improves the performance in a variety of settings such as smartcards, hardware implementations etc.
AES is federal information processing standard and there are currently no known nonbrute-force direct attacks against AES.
AES is strong enough to be certified for use by the US government for top secret information
Alternative to Advanced Encryption Standard The ciphers which are used alternatively to Advanced Encryption Standard are SSl and TLS. RC4 encryption is next to AES. RC4 is of 128- bits RC4 is a fast cipher and is always subjected to many types of attacks. That is the reason WEP wireless encryption is poor. Thus AES is given priority than other standards.
Disadvantages: It can provide security only for the fixed length data Advantages of DES: Use of S-Box: The design provides confusion and diffusion of bits from each round to the next. Use of P-Box: They provide diffusion of bits. Number of Rounds: DES uses sixteen rounds of Feistel ciphers. the ciphertext is thoroughly a random function of plaintext and ciphertext.
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Disadvantages of DES: DES performs lots of bit manipulation in substitution and permutation boxes in each of 16 rounds. For example, switching bit 30 with 16 is much simpler in hardware than software. DES encrypts data in 64 bit block size and uses effectively a 56 bit key. 56 bit key space amounts to approximately 72 quadrillion possibilities. Even though it seems large but according to todays computing power it is not sufficient and vulnerable to brute force attack. Therefore, DES could not keep up with advancement in technology and it is no longer appropriate for security. Because DES was widely used at that time, the quick solution was to introduce 3DES which is secure enough for most purposes today. 3DES is a construction of applying DES three times in sequence. 3DES with three different keys (K1, K2 and K3) has effective key length is 168 bits (The use of three distinct key is recommended of 3DES.). Another
variation is called two-key (K1 and K3 is same) 3DES reduces the effective key size to 112 bits which is less secure. Two-key 3DES is widely used in electronic payments industry. 3DES takes three times as much CPU power than compare with its predecessor which is significant performance hit. AES outperforms 3DES both in software and in hardware. The Rijndael algorithm has been selected as the Advance Encryption Standard (AES) to replace 3DES. AES is modified version of Rijndael algorithm Rijndael was submitted by Joan Diemen and Vincent Rijmen. When considered together Rijndaels combination of security, performance, efficiency, implementability, and flexibility made it an appropriate selection for the AES. By design AES is faster in software and works efficiently in hardware. It works fast even on small devices such as smart phones, smart cards etc. AES provides more security due to larger block size and longer keys. AES uses 128 bit fixed block size and works with 128, 192 and 256 bit keys. Rigndael algorithm in general is flexible enough to work with key and block size of any multiple of 32 bit with minimum of128 bits and maximum of 256 bit. .
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CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE SCOPE
Conclusion:
In this paper, we have studied AES and DES encryption as well as decryption mechanisms and have highlighted some of the important mathematical properties as well as the security issues of both algorithms. Since AES provides better security and has less implementation complexity when compared to DES, it has emerged as one of the strongest and most efficient algorithms in existence today. Hence, the optimal solution is the use of a hybrid encryption system in which typically AES is used to encrypt and also decrypt large data block.
Future Scope:
The future work can done for the fixed length of secret key that is considered as a critical issue of AES like other symmetric encryption algorithms.
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APPENDIX A INTRODUCTION TO HDL TOOLS

SIMULATION TOOL Active HDL Overview: Active-HDL is an integrated environment designed for development of VHDL, Verilog, and EDIF and mixed VHDL-Verilog-EDIF designs. It comprises three different design entry tools, VHDL'93 compiler, Verilog compiler, single simulation kernel, several debugging tools, graphical and textual simulation output viewers, and auxiliary utilities designed for easy management of resource files, designs, and libraries.
Standards Supported
VHDL: The VHDL simulator implemented in Active-HDL supports the IEEE Std. 1076-1993 standard.
Verilog:
The Verilog simulator implemented in Active-HDL supports the IEEE Std. 13641995 standard. Both PLI (Programming Language Interface) and VCD (Value Change Dump) are also supported in Active-HDL. EDIF: Active-HDL supports Electronic Design Interchange Format version 2 0 0
Waves:
Active-HDL supports automatic generation of test benches compliant with the WAVES standard. The basis for this implementation is a draft version of the standard dated to May 1997 (IEEE P1029.1/D1.0 May 1997). The WAVES standard (Waveform and Vector Exchange to Support Design and Test Verification) defines a formal notation that supports the verification and testing of hardware designs, the communication of hardware design and test verification data, the maintenance, modification and procurement of hardware system.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data ACTIVE-HDL Macro Language: All operations in Active-HDL can be performed using Active-HDL macro language. The language has been designed to enable the user to work with Active-HDL without using the graphical user interface (GUI).
1. HDL Editor: HDL Editor is a text editor designed for HDL source files. It displays specific syntax categories in different colors (keyword coloring). The editor is tightly integrated with the simulator to enable debugging source code. The keyword coloring is also available when HDL Editor is used for editing macro files, Perl scripts, and Tcl scripts. 2. Block Diagram Editor: Block Diagram Editor is a graphical tool designed to create block diagrams. The editor automatically translates graphically designed diagrams into VHDL or Verilog code. 3. State Diagram Editor: State Diagram Editor is a graphical tool designed to edit state machine diagrams. The editor automatically translates graphically designed diagrams into VHDL or Verilog code. 4. Waveform Editor: Waveform Editor displays the results of a simulation run as signal waveforms. It allows you to graphically edit waveforms so as to create desired test vectors. 5. Design Browser: The Design Browser window displays the contents of the current design, that is: a. Resource files attached to the design. b. The contents of the default-working library of the design. c. The structure of the design unit selected for simulation. d. VHDL, Verilog, or EDIF objects declared within a selected region of the current design. 6. Console window: The Console window is an interactive input-output text device providing entry for Active-HDL macro language commands, macros, and scripts. All Active-HDL tools output their messages to Console.
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Compilation:
Compilation is a process of analysis of a source file. Analyzed design units contained within the file are placed into the working library in a format understandable for the simulator. In Active-HDL, a source file can be on of the following:

VHDL file Verilog file
(.vhd) (.v)
EDIF net list file (.EDIF) State diagram file (.asf) Block diagram file (.bde) In the case of a block or state diagram file, the compiler analyzes the intermediate
VHDL, Verilog, or EDIF file containing HDL code (or net list) generated from the diagram. A net list is a set of statements that specifies the elements of a circuit (for example, transistors or gates) and their interconnection. Active-HDL provides three compilers, respectively for VHDL, Verilog, and EDIF. When you choose a menu command or toolbar button for compilation, Active-HDL automatically employs the compiler appropriate for the type of the source file being compiled.
Simulation:
The purpose of simulation is to verify that the circuit works as desired. The Active-HDL simulator provides two simulation engines. Event-Driven Simulation Cycle-Based Simulation
The simulator supports hybrid simulation some portions of a design can be simulated in the event-driven kernel while the others in the cycle-based kernel. Cycle-based simulation is significantly faster than event-driven.
Synthesis Tool: Overview of Xilinx ISE:

Integrated Software Environment (ISE) is the Xilinx design software suite. This overview explains the general progression of a design through ISE from start to finish.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data ISE enables you to start your design with any of a number of different source types, including:

HDL (VHDL, Verilog HDL, ABEL) Schematic design files EDIF NGC/NGO State Machines IP Cores From your source files, ISE enables you to quickly verify the functionality of these
sources using the integrated simulation capabilities, including ModelSim Xilinx Edition and the HDL Bencher test bench generator. HDL sources may be synthesized using the Xilinx Synthesis Technology (XST) as well as partner synthesis engines used standalone or integrated into ISE. The Xilinx implementation tools continue the process into a placed and routed FPGA or fitted CPLD, and finally produce a bit stream for your device configuration. Design Entry: ISE Text Editor - The ISE Text Editor is provided in ISE for entering design code and viewing reports.
Schematic Editor - The Engineering Capture System (ECS) is a graphical user interface (GUI) that allows you to create, view, and edit schematics and symbols for the Design Entry step of the Xilinx design flow.
CORE Generator - The CORE Generator System is a design tool that delivers parameterized cores optimized for Xilinx FPGAs ranging in complexity from simple arithmetic operators such as adders, to system-level building blocks such as filters, transforms, FIFOs, and memories.
Constraints Editor - The Constraints Editor allows you to create and modify the most commonly used timing constraints.
PACE - The Pin out and Area Constraints Editor (PACE) allows you to view and edit I/O, Global logic, and Area Group constraints.
State CAD State Machine Editor - State CAD allows you to specify states, transitions, and actions in a graphical editor. The state machine will be created in HDL.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data Implementation: Translate - The Translate process runs NGDBuild to merge all of the input net lists as well as design constraint information into a Xilinx database file.

Map - The Map program maps a logical design to a Xilinx FPGA. Place and Route (PAR) - The PAR program accepts the mapped design, places and routes the FPGA, and produces output for the bit stream generator.
Floor planner - The Floor planner allows you to view a graphical representation of the FPGA, and to view and modify the placed design.
FPGA Editor - The FPGA Editor allows you view and modify the physical implementation, including routing.
Timing Analyzer - The Timing Analyzer provides a way to perform static timing analysis on FPGA and CPLD designs. With Timing Analyzer, analysis can be performed immediately after mapping, placing or routing an FPGA design, and after fitting and routing a CPLD design.
Fit (CPLD only) - The CPLDFit process maps a net list(s) into specified devices and creates the JEDEC programming file.
Chip Viewer (CPLD only) - The Chip Viewer tool provides a graphical view of the inputs and outputs, macro cell details, equations, and pin assignments.
Device Download and Program File Formatting:
BitGen - The BitGen program receives the placed and routed design and produces a bit stream for Xilinx device configuration.
iMPACT - The iMPACT tool generates various programming file formats, and subsequently allows you to configure your device.
XPower - XPower enables you to interactively and automatically analyze power consumption for Xilinx FPGA and CPLD devices.
Integration with Chip Scope Pro.
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BIBLOGRAPHY
1. J. D. Johnston, Testing Loudness ModelsReal vs. Artificial Content, 125 AES Convention, New York, NY, October 2-5, 2008. 2. J. D. Johnston and Smirnov, Serge, A Low Complexity Perceptually Tuned Room Correction System, 123 AES Convention, New York, NY, October 5-8, 2007. 3. J. D. Johnston, Perceptual Audio Coding - A History and Timeline, 41st Asilomar Conference on Signals, Systems and Computers, 2007. 4. J. Li, and J. D. Johnston, Perceptually layered scalable coding, 40th Asilomar Conf. on Signals, Systems and Computers, pp.2125-2129, Pacific Grove, CA, October 2006. 5. Blank, T., Atkinson, B., Isard, M., Johnston, J. D., and Olynyk, K., An Internet Protocol (IP) Sound System, 117 AES Convention San Francisco, CA, 28-31 October 2004. 6. S. Kuo, J. D. Johnston, W. Turin, S. R. Quackenbush, Covert Audio Watermarking Using Perceptually Tuned Signal Independent Multiband Phase Modulation,ICASSP 2002, Orlando, FL, May 2002. 7. Kuo, S. and Johnston, J. D., A study of why cross channel prediction is not applicable to perceptual audio coding, 111 AES Convention, New York, NY, 21-24 September 2001. 8. Johnston, J. D., Automatic loudspeaker directivity control for sound field reconstruction, 19th AES International Conference, Bavaria, Germany, 21-24 June 2001. 9. Kuo, S. and Johnston, J. D., Enhancing image coders by using spatial noise shaping (SNS), Proc. Data Compression Conference, 2001. 10. Kuo, S. and Johnston, J. D., Spatial noise shaping based on human visual sensitivity and its application to image coding, Proc. Int. Conf. Image Processing, 2001. 11. Johnston, J. D., Perceptual soundfield reconstruction, Audio Engineering Society Oct. 2000 Fall Convention Program, Los Angeles, CA, October 2000.
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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

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Figure1.1: A Taxonomy Of Cryptographic Primitives

16th-century book-shaped French cipher machine, with arms of Henri II of France

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

Figure1.2: Symmetric Key Cryptography

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Figure1.3: Public Key Cryptography

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iv) Private Key (secret key) Cryptography

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

CHAPTER: 2 DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD

Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

2.3 Modes of Operation

ECB (Electronic Code Book)

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data CBC (Cipher Block Chaining)

CFB (Cipher Feedback)

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

OFB (Output Feedback)

Knowledge of the key is not required

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

CHAPTER 3 ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD

3.1 Introduction What is AES?

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

Figure3.1: AES Algorithm Structure

Figure3.2: Architecture of AES Key Expander

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

3.3 Description of the cipher

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

3.3.1 Block cipher

3.3.3 Cipher text

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

3.4 Key size

3.4.1 Symmetric Algorithm Key Lengths

3.4.2 Asymmetric Algorithm Key Lengths

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

3.6 Key Generation

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

Key Generation Steps a)The Rotate Word Step

Figure3.3: Rotate Word

b)The Subbytes Step

Figure3.5: Operation of RCON

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Performance Of Encryption Techniques On Data

Figure3.6: S-Box functioning

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