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language learning environment through technology instead of merely developing effective uses to support one aspect of language learning or making use of one type of technology. Furthermore, this conceptualization should be grounded in second language acquisition research and focus on supporting the whole language learning process with all available technologies. This paper outlines such a conceptualization. In the remainder of the paper, I first present a framework that captures the essential conditions for effective language learning. I then discuss how and what technology can be used to create such conditions under this framework. In this discussion, I include both available technologies and emerging technologies and how they can be integrated to create an effective language learning environments. I conclude the paper with discussions about policy, research, and development strategies and actions needed to realize this conceptualization.
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Communicative Opportunities for Practice In addition to high-quality input, language learners must have ample opportunities to practice what they have been exposed. Thus communication has long been recognized as beneficial and essential to effective second language learning. Views of the role of communication have gone through drastic change in the past decades. For a long time communication had been acknowledged for practicing what had been previously taught, and now it is touted as not only a medium of practice but the means by which learning takes place as well (Gass, 1997). How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide Communication Opportunities Engaging in authentic communication in the target language is another essential condition for successful language learning yet such opportunities do not exist for most learners. Technology can be used in many different ways to create opportunities for language learners to communicate in the target language.Currently, the most prevalent use of technology in this regard is computer mediated communication (CMC). CMC technologies engage learners in social interaction with their language partners, either NSs or NNSs, via email, listserv, discussion board, online chat, and audio/video conferencing. High-Quality Feedback Feedback is a classical concept in learning, whose importance is acknowledged across different learning theories. More recent research in this area focused on the facilitative role of feedback in second language learning. Positive feedback, confirmation of learners language production as being acceptable in the target language, helps learners to strengthen linguistic knowledge already registered in their interlanguage system. Whereas negative feedback, an indication that certain features in learners language production are impossible in the target language, serves more as a catalyst for the reconstruction of learners interlanguage grammar and thus has attracted more research attention. In all, current research in second language acquisition confirmed the importance of the provision of feedback, negative feedback in particular, in facilitating second language learning. In addition, it suggested that a one-for-all solution or an ideal case for the provision of feedback does not exist and there is great necessity to vary the presentation of feedback to fit different learning conditions. Furthermore, it identified several important variables that need to be taken into consideration when providing feedback: the content of the feedback (specificity, length, etc.), individual differences, saliency and immediacy of feedback. How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide High Quality Feedback The capacity for technology to provide instant and individualized feedback has long been recognized by educators, including foreign language educators(Chao, 1999; Salaberry, 2001). While early applications tended to follow the behaviorist tradition by simply assessing the learners performance and providing simplistic feedback in a correct-or-wrong fashion, more recent applications are much more contextualized and pedagogically sound(Salaberry, 2001). Technology holds several important advantages in terms of providing feedback to second language learners. First, technology could present feedback in ways that are difficult, if not impossible, to by human beings. One such example is the provision of feedback on pronunciation. Second, technology allows great flexibility in the provision of feedback, flexible in the sense of the great variability and options it provides. Technology could easily vary the types of feedback it provides in response to the specific linguistic items in question, and this adaptability is a plus compared with feedback via other means. Individualized Content Individual differences of the learner in terms of language proficiency, cognitive development, learning objectives, and learning styles are common and significant factors affecting learner motivation, language intake, and task performance. We know that not all
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language learners have the same linguistic aptitude. Some learn faster than others and some can reach a higher level of proficiency than others. In classroom situations, it is also possible that some learners may already have experiences with the target language while others in the same class may be true beginners. Furthermore, we also know that language learners differ in their purposes for learning a second language. Some learn because they want to understand and experience a foreign language. Others want to communicate and conduct business in the target language with its native speakers. Some learn the language because they hope to live and work in the target culture, while others simply want to be able to read scientific and technical publications in the target language. It is thus unwise to force all students to be at the same level of competence in all aspects of the language reading, listening, writing, and speaking. How and What Technology Can be Used to Provide Individualized Content An effective language learning program should be responsive to these individual differences and enable the learners to adjust the difficult level of the content, control the pace of learning, and select content that is appropriate for their own needs. In other words, the learning should be highly individualized and customizable in order to motivate all students, meet their diverse learning goals and styles, and accommodate their individual psychological and cognitive needs. Otherwise, the learners may not be able to benefit from the environment, fall behind, lose interest, and ultimately give up the learning.
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functions between the technology and the learner; computer-mediated-communication technologies, telephones, PDAs, and video conferencing systems, and other network-enabled devices provide the capacity for learners to communicate with each other and others across distance and time; technologies also provide the opportunities for learners to communicate in the target language around the content or activity enabled by the technology (for instance, students as a group can gather around to discuss a video clip, a radio story, or an electronic book). We should also expand our view of technology that can be used to provide high-quality feedback because at different stages of language development and for different users, feedback should take different forms and be delivered in different ways. Speech and sound technologies can give visual feedback on pronunciation and intonation; combined with gaming technologies, speech technology can also provide more engaging feedback in the form of actions and social consequences (e.g., a character can provide further information or perform certain actions upon correct or incorrect input from the learner); multimedia technologies can also be used to provide feedback in audio, video, or other interesting formats; database technologies can be employed to provide more relevant and individualized feedback to the learners after analysis of cumulative performances of the learner. Language education does not only occur in the classroom and should not stop after the learner leaves the school. Thus an effective language learning program should always include components for uses in and out of the classroom. It should have tools and resources to support instructional and learning activities in the classroom as well as student learning out of the classroom. In other words, technological tools and materials should be designed to be used by students, teachers, and parents/care givers. And these tools and materials should be coherently connected. In this design, we also need to consider how human instructors interact with the technology system. We need to think about the different yet complementary roles of technology and human beings. We should not expect that technology alone will deliver effective language learning. With the recognition that technology can significantly enhance the language learning experience, we need to also consider how the human adults (teachers and parents) can work together with the technology to provide effective language education to children. However, we should be mindful of the different contributions technology and human beings can make. As a general suggestion, we should let the technology do things that human beings are unable or unwilling to do or while human beings are able and willing to do, but less efficiently or less effectively. Second, we need to consider the capacities of all technologies, especially existing and inexpensive ones, instead of only cutting-edge ones, such as the computer and the Internet. Many existing technologies possess tremendous potential for language education due to their portability and availability, and more importantly, familiarity to the learner. For example, the television can be a simple and effective platform for delivering authentic language and cultural materials. It is an existing platform and simple to operate. What is, however, needed is to develop engaging and educational content. The content needs to be linguistically, culturally, and developmentally appropriate. But it should not be simple dry lectures. Good language education content can come in the formats of TV shows for children (e.g., Sesame Street, Sagwa, Dragon Tale). Other home entertainment technologies, such as CD and DVD players should also be considered as language technologies that can be used to deliver high-quality input. What is especially worth pursuing is video-game consoles. An estimate of 70 percent of American households own at least one game console but very often these powerful machines are used to deliver entertainment rather than educational content. These machines are perfect for creating powerful language learning materials to learners who may already be familiar with the system.
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Third, we need to reconsider the pedagogy of technology enhanced language learning. What has gradually emerged as a viable and promising educational approach in recent years for technology-enhanced language education is gaming and simulation. For example, the US-China Elanguage project has taken a gaming approach toward second language education. Designed as an adventure game, the software employs a multitude of technologies to help the students learn Chinese or English as a second language. Lastly, we need have a few large scale research and development programs that focus on designing and evaluating comprehensive language learning programs enhanced by technology. Traditional development in this field has been fragmented, resulting in many low-level repetition of development. Funding agencies (government and foundations) have often invested in individual projects that result in individual pieces of software or content but history has proven that these fragmented, scattered development efforts cannot mount to significant changes. I believe we have developed sufficient knowledge about what makes an effective language learning environment and what technologies may be useful for language education, we have also learned enough from past experiences that coherent programs that connect school and home are most effective for learning. It is time that we moved to create a comprehensive, coherent language learning environment that reflects our best knowledge of language acquisition, education, child development, and technology. While there are many possible conceptualizations of such an ideal system, based on what I have discussed so far in this paper, I think such a system should have the following elements: o A TV show to expose children to language and culture in context. The TV show would have a well designed curriculum presented in entertaining and engaging format to children. o DVD/CD products of the TV content and additional learning materials, including participatory activities such as family style Karaoke activities, simple language and cultural games. o Video games based on the TV show to engage students in language exercises. o Books and other print materials to expand and extend the TV content for students to use at home and in classes. o Teaching materials and tools for teachers to use in class with students. o Books and materials delivered with sound and activities on inexpensive reading devices such as PowerTouch and LeapPads. o Computer software for individual learner uses and teacher uses. o Toys and other objects that are based on the TV show content and characters for students to play with language. Although I have not seen such a comprehensive language education program, the Magic School Bus series for science education comes closest to what I am proposing. It was a TV show on PBS, accompanied by books, a magazine, and activities materials, as well as computer games.