General Science

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GENERAL SCIENCE FOR IAS PRE EXAM

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WITH LATEST UPDATES USEFUL FOR STATE PCS EXAMS ALSO

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT -1
Chapter 1 Nutrition and Digestion System.................................................................................13 What is Nutrition ...................................................................................................................13 Carbohydrate ....................................................................................................................13 Fats ...................................................................................................................................14 Minerals ............................................................................................................................14
Calcium ...................................................................................................................................... 14 Iron ............................................................................................................................................ 15 Potassium .................................................................................................................................. 15 Zinc ............................................................................................................................................ 15

Protein ..............................................................................................................................15 Vitamins ............................................................................................................................15 Water ................................................................................................................................16 Chapter 2: The Digestive Process in Human Beings ...................................................................17 The Digestive Process ............................................................................................................17 The Mouth ........................................................................................................................17 The Esophagus ..................................................................................................................17 The Stomach .....................................................................................................................18 The Small Intestine ............................................................................................................18 The Large Intestine ............................................................................................................18 Enzymes ............................................................................................................................18
Pepsin ........................................................................................................................................ 18 Proteases ................................................................................................................................... 19 Bile ............................................................................................................................................ 19

Glossary Related To Digestive System................................................................................19 Chapter 3: Functions of Heart and Kidney .................................................................................21

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Kidney Functions ....................................................................................................................21 Heart .....................................................................................................................................22 Chapter 4: Skeleton Syestem.....................................................................................................23 Appendicular Skeleton ...........................................................................................................23 The Skeleton Serves Six Major Functions. ..............................................................................23 Movement .............................................................................................................................23 Storage ..................................................................................................................................24 Endocrine regulation ..............................................................................................................24 Sexual dimorphism ................................................................................................................24 Disorders ...............................................................................................................................24 Chapter 5: Table for Diseases, Factors and Symptoms ...............................................................26 Chapter 6: Reproduction ...........................................................................................................29 Asexual Reproduction ............................................................................................................29 Sexual Reproduction ..............................................................................................................29 External Fertilization..........................................................................................................29 Internal Fertilization ..........................................................................................................29 Embryogenesis ..................................................................................................................30 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants................................................................................30 Human Reproduction .............................................................................................................31 Artificial Methods of Vegetative Reproduction ..................................................................33 Grafting .............................................................................................................................33 Bud grafting .......................................................................................................................33 Cutting ..............................................................................................................................33 Layering .............................................................................................................................34 Tissue Culture ....................................................................................................................34 Chapter 7: Respiration in Human Beings the Pathway ...............................................................35

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Breathing ...............................................................................................................................35 Central Control of Breathing ..............................................................................................36 Vital Capacity of Lung .............................................................................................................37 Lung volumes .........................................................................................................................37 Photosynthesis.......................................................................................................................39 Chapter 8: Parts of Cell and their Functions...............................................................................40 Chapter 9: Basics of Cell Division, Mitosis and Meiosis ..............................................................41 Chapter 10: Tissue System ........................................................................................................43 Chapter 11: Sex Determination in Humans, Birds and Bees .......................................................44 Sex Determination in Humans ................................................................................................44 Chapter 12: Basics of Antigen-Antibody ....................................................................................45 Antigen ..................................................................................................................................45 Monoclonal Antibodies ..........................................................................................................46 Chapter 13: Table and Diagram on ABO Blood Group, RH Factor ...............................................47

UNIT -2
Chapter 1: The Universe ............................................................................................................51 What is Universe ....................................................................................................................51 Star....................................................................................................................................52
Surface Temperature ................................................................................................................. 53 Why Stars are of Different Colors ............................................................................................... 53

Asteroids ...........................................................................................................................53 What are Meteors .............................................................................................................53 Comets ..............................................................................................................................54 The Solar System....................................................................................................................54 Mercury ............................................................................................................................54 Venus ................................................................................................................................54 Earth .................................................................................................................................55 www.jagranjosh.com
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Mars ..................................................................................................................................55 Jupiter ...............................................................................................................................55 Saturn ...............................................................................................................................55 Uranus and Neptune .........................................................................................................55 Black Hole ..............................................................................................................................55 Chapter 2: Magnetism and Electricity, Nuclear Physics ..............................................................57 Electricity ...............................................................................................................................57 Ohms law .........................................................................................................................57 Magnetism.............................................................................................................................57 Diamagnetism ...................................................................................................................58 Paramagnetism .................................................................................................................58 Ferromagnetism ................................................................................................................59 Superparamagnetism ........................................................................................................59 Magnetic dipoles ...............................................................................................................60 Magnetic monopoles .........................................................................................................60 Living things ......................................................................................................................61 Nuclear Physics ......................................................................................................................61 Nuclear fusion ...................................................................................................................61 Chapter 3: Sound: Echo, Resonance, Doppler Effect, Sonic Boom, Dolby ...................................63 The Doppler Effect .................................................................................................................63 A Sonic Boom .........................................................................................................................63 Dolby NR ................................................................................................................................63 Echo .......................................................................................................................................63 Resonance .............................................................................................................................64 Electrical Resonance ..........................................................................................................64 Chapter 4: Principles Behind Rainbow, LCD, Camera Microscope, LASER, Compact Disc ............65

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Rainbow .................................................................................................................................65 Camera Microscope- ..............................................................................................................65 Chapter 5: Optics: Convex and Concave Glasses: Differences, Applications, And Refractions ....66 Uses .......................................................................................................................................66 Chapter 6: Pressure Cookers, DTH TV, Radar, Oven, Night Vision Goggles, Refrigeration...........68 DTH TV- Direct to Home Television ........................................................................................68 How does DTH really differ from cable TV?........................................................................69 Radar .....................................................................................................................................69 Refrigeration ..........................................................................................................................70 Methods of Refrigeration Can Be Classified As Non-Cyclic, Cyclic, Thermoelectric and Magnetic ...........................................................................................................................70 Chapter 7: Solar Cooker, Thermoflask, Car Engine Radiator, Air Conditioners ...........................71 Solar Cooker ..........................................................................................................................71 Simple Solar Cookers Use the Following Basic Principles ...................................................71 Air Conditioners .....................................................................................................................72 Air Conditioners Have the Following Uses .........................................................................72 Chapter 8: Concepts and Principles Behind Heat, Electronic Thermometer, Radiation ..............73 Heat .......................................................................................................................................73 Conduction ........................................................................................................................73 Convection ........................................................................................................................73 Radiation ...........................................................................................................................73 Latent Heat .......................................................................................................................74 Chapter 9: Densities, Surface Tension, Viscosity ........................................................................75 Densities ................................................................................................................................75 Surface Tension .....................................................................................................................75 Viscosity- ...............................................................................................................................77 The Working Principles Behind Artificial Satellites ..................................................................77 www.jagranjosh.com
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Chapter 10: Newton's Laws and Their Practical Application ......................................................78 Everyday Applications of Newton's First Law .........................................................................78

UNIT -3
Chapter 1: The Three Laws of Thermodynamics ........................................................................82 Chapter 2: Polysaccharides-Use and Sources .............................................................................83 Functions of Polysaccharides: ................................................................................................83 Chapter 3: Biotech Nanotech and Their Applications.................................................................84 Medicine ................................................................................................................................85 Pharmacogenomics ................................................................................................................85 Nanotechnology.....................................................................................................................86 The Applications of Nanotechnology .................................................................................86 Chapter 4: Emulsion and Gels ....................................................................................................88 Oil-In-Water Emulsions ..........................................................................................................88 Emulsion is Also Used in Firefighting. .....................................................................................88 Gel .........................................................................................................................................89 Chapter 5: Colloids-Basic Definition, Table of Types of Colloidal System....................................90 Chapter 6: Basics of Metal Extraction, Petroleum, Steel, Rusting, Cement Glass........................91 Petroleum ..............................................................................................................................91 Compounds ...........................................................................................................................91 Chapter 7: Carbon, Its Compounds and Allotropes, Carbon Cycles ............................................93 Chapter 8: Oxidation-Reduction Mechanism and Examples.......................................................94 Chapter 9: Concept of Solubility ................................................................................................95 Chapter 10: Use of Chemical Compound ...................................................................................96

UNIT -4
Chapter 1: Type of Plants, Medicinal Plants, Bio Insecticides .....................................................99 Spore Bearing Plants ..............................................................................................................99

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Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons ...................................................................................... 101 Different Types of Plants ...................................................................................................... 101 Medicinal Plants: Examples and Uses ................................................................................... 102

UNIT -5
Chapter 1: Animal Husbandry Artificial Insemination .............................................................. 105 Cattle ...................................................................................................................................105 Milch Breeds ........................................................................................................................ 105 Draught Breeds .................................................................................................................... 106 Dual Purpose Breeds ............................................................................................................ 106 Appendix A: Questions (200 Multiple Choice Questions) ......................................................... 110 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UPATES ....................................................................................... 150 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) set to establish Navigation Satellite System ...... 150 Satellites Launched to Bring Rural Areas Online ...................................................................150 Scientists created the world's first ultra-high resolution 3D model of a HUMAN BRAIN ....... 151 Drayson Racing Electric Car Established New World Record of Top Speed of 328.6 Kmph ....152 China organised first Classroom Lecture from Space ............................................................ 153 Sensor Chip to Detect Disease from Blood Drop Designed ................................................... 153 ESO discovered Dusty Surprise around Giant Black Hole ...................................................... 154 Supermoon, Largest & Brightest Moon of 2013 Observed.................................................... 154 Researchers developed Eco-friendly Battery using Wood..................................................... 155 Devap Air-Cooling System to be used in Nalanda University ................................................ 156 Early Tsunami Warning System installed in Rangachang ...................................................... 157 India-US Science Body launched Space Solar Power Initiative .............................................. 157 Scientists developed New Prospective Biomaterial for Bone Formation ............................... 158 Tiny Archicebus Fossil of Oldest Primate discovered in China ............................................... 158 NE-RIST Students designed new Solar Water Heater ............................................................ 159

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Microsoft Unveils Windows 8.1............................................................................................ 160 Molecule designed by Scientists to fight Prostrate Cancer ................................................... 160 Scientist Discovered New Three-Horned Dinosaur ............................................................... 161 Camera Sensor Developed that would Not Need Flash ........................................................ 161 US Scientists Developed First Smart RFID-Enabled Paper ..................................................... 162 ISRO Navigation Centre Inaugurated by V. Narayanasamy near Bengaluru .......................... 163 Researchers Revived Centuries-Old Frozen Plants Called Bryophytes from Teardrop Glacier ............................................................................................................................................ 164 Solar Impulse Plane HB-SIA set a new Distance Record ........................................................ 165 Lost Apollo 11 Moon Dust Discovered After 40 Years in California Lab .................................165 India Test Fired BrahMos Supersonic Cruise Missile ............................................................. 165 Scientists discovered that Vitamin C kills Tuberculosis ......................................................... 166 Opportunity Rover of NASA Broke the 40-Year-Old Extraterrestrial Distance Record ........... 166 NASA's Observatory discovered Exotic Neutron Stars .......................................................... 166 Canadian Scientists: Neuron Growth cuts Memory Space .................................................... 167 NASA to Lease Historic Launch Pad of First Moon Mission ................................................... 167 First and Only Satellite of Ecuador, Pegaso Collided With Russian Space Debris ................... 168 Mangalore University and BARC Signed MoU ....................................................................... 168 Mars Rover discovered Rock Esperance is Weathered by Water .......................................... 169 Russian Capsule Bion-M returned from Space Tour.............................................................. 169 Scientists Discovered a New Less Expensive Technique of Creating 3D Images .................... 170 Cluster of Hydrogen Clouds Discovered Between Two nearest Galaxies ............................... 171 Scientists from Switzerland created World's Smallest Droplets ............................................ 172 Zhejiang University in China Produced Worlds Lightest Substance Called Carbon Aerogel ..172 ISRO planned to launch GSLV D5 to place the Communication Satellite GSAT-14 in Orbit ....173 Researchers discovered New species of Dragonfly in Goa .................................................... 173 US Scientists Created first Cloned Human Embryo ............................................................... 174 www.jagranjosh.com
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Angelina Jolie underwent Double Mastectomy to Reduce chances of Breast Cancer ........... 175 Scientists designed Peptide-based Delivery Platforms to cure Cancer ..................................176 A New Type of Wheat developed to Increase Productivity ................................................... 176 Benefits of Exposing Skin to Sun Can Outweigh Risks of Skin Cancer: Research .................... 176 IISC designed a New Concept of Vaccine Delivery System .................................................... 177 Solar Impulse, the Sun-Powered Aircraft Completed First Leg of Journey to Cross US .......... 178 Cheap and Effective Method devised to Produce Clean Drinking Water ............................... 178 Worlds First Gun made from 3D Printer Technology Fired Successfully ............................... 179 First Global Model developed to analyse Routes of Marine Species .....................................180 Scientists found in Hypothalamus Mechanism Responsible for Ageing ................................ 180 US Scientists Created Worlds Smallest Flying Robot Called Robo-Fly ...................................181 IBM Released World's Smallest Stop Motion Film: A Boy and His Atom ............................... 182 European Space Telescope Herschel completed its Journey ................................................. 182 Urgent Need to Clear Debris in Earths Orbit: ESA ................................................................ 184 Researchers Developed Keyboard Called KALQ to Beat QWERTY ......................................... 184 NASA Kepler Mission Discovered Planets Kepler-62f & Kepler-62e....................................... 185 Giant Galaxy called HFLS3 Discovered .................................................................................. 186 UK Scientists produced a Disease-Resistant Piglet called Pig-26 ........................................... 186 Hobbit Humans Had Larger Brains Than Estimated: Research .............................................. 186 Bio-Engineered Kidney Successfully Transplanted in Rat ...................................................... 187 Device to detect Gastro-Intestinal Cancers developed ......................................................... 188 Plan to Build Worlds largest Telescope approved by US Govt .............................................. 188 Rings of Saturn produce their own Rain on the Planet ......................................................... 188 Scientists designed Adaptive Material inspired by Human Tear ....................................... 189 Gene Mutation is Associated With Fatal Prostate Cancer ..................................................... 189 Aerosols from Burning Fossil Fuels Affecting Coral Growth .................................................. 190

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Nuclear Capable Agni-II Missile was Successfully Test-Fired ................................................. 190 Camera that can Capture Objects at Long Distances Developed ........................................... 191 US Scientists identified Genetic Markers of Alzheimers Risk ................................................ 191 Exhaled Breath can be as Unique as a Fingerprint: Study ..................................................... 192 Facebook Released Software Called Home for Android Phones ........................................... 192 US Government launched a Research Initiative Called BRAIN............................................... 193 Jeff Bezos Recovered Two Apollo Rocket Engines ................................................................ 193 Unknown Huge Radio Galaxy Discovered ............................................................................. 194 Herschel Observatory discovered Protostars ........................................................................ 195 Abundant Active Bacteria Community Discovered ............................................................... 196 Exact Distance to Our Neighbouring Galaxy Calculated ........................................................ 197 Japan Extracts Natural Gas from Methane Hydrate .............................................................. 198 India Ranked Third in List of Spam Spewing Nation in World ................................................ 199 NASAs Swift Satellite Discovered Supernova Remnants ...................................................... 201 AMS detected Scope for Dark Matter in the Space............................................................... 201

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UNIT 1 BIOLOGY

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CHAPTER 1 NUTRITION AND DIGESTION SYSTEM

WHAT IS NUTRITION
Nutrition is the process of acquiring energy and food materials. Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms that humans eat. What is Nutrient-A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. They are used to build and repair tissues, regulate body processes and are converted to and used as energy. Classification of Nutrient-: There are six major classes of nutrients- Carbohydrates, protein, vitamins, minerals, fats and water.

CARBOHYDRATE
Nature- A Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists only of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. It is divided into four chemical groupings: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. For example, blood sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, table sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose. Function- Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen), and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD, and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development. Source-Starch (such as cereals, bread, and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams, and desserts).

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Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and generally insoluble in water. Fats can be categorized into saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Function-Fat provides needed energy. It is difficult to eat the large amounts of food in a very low fat diet to get all the energy you need. Fat is needed to prevent essential fatty acid deficiency. Fat is needed so your body can absorb the fat soluble vitamins A, S, E, K, and prevent deficiencies of these vitamins. Fat provides flavor and texture to help prevent food from being bland and dry. Fat may help your body produce endorphins (natural substances in the brain that produce pleasurable feelings). Source- Mutton, Milk, Egg Etc. are rich in fat.

MINERALS
Just like vitamins, minerals help your body grow, develop, and stay healthy. The body uses minerals to perform many different functions from building strong bones to transmitting nerve impulses. Some minerals are even used to make hormones or maintain a normal heartbeat. Function-Minerals such as calcium, zinc and potassium are needed by the body for a number of processes such as breaking down, digesting and releasing energy from food, strengthening bones, nails and teeth and regulating fluid and cholesterol in the body. There are 16 essential minerals required by the body, which are divided into macrominerals, or minerals that are needed in fairly large quantities, microminerals, which are needed in smaller quantities and trace elements, which are needed in minute quantities but which are still vital for the body's well-being. The benefits of some minerals cannot be seen without the presence of certain minerals and vice versa, for example, vitamin D is required in order to absorb calcium and when foods containing vitamin C are consumed, iron is absorbed more efficiently. A short description of some important minerals has been given:CALCIUM

Calcium is the top macromineral when it comes to your bones. This mineral helps build strong bones, so you can do everything from standing up straight to scoring that winning goal. It also helps build strong, healthy teeth, for chomping on tasty food.

Dairy products, such as milk, cheese, and yogurt, canned salmon and sardines with bones, leafy green vegetables, such as broccoli, calcium-fortified foods from orange juice to cereals and crackers are rich source of Calcium. www.jagranjosh.com
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IRON

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The body needs iron to transport oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body. Your entire body needs oxygen to stay healthy and alive. Iron helps because it's important in the formation of hemoglobin (say: HEE-muh-glo-bun), which is the part of your red blood cells that carries oxygen throughout the body. Meat, especially red meat, such as beef, tuna and salmon, eggs, beans, baked potato with skins, dried fruits, like raisins, leafy green vegetables, such as broccoli, whole and enriched grains, like wheat or oats are examples of food which are rich in Iron.
POTASSIUM

Potassium keeps your muscles and nervous system working properly. Potassium helps make sure the amount of water is just right between cells and body fluids.

Bananas, tomatoes, potatoes and sweet potatoes, with skins, green vegetables, such as spinach and broccoli, citrus fruits, like oranges, low-fat milk and yogurt, legumes, such as beans, split peas, and lentils are good source of Potassium.
ZINC

Zinc helps your immune system, which is your body's system for fighting off illnesses and infections. It also helps with cell growth and helps heal wounds, such as cuts. Beef, pork, and dark meat chicken, nuts, such as cashews, almonds, and peanuts, legumes, such as beans, split peas, and lentils are rich source of Zinc. When people don't get enough of these important minerals, they can have health problems. For instance, too little calcium especially when you're a kid can lead to weaker bones. Some kids may take mineral supplements, but most kids don't need them if they eat a nutritious diet. So eat those minerals and stay healthy!

PROTEIN
Protein-Proteins are large biological molecules consisting of one or more chains of amino acids. Function- Proteins perform a vast array of functions within living organisms, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Source-Meats, milk, fish and eggs, as well as in plant sources such as whole grains, pulses, legumes, soy, fruits, nuts and seeds are good source of protein.

VITAMINS
Vitamins-A vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a

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vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Function-Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism (such as vitamin D), or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins such as B complex vitamins functions as precursors for enzyme cofactors that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism.

WATER
Function- Water is a carrier, distributing essential nutrients to cells, such as minerals, vitamins and glucose. Its five top functions are as following:1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Cell life, Chemical and metabolic reactions, Transport of nutrients Body temperature regulation, Elimination of waste,

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CHAPTER 2: THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS IN HUMAN BEINGS

The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to consume the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste.

The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals.

THE DIGESTIVE PROCESS

THE MOUTH
The mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).

THE ESOPHAGUS
The esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach.

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General Science THE STOMACH

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The stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that releases the gastric acid to digest the food. Food in the stomach that is digested in the stomach and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.

THE SMALL INTESTINE

The small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.

THE LARGE INTESTINE

The large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food.

Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon. Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

ENZYMES
In general, enzymes are large protein-based molecules that help chemical reactions take place faster than they otherwise would, explain Reginald Garrett and Charles Grisham in their book "Biochemistry." Your body cells run a wide array of chemical reactions, nearly all of which are enzyme-dependent. Specifically, digestive enzymes help you break down large nutrient molecules in your food into smaller nutrient molecules that you can absorb.
PEPSIN

Pepsin is secreted by the gastric glands and is responsible for breaking down proteins into smaller pieces, called polypeptides. Pepsin is secreted in its inactive form, known as pepsinogen, and is converted into its active form in the acidic environment of the stomach. The acidic environment of the stomach also alters the shape of proteins, allowing pepsin access to break the peptide bonds holding them together. Pepsin's role in breaking protein down into polypeptides allows enzymes in the small intestines to further break down these polypeptides into amino acids for use by the body, according to the University of Cincinnati Clermont College.

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PROTEASES

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Protein digestion is initiated by pepsin in the stomach but is finished by proteases in the small intestines. Proteases are secreted by the pancreas and function to break down polypeptides, or broken down proteins, into amino acids -- the building blocks critical to life. Trypsin and chymotrypsin are the two primary proteases secreted by the pancreas, according to Colorado State University.
BILE

Bile is a digestive fluid primarily involved in the digestion of fats. Secreted by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, bile is a complex mixture of bile acids, potassium and sodium, cholesterol and bilirubin -- a byproduct from the breakdown of red blood cells, according to MedlinePlus. In the small intestine, the bile acids break down dietary fat and fat-soluble vitamins into fatty acid components, which can then be absorbed by the body. Bile acids are synthesized from cholesterol and thus play a large role in the breakdown and elimination of cholesterol from the body, according to Colorado State University.

GLOSSARY RELATED TO DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Abdomen - the part of the body that contains the digestive organs. In human beings, this is between the diaphragm Pelvis alimentary canal - the passage through which food passes, including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and anus. Anus - the opening at the end of the digestive system from which feces (waste) exits the body. Appendix - a small sac located on the cecum. Ascending colon - the part of the large intestine that run upwards; it is located after the cecum. Bile - a digestive chemical that is produced in the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and secreted into the small intestine. Cecum - the first part of the large intestine; the appendix is connected to the cecum. Chyme - food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids. Chyme goes on to the small intestine for further digestion. Descending colon - the part of the large intestine that run downwards after the transverse colon and before the sigmoid colon. Digestive system - (also called the gastrointestinal tract or gi tract) the system of the body that processes food and gets rid of waste. Duodenum - the first part of the small intestine; it is c-shaped and runs from the stomach to the jejunum. Epiglottis - the flap at the back of the tongue that keeps chewed food from going down the windpipe to the lungs. When you swallow, the epiglottis automatically closes. When you breathe, the epiglottis opens so that air can go in and out of the windpipe.

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Esophagus - the long tube between the mouth and the stomach. It uses rhythmic muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. Gall bladder - a small, sac-like organ located by the duodenum. It stores and releases bile (a digestive chemical which is produced in the liver) into the small intestine. Gastrointestinal tract - (also called the gi tract or digestive system) the system of the body that processes food and gets rid of waste. Ileum - the last part of the small intestine before the large intestine begins. Intestines - the part of the alimentary canal located between the stomach and the anus. Jejunum - the long, coiled mid-section of the small intestine; it is between the duodenum and the ileum. Liver - a large organ located above and in front of the stomach. It filters toxins from the blood, and makes bile (which breaks down fats) and some blood proteins. Mouth - the first part of the digestive system, where food enters the body. Chewing and salivary enzymes in the mouth are the beginning of the digestive process (breaking down the food). Pancreas - an enzyme-producing gland located below the stomach and above the intestines. Enzymes from the pancreas help in the digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the small intestine. Peristalsis - rhythmic muscle movements that force food in the esophagus from the throat into the stomach. Peristalsis is involuntary - you cannot control it. It is also what allows you to eat and drink while upside-down. Rectum - the lower part of the large intestine, where feces are stored before they are excreted. Salivary glands - glands located in the mouth that produce saliva. Saliva contains enzymes that break down carbohydrates (starch) into smaller molecules. Sigmoid colon - the part of the large intestine between the descending colon and the rectum. Stomach - a sack-like, muscular organ that is attached to the esophagus. Both chemical and mechanical digestion takes place in the stomach. When food enters the stomach, it is churned in a bath of acids and enzymes. Transverse colon - the part of the large intestine that runs horizontally across the abdomen.

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CHAPTER 3: FUNCTIONS OF HEART AND KIDNEY

Kidney: The kidneys perform the essential function of removing waste products from the blood and regulating the water fluid levels. The kidneys receive blood through the renal artery. The blood is passed through the structure of the kidneys called nephrons, where waste products and excess water pass out of the blood stream, as shown in the diagram below. When the kidneys are not functional, dialysis becomes necessary to save the victim. In dialysis, the blood passes through an external membrane which allows waste products from the blood to pass out of the blood and into the dialysis fluid. Because of the rate of buildup of the waste products, it may be necessary to perform dialysis as many as 3 times per week.

KIDNEY FUNCTIONS
Kidneys are essential in the urinary system and also serve homeostatic functions such as the regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acidbase balance, and regulation of blood pressure (via maintaining salt and water balance). They serve the body as a natural filter of the blood, and remove wastes which are diverted to the urinary bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete wastes such as urea and ammonium, and they are also responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose, and amino acids. The kidneys also produce hormones including calcitriol, erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin. Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the retroperitoneum, the kidneys receive blood from the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired renal veins. Each kidney excretes urine into a ureter, itself a paired structure that empties into the urinary bladder. Renal physiology is the study of kidney function, while nephrology is the medical specialty concerned with kidney diseases. Diseases of the kidney are diverse, but individuals with kidney disease frequently display characteristic clinical features. Common clinical conditions involving the kidney include the nephritic and nephrotic syndromes, renal cysts, acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, urinary tract infection, nephrolithiasis, and urinary tract obstruction.[1] Various cancers of the kidney exist; the most common adult renal cancer is renal cell carcinoma. Cancers, cysts, and some other renal conditions can be managed with removal of the kidney, or nephrectomy. When renal function, measured by glomerular filtration rate, is persistently poor, dialysis and kidney transplantation may be treatment options. Although they are not severely harmful, kidney stones can be painful and a nuisance. The removal of kidney stones involves ultrasound treatment to break up the stones into smaller pieces, which are then passed through the urinary tract. One common symptom of kidney stones is a sharp pain in the medial/lateral segments of the lower back. The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin, and the enzyme renin. Erythropoietin is released in response to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation. It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal absorption of calcium www.jagranjosh.com
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and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Part of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, renin is an enzyme involved in the regulation of aldosterone levels. The kidneys perform a wide range of vital functions in the healthy body, such as: Removing wastes and water from the blood Balancing chemicals in your body Releasing hormones Helping control blood pressure Helping to produce red blood cells Producing vitamin D, which keeps the bones strong and healthy

HEART
Heart: The heart is one of the most important organs in the entire human body. It is really nothing more than a pump, composed of muscle which pumps blood throughout the body, beating approximately 72 times per minute of our lives. The human circulatory system functions to transport blood and oxygen from the lungs to the various tissues of the body. The heart pumps the blood throughout the body. The lymphatic system is an extension of the human circulatory system that includes cell-mediated and antibody-mediated immune systems. The components of the human circulatory system include the heart, blood, red and white blood cells, platelets, and the lymphatic system. The human heart is about the size of a clenched fist. It contains four chambers: two atria and two ventricles. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium through a major vein called the vena cava. The blood passes through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. Next, the blood is pumped through the pulmonary artery to the lungs for gas exchange. Oxygen-rich blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein. The oxygen-rich blood flows through the bicuspid (mitral) valve into the left ventricle, from which it is pumped through a major artery, the aorta. Two valves called semilunar valves are found in the pulmonary artery and aorta. The ventricles contract about 70 times per minute, which represents a person's pulse rate. Blood pressure, in contrast, is the pressure exerted against the walls of the arteries. Blood pressure is measured by noting the height to which a column of mercury can be pushed by the blood pressing against the arterial walls. A normal blood pressure is a height of 120 millimeters of mercury during heart contraction ( SYSTOLE), and a height of 80 millimeters of mercury during heart relaxation ( DIASTOLE). Normal blood pressure is usually expressed as 120 over 80. Coronary arteries supply the heart muscle with blood. The heart is controlled by nerves that originate on the right side in the upper region of the atrium at the sinoatrial node. This node is called the PACEMAKER. It generates nerve impulses that spread to the atrioventricular node where the impulses are amplified and spread to other regions of the heart by nerves called Purkinje fibers. www.jagranjosh.com
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CHAPTER 4: SKELETON SYESTEM

APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The appendicular skeleton (126 bones) is formed by the pectoral girdles (4), the upper limbs (60), the pelvic girdle (2), and the lower limbs (60). Their functions are to make locomotion possible and to protect the major organs of locomotion, digestion, excretion, and reproduction. Function

THE SKELETON SERVES SIX MAJOR FUNCTIONS.

Support The skeleton provides the framework which supports the body and maintains its shape. The pelvis, associated ligaments and muscles provide a floor for the pelvic structures. Without the rib cages, costal cartilages, and intercostal muscles, the heart would collapse.

MOVEMENT
The joints between bones permit movement, some allowing a wider range of movement than others, e.g. the ball and socket joint allows a greater range of movement than the pivot joint at the neck. Movement is powered by skeletal muscles, which are attached to the skeleton at various sites on bones. Muscles, bones, and joints provide the principal mechanics for movement, all coordinated by the nervous system. Protection The skeleton protects many vital organs: The skull protects the brain, the eyes, and the middle and inner ears. The vertebrae protect the spinal cord. The rib cage, spine, and sternum protect the human lungs, human heart and major blood vessels. The clavicle and scapula protect the shoulder. The ilium and spine protect the digestive and urogenital systems and the hip. The patella and the ulna protect the knee and the elbow respectively. The carpals and tarsals protect the wrist and ankle respectively. Blood cell production www.jagranjosh.com
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The skeleton is the site of haematopoiesis, the development of blood cells that takes place in the bone marrow.

STORAGE
Bone matrix can store calcium and is involved in calcium metabolism, and bone marrow can store iron in ferrotin and is involved in iron metabolism. However, bones are not entirely made of calcium, but a mixture of chondroitin sulfate and hydroxyapatite, the latter making up 70% of a bone.

ENDOCRINE REGULATION
Bone cells release a hormone called osteocalcin, which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar (glucose) and fat deposition. Osteocalcin increases both the insulin secretion and sensitivity, in addition to boosting the number of insulin-producing cells and reducing stores of fat.

SEXUAL DIMORPHISM
There are many differences between the male and female human skeletons. Most prominent is the difference in the pelvis, owing to characteristics required for the processes of childbirth. The shape of a female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger to allow the head of a fetus to pass. A male's pelvis is about 90 degrees or less of angle, whereas a female's is 100 degrees or more. Also, the coccyx of a female's pelvis is oriented more inferiorly whereas a male's coccyx is usually oriented more anteriorly. This difference allows more room for childbirth. Males tend to have slightly thicker and longer limbs and digit bones (phalanges), while females tend to have narrower rib cages, smaller teeth, less angular mandibles, less pronounced cranial features such as the brow ridges and external occipital protuberance (the small bump at the back of the skull), and the carrying angle of the forearm is more pronounced in females. Females also tend to have more rounded shoulder blades.

DISORDERS
Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease of bone, which leads to an increased risk of fracture. In osteoporosis, the bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, and the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is altered. Osteoporosis is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in women as a bone mineral density 2.5 standard deviations below peak bone mass (20-year-old sex-matched healthy person average) as measured by DXA; the term "established osteoporosis" includes the presence of a fragility fracture.[6] Osteoporosis is most common in women after the menopause, when it is called postmenopausal osteoporosis, but may develop in men and premenopausal women in the

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presence of particular hormonal disorders and other chronic diseases or as a result of smoking and medications, specifically glucocorticoids, when the disease is craned steroid- or glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis (SIOP or GIOP). Osteoporosis can be prevented with lifestyle advice and medication, and preventing falls in people with known or suspected osteoporosis is an established way to prevent fractures. Osteoporosis can also be prevented with having a good source of calcium and vitamin D. Osteoporosis can be treated with bisphosphonates and various other medical treatments.

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CHAPTER 5: TABLE FOR DISEASES, FACTORS AND SYMPTOMS

Disease/ Infection Campylobac ter This disease is spread by Time between Symptoms ... exposure and sickness Undercooked food (eg, 110 chicken and meat); usually food/water contaminated days with faeces from infected person or animal. Direct spread from infected person or animal. days, Stomach pain, 25 diarrhoea. fever and

Chickenpox

Coughing and sneezing. 1021 days, Fever and spots with a blister Also direct contact with usually 14 on top of each spot. weeping blisters. 16 days

Conjunctiviti Direct contact with 12 hours12 Irritation and redness of eye. s (viral or discharge from the eyes or days Sometimes there is a discharge. bacterial) with items contaminated by the discharge. Cryptospori dium Giardia Food or water contaminated with faeces from infected person or animal. Direct spread from infected person or animal. Cryptosporidiu Stomach pain and diarrhoea. m112 days, average about 7 days Giardia 325 days, usually about 710 days Vomiting, diarrhoea and fever.

Gastroenter itis (viral)

Food or water 13 days contaminated with faeces from infected person or animal. Direct spread from infected person. Transfer of saliva. 46 weeks

Glandular fever

Sore throat, swollen glands in the neck, fever. Vague ill health for some time.

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Hand, foot Coughing or poor hand 35 days and mouth washing. Direct spread disease from an infected person. Hepatitis A Food or water 1550 contaminated with faeces usually from infected person. days Direct spread from infected person.

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Fever, rash on soles and palms and in mouth. Flu-like symptoms. days, Nausea, stomach pains, general 2830 sickness. Jaundice a few days later.

Hepatitis B

Close physical contact with 6 weeks6 Similar to Hepatitis A. the blood or body fluids of months, usually an infected person. 23 months Direct contact with Usually a few Scabby sores on exposed parts discharge from infected days, variable of body. skin. Coughing and sneezing and 14 days direct contact with respiratory droplets. Coughing and sneezing. Also direct contact with the nose/throat secretions of an infected person. Sudden onset of fever with cough, sore throat, muscular aches and headache.

Impetigo (School sores) Influenza

Measles

718 days, Running nose and eyes, cough, usually 10 days fever and a rash. to onset and 14 days to rash days, Generally unwell, fever, 34 headache, vomiting, sometimes a rash. Urgent treatment is required! days, Pain in jaw, then swelling in 1618 front of ear and fever.

Meningitis (Meningoco ccal) Mumps

Close physical contact such 210 as kissing. Sleeping in the usually same room. days Contact with infected 1225 saliva, eg, coughing, usually sneezing, kissing and days sharing food and drink.

Ringworm

Contact with infected 1014 days persons skin, clothes or personal items. Also through contaminated floors and shower stalls. Coughing and sneezing. 1423 Also direct contact with usually

Flat spreading lesions.

ring-shaped

Rubella

days, Fever, swollen neck glands and 1618 a rash on the face, scalp and

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the nose/throat secretions days of an infected person. Salmonella Undercooked food (eg, 672 chicken and meat); usually food/water contaminated hours with faeces from infected person or animal; direct spread from infected person or animal.

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body. Rubella during early pregnancy can cause abnormalities in the baby. hours, Stomach pain, nausea, fever 1236 and diarrhoea.

Scabies

Direct skin contact with Daysweeks the infected person, and sharing sheets and clothes. Coughing and sneezing. 420 days The virus may be passed from mother to child during pregnancy.

Itchy rash in places such as forearm, around waist, between fingers and buttocks and under armpits. Red cheeks and lace-like rash on body.

Slapped cheek (Human parvovirus infection)

Streptococc Usually contact with the 13 days al sore secretions of a strep sore throat throat. Sometimes through contaminated food. Whooping cough (Pertussis)

Headache, throat.

vomiting,

sore

Coughing. Adults and older 521 days, Running nose, persistent cough children may pass on the usually 710 followed by whoop, vomiting infection to babies. days or breathlessness.

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CHAPTER 6: REPRODUCTION
Reproduction:- It is defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones similar to itself. There are two types of reproduction; 1) Sexual Reproduction 2) Asexual Reproduction

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual Reproduction- When offspring is produced by a single parent with or without the involvement of gamete formation, the reproduction is asexual. It is common among singlecelled organisms and in plants and animals with relatively simple organizations. In Protists and Monerans, the organism or the parent cell divides into two to give rise to new individuals.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction- When two parents (opposite sex) participate in the reproductive process and also involve fusion of male and female gametes, it is called sexual reproduction. All organisms have to reach a certain stage of growth and maturity in their life, before they can reproduce sexually. The period of growth is called the juvenile phase. It is known as vegetative phase in plants. The females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical changes in the activities of ovaries and accessory ducts as well as hormones during the reproductive phase. In non-primate mammals like cows, sheep, dogs such cyclical changes during reproduction are called oestrus cycle where as in primates (Monkeys, apes and humans) it is called menstrual cycle. Many mammals exhibit such cycles only during favourable seasons in their reproductive phase and are therefore called seasonal breeders. Many other mammals are reproductively active throughout their reproductive phase and therefore termed as continuous breeders. Sexual Reproduction in other words is the fusion of gamets. This process is called syngamy or fertilization which results in the formation of a diploid zygote. It is universal in all sexually reproducing organisms. Fertilisation is either external or internal.

EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
External fertilization: In most aquatic organisms, such as a majority of fishes and algae as well as amphibians, fertilization occurs in the water, outside the body of organism.

INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
Internal fertilization: Fertilisation occurs inside the body of the organism, hence the process is called internal fertilization.

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Embryogenesis is the process which traces the development of embryo from the zygote. During this process, Zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation. Cell differentiation helps groups of cells to undergo certain modifications to form specialized tissues and organs to form an organism. Animals are further categorized into oviparous and viviparous. In oviparous animals like reptiles and birds the development of zygote takes place outside the body of the female parent; where they lay unfertilsed/fertilised eggs. In viviparous animals (majority of mammals including humans) female parent gives birth to young ones. The term clone is used to describe such morphologically and genetically similar individuals.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS

Sexual reproduction in flowering plants: The pollen grains represent the male gametophytes while the gynoecium represents the female reproductive part of the flower. It may have one single pistil or may have more than one pistil. Each pistil has three parts;- The Stigma, style and ovary. The stigma serves as a landing platform for pollen grains. The style is the elongated slender part beneath the stigma. The basal bulged part of the pistil is the ovary. Inside the ovary is the ovarian cavity. The placenta is located inside the ovarian cavity. Arising from the placenta are the megasporangia, commonly called ovules. Each ovule has one or two protective envelopes called integuments. Enclosed within the integuments is a mass of cells called the nucellus. Located in the nucellus is the embryo sac or female gametophyte. The process of formation of megaspores from the megaspore mother cell is called megasporogenesis. In a majority of flowering plants, one of the megaspores is functional while the other three degenerate. Only the functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte (embryo sac). Pollination is the mechanism under which pollen grains is transferred to the stigma of a pistil. Types of Pollination: Depending upon the source of pollen, pollination can be divided into three types. Autogamy- In Autogamy, pollination is achieved within the same flower. Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower. Geitonogamy-Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same plant.

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Xenogamy- Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a different plant. This is the only typed of pollination which brings genetically different types of pollen grains to the stigma during pollination. Agents of Pollination: plants use two abiotic (wind and water) and one biotic (animals) agents to achieve pollination. Majority of plants use biotic agents for pollination. Only a small proportion of plants use abiotic agents. Majority of flowering plants use a range of animals as pollinating agents. Bees, butterflies, ants, wasps and birds are the common pollinating agents.

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
The male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, the male reproductive system is composed of a pair of testes, the male sex accessory ducts and the accessory glands and external genitalia. Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules, and each lobule contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules. Each seminiferous tubule is lined inside by spermatogonia and sertoli cells.

The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries, a pair of oviducts, a uterus, a vagina, external genitalia and a pair of mammary glands. The ovaries produce the female gamete(ovum) and some steroid hormones(ovarian hormones). Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the stroma. The oviducts, uterus and vagina are female accessory ducts. The uterus has three layers namely perimetrium, myometrium and endometrium. The female external genitalia includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen and clitoris. Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported by the male sex accessory ducts. A normal human sperm is composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and tail. The process of formation of mature female gametes is called oogenesis.

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During copulation (coitus) semen is released by the penis into the vagina (insemination). The motile sperms swim rapidly, pass through the cervix, enter into the uterus and finally reach the junction of the isthmus and ampulla (ampullary-isthmic) of the fallopian tube. The ovum released by the ovary is also transported to the ampullary-isthmic junction where fertilization takes place. Fertilisation can only occur if the ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to the ampullary-isthmic junction. The process of fusion of a sperm with an ovum is called fertlisation. During fertlisation, a sperm comes in contact with the zona pellucid layer of the ovum and induces changes in the membrane that block the entry of additional sperms. Thus, it ensures that only one sperm can fertilise an ovum. The secretions of the acrosome help the sperm enter into the cytoplasm of the ovum through the zona pellucid and the plasma membrane. The reproductive cycle of female primates is called menstrual cycle which starts only after attaining sexual maturation termed as puberty. During ovulation only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle. After coitus, sperm fertilizes the ovum leading to formation of a diploid zygote. The presence of X or Y chromosome in the sperm determines the sex of the embryo. The zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division to form a blastocyst, which is implanted in the uterus resulting in pregnancy. The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months which is called the gestation period. The structural and functional unit between developing embryo (foetus) and maternal body is called placenta. The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also removal of carbon dioxide and excretory/ waste materials produced by the embryo. Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue and produces several hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin(hCG), human placental lactogen(hPL), estrogens, progestogens, etc. In the later phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary. It should be noted that hCG, hPL and relaxin are produced in women during pregnancy. In addition, during pregnancy the levels of other hormones like estrogens, progestogens, cortisol, prolactin, thyroxine are increased many-folds in the maternal blood. Increased production of these hormones is essential for supporting the fetal growth, metabolic changes in the mother and maintenance of pregnancy. The process of childbirth is called parturition which is induced by a complex neuroendcrine mechanism involving cortisol, estrogens and oxytocin. The major female and male hormones can be classified as estrogens or androgens. Both classes of male and female hormones are present in both males and females alike, but in vastly different amounts. Most men produce 6-8 mg of the male hormone testosterone (an androgen) per day, compared to most women who produce 0.5 mg daily. Female hormones, estrogens, are also present in both sexes, but in larger amounts for women. Estrogens are the sex hormones produced primarily by a female's ovaries that stimulate the growth of a girl's sex organs, as well as her breasts and pubic hair, known as secondary sex characteristics. Estrogens also regulate the functioning of the menstrual cycle.

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Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group and is found in mammals, reptiles, birds, and other vertebrates. In mammals, testosterone is primarily secreted in the testicles of males and the ovaries of females, although small amounts are also secreted by the adrenal glands. It is the principal male sex hormone and an anabolic steroid. In men, testosterone plays a key role in the development of male reproductive tissues such as the testis and prostate as well as promoting secondary sexual characteristics such as increased muscle, bone mass, and the growth of body hair. In addition, testosterone is essential for health and well-being as well as the prevention of osteoporosis. On average, in adult human males, the plasma concentration of testosterone is about 7 8 times as great as the concentration in adult human females' plasma, but as the metabolic consumption of testosterone in males is greater, the daily production is about 20 times greater in men.

ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

Besides natural methods of vegetative propagation, artificial modes of propagation are also being used. Farmers, gardeners and horticulturists have adopted several such methods like grafting, layering, cutting and tissue culture for propagating plants in gardens and nurseries.

GRAFTING
In horticultural practices this method is commonly used. In this method the cutting of a plant (scion) is attached to the stem of another rooted plant (stock). After some time the attached cutting becomes an integrated part of the rooted plant. The scion and stock are placed in such a way that no gap remains between them. Finally they become joined in such a way that their vascular systems are united. Usually the scion is of a plant having desirable characters like large sized fruits and the stock has good absorbing capacity. Because of the arrangement of their vascular bundles, grafting experiments are successful only in divots and not in monocots. This method is commonly applied to improve the variety of fruits like mango. Wax is used to cover the place where grafting is being done. This is to avoid infection.

BUD GRAFTING
A bud is taken along with portion of bark from a plant and is used as scion in this process. A Tshaped cut is made and the bud is fixed tightly on the stock with a tape. The bud gets attached to the stock after some time and new branches are formed. Pears, peaches, plum, citrus, roses, etc., are propagated by this method. This method is usually employed during spring.

CUTTING
In rose, sugar-cane, Coleus, Bougainvillea, etc., this method is used to produce new plants. In this process stem cuttings with some nodes and internodes are placed in moist soil which gives

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rise to adventitious roots and a new plant subsequently. It is a very common method of vegetative propagation. Farmers divide up the rhizomes, tubers or roots stocks at the end of flowering or growing season. Each part grows into a separate plant in the following year. Some plants like dahlia are propagated by root cuttings.

LAYERING
In some plants one or more branches are bent close to the ground and covered with moist soil. After some time, the underground portion of those branches produce new roots and develop into a separate plant as in jasmine, Rhododendron, Magnolia, etc. The stem or branch that develops adventitious roots while still attached to the parent plant is called a layer. In many plants, layering can also be induced artificially. In mound layering the stem is pruned and the base of the plant is covered with soil. From the base, new shoots develop, which are separated from the parent plant, ad grown into a new plant. Many types of apples and gooseberries are grown using this method. Air layering is another type of layering in which branches of the plants cannot be bent to the ground. A piece of the branch is scraped (girdled) in this method and polythene or plastic sheet is used as cover to preserve moisture. Roots arise from the scraped part after a few weeks. This branch is then detached from the parent plant which grows into a new plant after plantation. Layering differs from cutting in that the developments of adventitious buds are induced before the stem is cut to form the new plant.

TISSUE CULTURE
In this technique a small piece of tissue of a desired plant is cut. This is placed with a suitable nutrient medium under proper conditions. The tissue grows into an unorganized mass, known as callus. Small part of this tissue is put in another medium, which induces the formation of plantlets. The plantlets can be transplanted in soil or pots foe developing to maturity. This technique is also called micro propagation. This method is used in propagating plants like Asparagus, orchids, Chrysanthemum. This method allows us to grow whole plant from cells taken from various parts of the plant body.

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CHAPTER 7: RESPIRATION IN HUMAN BEINGS THE PATHWAY

Air enters the nostrils passes through the nasopharynx, the oral pharynx through the glottis into the trachea into the right and left bronchi, which branches and rebranches into bronchioles, each of which terminates in a cluster of alveoli Only in the alveoli does actual gas exchange takes place. There are some 300 million alveoli in two adult lungs. These provide a surface area of some 160 m2 (almost equal to the singles area of a tennis court and 80 times the area of our skin!).

BREATHING
In mammals, the diaphragm divides the body cavity into the abdominal cavity, which contains the viscera (e.g., stomach and intestines) and the thoracic cavity, which contains the heart and lungs.

The inner surface of the thoracic cavity and the outer surface of the lungs are lined with pleural membranes which adhere to each other. If air is introduced between them, the adhesion is broken and the natural elasticity of the lung causes it to collapse. This can occur from trauma. And it is sometimes induced deliberately to allow the lung to rest. In either case, reinflation occurs as the air is gradually absorbed by the tissues. Because of this adhesion, any action that increases the volume of the thoracic cavity causes the lungs to expand, drawing air into them. During inspiration (inhaling), o The external intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribs up and out. o The diaphragm contracts, drawing it down . During expiration (exhaling), these processes are reversed and the natural elasticity of the lungs returns them to their normal volume. At rest, we breath 1518 times a minute exchanging about 500 ml of air. In more vigorous expiration, o The internal intercostal muscles draw the ribs down and inward o The wall of the abdomen contracts pushing the stomach and liver upward.

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Under these conditions, an average adult male can flush his lungs with about 4 liters of air at each breath. This is called the vital capacity. Even with maximum expiration, about 1200 ml of residual air remain.

The table shows what happens to the composition of air when it reaches the alveoli. Some of the oxygen dissolves in the film of moisture covering the epithelium of the alveoli. From here it diffuses into the blood in a nearby capillary. It enters a red blood cell and combines with the hemoglobin therein. At the same time, some of the carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses into the alveoli from which it can be exhaled. The ease with which oxygen and carbon dioxide can pass between air and blood is clear from this electron micrograph of two alveoli (Air) and an adjacent capillary from the lung of a laboratory mouse. Note the thinness of the epithelial cells (EP) that line the alveoli and capillary (except where the nucleus is located). At the closest point, the surface of the red blood cell is only 0.7 m away from the air in the alveolus.

CENTRAL CONTROL OF BREATHING

The rate of cellular respiration (and hence oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production) varies with level of activity. Vigorous exercise can increase by 2025 times the demand of the tissues for oxygen. This is met by increasing the rate and depth of breathing. It is a rising concentration of carbon dioxide not a declining concentration of oxygen that plays the major role in regulating the ventilation of the lungs. Certain cells in the medulla oblongata are very sensitive to a drop in pH. As the CO2 content of the blood rises above normal levels, the pH drops [CO2 + H2O HCO3 + H+], and the medulla oblongata responds by increasing the number and rate of nerve impulses that control the action of the intercostal muscles and diaphragm. This produces an increase in the

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rate of lung ventilation, which quickly brings the CO2 concentration of the alveolar air, and then of the blood, back to normal levels. However, the carotid body in the carotid arteries does have receptors that respond to a drop in oxygen. Their activation is important in situations (e.g., at high altitude in the unpressurized cabin of an aircraft) where oxygen supply is inadequate but there has been no increase in the production of CO2. The smooth muscle in the walls of the bronchioles is very sensitive to the concentration of carbon dioxide. A rising level of CO2 causes the bronchioles to dilate. This lowers the resistance in the airways and thus increases the flow of air in and out.

VITAL CAPACITY OF LUNG

Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air a person can expel from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. It is equal to the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume. A person's vital capacity can be measured by a wet or regular spirometer. In combination with other physiological measurements, the vital capacity can help make a diagnosis of underlying lung disease. A normal adult has a vital capacity between 3 and 5 litres. A human's vital capacity depends on age, sex, height, weight, and ethnicity.

LUNG VOLUMES
Lung volumes and lung capacities refer to the volume of air associated with different phases of the respiratory cycle. Lung volumes are directly measured, whereas lung capacities are inferred from volumes. Below given is the list of lung diseases:

Asthma: The airways are persistently inflamed, and may occasionally spasm, causing wheezing and shortness of breath. Allergies, infections, or pollution can trigger asthma's symptoms. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): Lung conditions defined by an inability to exhale normally, which causes difficulty breathing. Chronic bronchitis: A form of COPD characterized by a chronic productive cough. Emphysema: Lung damage allows air to be trapped in the lungs in this form of COPD. Difficulty blowing air out is its hallmark. Acute bronchitis: A sudden infection of the airways, usually by a virus. Cystic fibrosis: A genetic condition causing poor clearance of mucus from the bronchi. The accumulated mucus results in repeated lung infections. Pneumonia: An infection of the alveoli, usually by bacteria.

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Tuberculosis: A slowly progressive pneumonia caused by the bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Emphysema results from damage to the fragile connections between alveoli. Smoking is the usual cause. (Emphysema also limits airflow, affecting the airways as well.) Pulmonary edema: Fluid leaks out of the small blood vessels of the lung into the air sacs and the surrounding area. One form is caused by heart failure and back pressure in the lungs' blood vessels; in another form, direct injury to the lung causes the leak of fluid. Lung cancer has many forms, and may develop in any part of the lungs. Most often this is in the main part of the lung, in or near the air sacs. The type, location, and spread of lung cancer determines the treatment options. Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): Severe, sudden injury to the lungs caused by a serious illness. Life support with mechanical ventilation is usually needed to survive until the lungs recover. Pneumoconiosis: A category of conditions caused by the inhalation of a substance that injures the lungs. Examples include black lung disease from inhaled coal dust and asbestosis from inhaled asbestos dust. Interstitial lung disease (ILD): A broad collection of lung conditions affecting the interstitium. Sarcoidosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, and autoimmune disease are among the many types of ILD. Pneumonias and pulmonary edemas can also affect the interstitium. Pulmonary embolism (PE): A blood clot (usually in a deep leg vein, deep vein thrombosis) breaks off, travels to the heart, and is pumped into the lungs. The clot lodges in a pulmonary artery, often causing shortness of breath and low blood oxygen levels. Pulmonary hypertension: Various conditions can lead to high blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries. This can cause shortness of breath and chest pain. When no cause is identified, the condition is called idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension. Pleural effusion: Fluid collects in the normally tiny pleura space between the lung and the chest wall. Pneumonia or heart failure is usually responsible. If large, pleural effusions can impair breathing, and should be drained. Pneumothorax: Air may enter the space between the chest wall and the lung, collapsing the lung. To remove the air, a tube is typically inserted through the chest wall. Mesothelioma: A rare form of cancer that forms on the pleura. Mesothelioma tends to emerge several decades after asbestos exposure. Obesity hypoventilation syndrome: Extra weight on the chest and abdomen makes it difficult for the chest to expand. Serious breathing problems can result. Neuromuscular disorders: Poor function in the nerves controlling the respiratory muscles causes difficulty breathing. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and myasthenia gravis are examples of neuromuscular lung disease.

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PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment involved in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis takes place primarily in plant leaves, and little to none occurs in stems, etc. The parts of a typical leaf include the upper and lower epidermis, the mesophyll, the vascular bundle(s) (veins), and the stomates. The upper and lower epidermal cells do not have chloroplasts, thus photosynthesis does not occur there. They serve primarily as protection for the rest of the leaf. The stomates are holes which occur primarily in the lower epidermis and are for air exchange: they let CO2 in and O2 out. The vascular bundles or veins in a leaf are part of the plant's transportation system, moving water and nutrients around the plant as needed. The mesophyll cells have chloroplasts and this is where photosynthesis occurs. As you hopefully recall, the parts of a chloroplast include the outer and inner membranes, intermembrane space, stroma, and thylakoids stacked in grana. The chlorophyll is built into the membranes of the thylakoids. Chlorophyll looks green because it absorbs red and blue light, making these colors unavailable to be seen by our eyes. It is the green light which is NOT absorbed that finally reaches our eyes, making chlorophyll appear green. However, it is the energy from the red and blue light that are absorbed that is, thereby, able to be used to do photosynthesis. The green light we can see is not/cannot be absorbed by the plant, and thus cannot be used to do photosynthesis. The overall chemical reaction involved in photosynthesis is: 6CO 2 + 6H2O (+ light energy) C6H12O6 + 6O2. This is the source of the O2 we breathe, and thus, a significant factor in the concerns about deforestation.

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CHAPTER 8: PARTS OF CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Cell can be best defined as the basic structural unit of an organ. The organisms made up of a single cell are called unicellular. Examples-a) Amoeba b) Paramecium. A single-celled organism performs all the necessary functions that multicellular organisms perform. Organisms made up of more than one cell are called multicellular organisms. The parts of cell are as following:-a) Membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus. The cytoplasm and nucleus are enclosed within the cell membrane, also called the plasma membrane. The membrane separates cells from one another and also the cell from the surrounding medium. The plasma membrane is porous and allows the movement of substances or materials both inward and outward. Cytoplasm is the jelly-like substance present between the cell membrane and the nucleus. Various other components or organelles of cells are present in the cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, ribosomes etc. Nucleus is an important component of the living cell. It is separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane called the nuclear membrane. This membrane is also porous and allows the movement of materials between the cytoplasm and the inside of nucleus. Nucleus in addition to its role in inheritance acts as control centre of the activities of the cell. Using a sophisticated microscope, we can see a smaller spherical body in the nucleus. It is called the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus contains thread like structures called chromosomes. These carry genes and help in inheritance or transfer of characters from the parents to the offspring.

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CHAPTER 9: BASICS OF CELL DIVISION, MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS

Mitosis is a process of cell duplication, or reproduction, during which one cell gives rise to two genetically identical daughter cells. Meiosis, on the other hand, is a division of a germ cell involving two fissions of the nucleus and giving rise to four gametes, or sex cells, each possessing half the number of chromosomes of the original cell. Mitosis is used by single celled organisms to reproduce; it is also used for the organic growth of tissues, fibers, and mibranes. Meiosis is useful for sexual reproduction of organisms; The male and female sex cells, e.g. the spermazoa and egg, fuse to create a new, singular biological organism.

Meiosis Definition: A type of cellular reproduction in which the number of chromosomes are reduced by half through the separation of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell.

Mitosis A process of asexual reproduction in which the cell divides in two producing a replica, with an equal number of chromosomes in haploid cell Cellular Reproduction & general growth and repair of the body Asexual

Function:

sexual reproduction

Type of Sexual Reproduction: Occurs in: Humans, fungi different animals,

plants, all organisms

Genetically: Crossing Over:

identical

Yes, mixing of chromosomes No, crossing over cannot

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can occur. Pairing of Yes Homologues: Number Divisions: of 2 occur. No

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Number of 4 Haploid Daughter Cells produced: Chromosome Number: Steps: Reduced by half

Remains the same

The steps of meiosis are Interphase, Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and Telophase II. Occurs in Interphase I

The steps of mitosis are Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase and Cytokinesis

Karyokenesis: Cytokenesis:

Occurs in Interphase

Occurs in Telophase I & Occurs in Telophase Telohpase II The centromeres do not The centromeres separate during anaphase I, during Anaphase but during anaphase II Sex cells only: Female egg Makes everything cells or Male sperm cells than sex cells Oscar Hertwig Walther Flemming split

Centromeres Split:

Creates:

other

Discovered by:

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CHAPTER 10: TISSUE SYSTEM

Tissue can be categorized as a group of cells similar in structure and function. It can be categorized under animal and plant tissues. Plant tissues are of two main types-meristematic and permanent. Meristematic tissue is the dividing tissue present in the growing regions of the plant. Meristematic tissues are classified as apical, lateral and intercalary depending on the region where they are present. Apical meristem is present at the growing tips of stems and roots and increases the length of the stem and the root. The girth of the stem or root increases due to lateral meristem (cambium). Intercalary meristem is the meristem at the base of the leaves or internodes on twigs. Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissue once they lose the ability to divide. They are classified as simple and complex tissues. Parenchyma, collenchymas and sclerenchyma are three types of simple tissues. Xylem and Phloem are types of complex tissues. Animal tissues can be epithelial, connective, muscular and nervous tissue. Depending on shape and function, epithelial tissue is classified as squamous, cubodial, columnar, ciliated and glandular. The different types of connective tissues in our body include areolar tissue, adipose tissue, bone, tendon, ligament, cartilage and blood. Striated, unstriated and cardiac are three types of muscle tissues. Nervous tissue is made of neorons that receive and conduct impulses. Sometimes a portion of the epithelial tissue folds inward and a multicellular gland is formed. This is glandular epithelium. Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective tissue called the ligament. This tissue is very elastic. Muscular tissue consists of elongated cells are also called muscle fibres. This tissue is responsible for movement in our body. Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins, which contract and relax to cause movement.

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CHAPTER 11: SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS, BIRDS AND BEES

SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMANS
Sex determination in Humans: The sex determining mechanism in case of humans is XY type. Out of 23 pairs of chromosomes present, 22 pairs are exactly same in both females and males; these are the autosomes. A pair of X chromosomes is present in the female, whereas the presence of an X and Y chromosome are determinant of the male characteristic. During spermatogenesis among males, two types of gametes are produced. Fifty percent of the total sperm produced carry the X chromosome and the rest 50 percent has Y chromosome besides the autosomes. Females however produce only one type of ovum with an X chromosome. There is an equal probability of fertilization of the ovum with the sperm carrying either X or Y chromosome. In case the ovum fertilizes with a sperm carrying X chromosome the zygote develops into a female and the fertilization of ovum with Y chromosome carrying sperm results into a male offspring. Sex Determination in Birds: In birds, a different mechanism of sex determination is observed. In this case, the total number of chromosome is same in both males and females. But two different types of gametes in terms of the sex chromosomes are produced by females. In order to have a distinction with the mechanism of sex determination described earlier, the two different sex chromosomes of a female bird has been designated to be the Z and W chromosomes. In these organisms the females have one Z and one W chromosome, whereas males have a pair of Z-chromosomes besides the autosomes.

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CHAPTER 12: BASICS OF ANTIGEN-ANTIBODY

ANTIGEN
Antigen- It is the toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies. In immunology, an antigen is a substance that evokes the production of one or more antibodies. An antibody (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig), is a large Y-shaped protein produced by B-cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a unique part of the foreign target, called an antigen. Antibodies are secreted by a type of white blood cell called a plasma cell. Antibodies can occur in two physical forms, a soluble form that is secreted from the cell, and a membranebound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B cell receptor (BCR). The BCR is only found on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells, or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure. In most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and, therefore, antibody generation following antigen binding. Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms. Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily; the terms antibody and immunoglobulin are often used interchangeably. An antigen is a substance that evokes the production of one or more antibodies. Each antibody binds to a specific antigen by way of an interaction similar to the fit between a lock and a key. The substance may be from the external environment or formed within the body. The immune system will try to destroy or neutralize any antigen that is recognized as a foreign and potentially harmful invader. The term originally came from antibody generator and was a molecule that binds specifically to an antibody, but the term now also refers to any molecule or molecular fragment that can be bound by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and presented to a T-cell receptor. "Self" antigens are usually tolerated by the immune system, whereas "non-self" antigens can be identified as invaders and can be attacked by the immune system. An immunogen is a specific type of antigen. An immunogen is a substance that is able to provoke an adaptive immune response if injected on its own. An immunogen is able to induce an immune response, whereas an antigen is able to combine with the products of an immune response once they are made. Hapten is a small molecule that cannot induce an immune response by itself. It needs to be attached to a large carrier molecule such as protein. The overlapping concepts of immunogenicity and antigenicity are, therefore, subtly different. According to a current textbook:

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Immunogenicity is the ability to induce a humoral and/or cell-mediated immune response Antigenicity is the ability to combine specifically with the final products of the immune response (i.e. secreted antibodies and/or surface receptors on T-cells). Although all molecules that have the property of immunogenicity also have the property of antigenicity, the reverse is not true.

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES
Monoclonal antibodies (mAb or moAb) are monospecific antibodies that are the same because they are made by identical immune cells that are all clones of a unique parent cell, in contrast to polyclonal antibodies which are made from several different immune cells. Monoclonal antibodies have monovalent affinity, in that they bind to the same epitope. Given almost any substance, it is possible to produce monoclonal antibodies that specifically bind to that substance; they can then serve to detect or purify that substance. This has become an important tool in biochemistry, molecular biology and medicine.

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CHAPTER 13: TABLE AND DIAGRAM ON ABO BLOOD GROUP, RH FACTOR

Red blood cell compatibility chart In addition to donating to the same blood group; type O blood donors can give to A, B and AB; blood donors of types A and B can give to AB Red Blood cell Compatibility Table

DAD

DAD

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In addition to the blood group (A, B, O, AB), the Rh factor is written as either positive (Rh+ present) or negative (Rh-, absent). Most people (about 85%) are Rh positive (Rh+), meaning that they have the factor. About 15% of the population does not have the Rh factor, they are Rh-. This factor does not affect your health except during pregnancy.

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UNIT 2 PHYSICS

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CHAPTER 1: THE UNIVERSE

WHAT IS UNIVERSE
The Universe is commonly defined as the totality of existence, including planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space, and all matter and energy. Definitions and usage vary and similar terms include the cosmos, the world and nature. The most widely accepted cosmological model is that of the Big Bang. This was proven since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation or CMBR. The Universe was infinitely hot at birth, cooling down as it expanded. Todays Universe is found to have an average temperature of only 2.725 Kelvin. Observations made especially on galaxies farthest from us show that the Universe is expanding at an accelerated rate. The data that show that the Universe is cooling allows us to believe that the most probable ending for our universe is that of a Big Freeze. The Universe is 13.7 billion years old. The information is based on measurements made on the CMBR. The matter is spread uniformly (homogeneously) throughout the universe, when averaged over distances longer than 300 million light-years. However, on smaller length-scales, matter is observed to form clumps, i.e., to cluster hierarchically; many atoms are condensed into stars, most stars into galaxies, most galaxies into clusters, super clusters and, finally, the largest-scale structures such as the Great Wall of galaxies. The observable matter of the Universe is also spread isotropically, meaning that no direction of observation seems different from any other; each region of the sky has roughly the same content. The Universe mainly consists of Galaxies, Stars, Solar System, Comets, Meteors and Asteroids. A galaxy is a collection of stars, dust and gas. All these materials bound together gravitationally to form a galaxy. Gas and dust found in galaxy in between the stars. It is called interstellar gas, which is mainly hydrogen in its atomic form (H) and to some extent, in molecular form (H 2). Gases form an important constituent of Galaxy. Gas in Galaxy is both in neutral and iconic form. In neutral atomic form, interstellar gas is mainly hydrogen. In ionic form, some other elements like oxygen, carbon, helium, iron, neon, sulphur and some other elements are present along with ionic hydrogen. Dust- Another constituent of galaxy is dust. Dust can be in small or large particle sizes. Stars are the third and final constituents of galaxies.Number of stars in a galaxy range from 10 million to more than a trillion.

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A star is a huge, shining ball that produces a large amount of energy in form of light and other forms. Stars are very far from us, thats w hy they look like twinkling points of light. Our sun is also a star. A lot of stars are like our sun. Some differ in mass, size, brightness and temperature. The nearest star to the Earth is Sun. It is nearly 150000000 kilometers away from the Earth. The next nearest star is Alpha Centauri. It is at a distance of about 40000000000000 km from the Earth. The stars forming a group that have a recognizable shape is called a Constellation. For example, one can see Ursa Major during summer time in the early part of the night. It is also known as the Big Dipper, the Great Bear or the Saptarshi. Another well known constellation, Orion can be seen during winter in the late evenings. It is also called the Hunter. Cassiopeia is another prominent constellation in the northern sky. It is visible during winter in the early part of the night. It looks like a distorted letter W or M. Stars come in many sizes. Some of the stars have a radius of about 1,000 times that of the sun. The smallest stars are the neutron stars, some of which have a radius of only about 6 miles (10 kilometers). About 75 percent of all stars are members of a binary system, a pair of closely spaced stars that orbit each other. The sun is not a member of a binary system. However, its nearest known stellar neighbor, Proxima Centauri, is part of a multiple-star system that also includes Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B. Proxima Centauri is 4.2 light years far form sun. Stars are grouped in huge structures called galaxies. Telescopes have revealed galaxies throughout the universe at distances of 12 billion to 16 billion light-years. Our sun is in a galaxy called the Milky Way that contains more than 100 billion stars. There are more than 100 billion galaxies in the universe, and the average number of stars per galaxy may be 100 billion. Stars have life cycles. They born, pass through several phases, and finally die. The sun was born about 4.6 billion years ago and will remain much as it is for another 5 billion years. Then it will grow to become a red giant. Late in the sun's lifetime, it will cast off its outer layers. The remaining core, called a white dwarf, will slowly fade to become a black dwarf. Other stars will end their lives in different ways. Some will not go through a red giant stage. Instead, they will merely cool to become white dwarfs, then black dwarfs. A small percentage of stars will die in spectacular explosions called supernovae. Brightness of star seen from Earth depends on two factors:

The amount of light energy the star emits. The distance from Earth to the star.

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These characteristics are related to one another in a complex way. Color depends on surface temperature, and brightness depends on surface temperature and size. Mass affects the rate at which a star of a given size produces energy and so affects surface temperature.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE

The surface temperature of a star is determined by the rate of energy production at the core and the radius of the star and is often estimated from the star's color index. It is normally given as the effective temperature, which is the temperature of an idealized black body that radiates its energy at the same luminosity per surface area as the star. The temperature in the core region of a star is several million kelvins. The stellar temperature determines the rate of energization or ionization of different elements, resulting in characteristic absorption lines in the spectrum. The surface temperature of a star, along with its visual absolute magnitude and absorption features, is used to classify a star. Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50,000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3,600 K, but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area.
WHY STARS ARE OF DIFFERENT COLORS

Color of star is the color of light the star is emitting. A star can appear red, if it emits light more towards red part of visible band of electromagnetic spectrum, and can appear blue if it emits light more towards blue part of visible spectrum. Our sun emits light equally among all wavelengths of visible spectrum. That is why our sun appears white to us. Color of the star depends on its surface temperature.

ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are small rocky bodies that orbit the sun in a belt (Kuiper belt) between orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Not all the asteroids orbit in Kuiper belt. Some are between orbit of Jupiter and some are beyond the orbit of Saturn. More than 100000 asteroids have been found with well charted orbits, out of which 2000 follow the orbits that lead them into inner and outer solar system. Earth has been struck many times by an asteroid.

WHAT ARE METEORS

A meteor is a bright streak of light that appears briefly in the sky. Meteors are often called shooting stars or falling stars because they look like stars falling from the sky. Brightest meteors are sometimes called fireballs. A meteor appears when a particle or chunk of metallic or stony matter called a meteoroid enters the earth's atmosphere from outer space. Air friction heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid

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particles. The gases include vaporized meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second. Most meteoroids disintegrate before reaching the earth. But some leave a trail that lasts several minutes. Meteoroids that reach the earth are called meteorites.

COMETS
Comets revolve around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits. However, their period of revolution round the Sun is usually very long. A Comet appears generally as a bright head with a long tail. The length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the Sun. The tail of a comet is always directed away from the Sun. Many comets are known to appear periodically. One such comet is Halleys Comet, which appears after nearly every 86 years.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

The Sun and the celestial bodies which revolve around it form the solar system. It consists of large number of bodies such as planets, comets, asteroids and meteors. The gravitational attraction between the Sun and these objects keeps them revolving around it. The earth is planet and a member of the solar system. There are seven other planets that revolve around the Sun. The eight planets in their order of distance from the Sun are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Till 2006 there were nine planets in the solar system. Pluto was the farthest planet from the Sun. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of a planet. Pluto does not fit this definition. It is no longer a planet of the Solar System. A planet has a definite path in which it revolves around the Sun. This path is called an Orbit.

MERCURY
The planet Mercury is nearest to the Sun. It is the smallest planet of our solar system. Mercury has no satellite of its own.

VENUS
Venus is earths nearest planetary neighbor. It is the brightest planet in the night sky. Sometimes it appears in the eastern sky before sunrise. Sometimes it appears in the western sky just after Sunset. Therefore, it is called a morning or an evening star. Venus has no moon or satellite of its own. It rotates from east to west while the Earth rotates from west to east.

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The Earth is the only planet in the solar system on which life is known to exist. Some special environmental conditions are responsible for the existence and continuation of life on the Earth. From space, the Earth appears blue-green due to the reflection of light from water and landmass on its surface. The axis of rotation of the Earth is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. The tilt is responsible for the change of seasons on the Earth. The Earth has only one moon.

MARS
The next planet, the first outside the orbit of the Earth is Mars. It appears slightly reddish and therefore it is also called the red planet. Mars has two small natural satellites.

JUPITER
Jupiter is the largest planet of the solar system. It is so large that about 1300 earths can be placed inside this giant planet. But, the mass of Jupiter is about 318 times that of our Earth.

SATURN
Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears yellowish in colour. It is the least dense among all the planets. Its density is less than that of water. Its beautiful rings make it unique in the solar system.

URANUS AND NEPTUNE

These are the outermost planets of the solar system. Like Venus, Uranus also rotates from east to west. The most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it has highly tilted rotational axis.

BLACK HOLE
Is a region of spacetime from which gravity prevents anything, including light, from escaping. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called "black" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics. Quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit radiation like a black body with a finite temperature. This temperature is inversely proportional to the mass of the black hole, making it difficult to observe this radiation for black holes of stellar mass or greater. www.jagranjosh.com
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Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies.

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CHAPTER 2: MAGNETISM NUCLEAR PHYSICS

ELECTRICITY

AND

ELECTRICITY,

A stream of electrons moving through a conductor constitutes an electric current. Conventionally, the direction of current is taken opposite to the direction of flow of electrons. The SI unit of electric current is ampere. Resistance is a property that resists the flow of electrons in a conductor. It controls the magnitude of the current. The SI unit of resistance is ohm.

OHMS LAW
The potential difference across the ends of a resistor is directly proportional to the current through it, provided its temperature remains the same. The resistance of a conductor depends directly on its length, inversely on its area of cross section, and also on the material of the conductor. The equivalent resistance of several resistors in series is equal to the sum of their individual resistances. A set of resistors connected in parallel has an equivalent resistance Rp given by 1/Rp=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3+ The electrical energy dissipated in a resistor is given by W= VxIxt The unit of power is watt (W). One watt of power is consumed when 1A of current flows at a potential difference of 1 V. The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour(kWh). 1kWh= 3600000 J=3.6x106 J.

MAGNETISM
Is a class of physical phenomena that includes forces exerted by magnets on other magnets. It has its origin in electric currents and the fundamental magnetic moments of elementary particles. These give rise to a magnetic field that acts on other currents and moments. All materials are influenced to some extent by a magnetic field. www.jagranjosh.com
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A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected. A compass needle is a small magnet. Its one end, which points towards north, is called a north pole, and the other end which points towards south is called a south pole. Field lines are used to represent a magnetic field. A field line is the path along which a hypothetical free north pole would tend to move. The direction of the magnetic field at a point is given by the direction that a north pole placed at that point would take. Field lines are shown closer together where the magnetic field is greater. A metallic wire carrying an electric current has associated with it a magnetic field. The field lines about the wire consist of a series of concentric circles whose direction is given by the right hand rule. The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the production of induced current in a coil placed in a region where the magnetic field changes with time. The pattern of the magnetic field consists of a core of soft iron wrapped around with a coil of insulated copper wire.

DIAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates. Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows: When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field. Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.

PARAMAGNETISM
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In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.

FERROMAGNETISM
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the material maintain a parallel orientation. Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order. Some well-known ferromagnetic materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties (to form magnets) are nickel, iron, cobalt, gadolinium and their alloys. Ferrimagnetic ordering Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that point in the opposite direction. Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Nel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism.

SUPERPARAMAGNETISM
When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger. Electromagnet An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.

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Electromagnet attracts paper a clip when current is applied creating a magnetic field. The electromagnet loses them when current and magnetic field are removed. Other types of magnetism

Molecular magnet Metamagnetism Molecule-based magnet Spin glass

MAGNETIC DIPOLES
A very common source of magnetic field shown in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains.

MAGNETIC MONOPOLES
Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole if such a thing exists would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, as of 2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist. Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron.

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Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the big bang contradicted cosmological observations the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations.

LIVING THINGS
Some organisms can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magnetoception. Magnetobiology studies magnetic fields as a medical treatment; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as biomagnetism. Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei. The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons technology, but the research has provided application in many fields, including those in nuclear medicine and magnetic resonance imaging, ion implantation in materials engineering, and radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology. The field of particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and is typically taught in close association with nuclear physics.

NUCLEAR PHYSICS
NUCLEAR FUSION
In nuclear fusion, two low mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other, so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy to overcome the repulsion between the nuclei for the strong or nuclear forces to produce this effect, therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. Once the process succeeds, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up until nickel-62. Stars like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the Joint European Torus (JET) and ITER, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction. Natural nuclear fusion is the origin of the light and energy produced by the core of all stars including our own sun. Nuclear fission

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Nuclear fission is the reverse process of fusion. For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. The process of alpha decay is in essence a special type of spontaneous nuclear fission. This process produces a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely. For certain of the heaviest nuclei which produce neutrons on fission, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a so-called chain reaction. Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions. The fission or "nuclear" chain-reaction, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for nuclear power plants and fission type nuclear bombs, such as those detonated by the United States in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, at the end of World War II. Heavy nuclei such as uranium and thorium may also undergo spontaneous fission, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay. For a neutron-initiated chain-reaction to occur, there must be a critical mass of the element present in a certain space under certain conditions. The conditions for the smallest critical mass require the conservation of the emitted neutrons and also their slowing or moderation so there is a greater cross-section or probabability of them initiating another fission. In two regions of Oklo, Gabon, Africa, natural nuclear fission reactors were active over 1.5 billion years ago. Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain-reactions.

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CHAPTER 3: SOUND: ECHO, RESONANCE, DOPPLER EFFECT, SONIC BOOM, DOLBY

Sound is produced by vibrating objects. In human beings, the vibration of the vocal cords produces sound. Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid or solid). It cannot travel in vaccum.

THE DOPPLER EFFECT

The Doppler effect (or Doppler shift), named after the Austrian physicist Christian Doppler, who proposed it in 1842 in Prague, is the change in frequency of a wave (or other periodic event) for an observer moving relative to its source. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession.

A SONIC BOOM
A sonic boom is the sound associated with the shock waves created by an object traveling through the air faster than the speed of sound. Sonic booms generate enormous amounts of sound energy, sounding much like an explosion. The crack of a supersonic bullet passing overhead is an example of a sonic boom in miniature.

DOLBY NR
Dolby NR is the name given to a series of noise reduction systems developed by Dolby Laboratories for use in analog magnetic tape recording. The first was Dolby A, a professional broadband noise reduction for recording studios in 1966, but the best-known is Dolby B (introduced 1968), a sliding band system for the consumer market, which helped make high fidelity practical on cassette tapes, and is common on stereo tape players and recorders to the present day. Of the noise reduction systems, Dolby A and Dolby SR were developed for professional use.

ECHO
Echo: In audio signal processing and acoustics, an echo (plural echoes) is a reflection of sound, arriving at the listener some time after the direct sound. Typical examples are the echo produced by the bottom of a well, by a building, or by the walls of an enclosed room and an empty room. A true echo is a single reflection of the sound source. The time delay is the extra distance divided by the speed of sound.

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RESONANCE
Resonance: Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate with greater amplitude at some frequencies than at others. Frequencies at which the response amplitude is a relative maximum are known as the system's resonant frequencies, or resonance frequencies. Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or waves: there is mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance, electromagnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR) and resonance of quantum wave functions. One familiar example is a playground swing, which acts as a pendulum. Pushing a person in a swing in time with the natural interval of the swing (its resonant frequency) will make the swing go higher and higher (maximum amplitude), while attempts to push the swing at a faster or slower tempo will result in smaller arcs. This is because the energy the swing absorbs is maximized when the pushes are 'in phase' with the swing's natural oscillations, while some of the swing's energy is actually extracted by the opposing force of the pushes when they are not. Resonance occurs widely in nature, and is exploited in many man-made devices. It is the mechanism by which virtually all sinusoidal waves and vibrations are generated. Many sounds we hear, such as when hard objects of metal, glass, or wood are struck, are caused by brief resonant vibrations in the object. Light and other short wavelength electromagnetic radiation is produced by resonance on an atomic scale, such as electrons in atoms. Other examples are: Mechanical and acoustic resonance the timekeeping mechanisms of modern clocks and watches, e.g. the balance wheel in a mechanical watch and the quartz crystal in a quartz watch the tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy acoustic resonances of musical instruments and human vocal cords the shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical tone of the right pitch (its resonant frequency)

ELECTRICAL RESONANCE
electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios and TVs that allow radio frequencies to be selectively received

Optical resonance creation of coherent light by optical resonance in a laser cavity

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CHAPTER 4: PRINCIPLES BEHIND RAINBOW, LCD, CAMERA MICROSCOPE, LASER, COMPACT DISC
RAINBOW
Rainbow-A Rainbow is an optical and meteorological phenomenon that is caused by reflection of light in water droplets in the Earth's atmosphere, resulting in a spectrum of light appearing in the sky. It takes the form of a multicolored arc.

CAMERA MICROSCOPELASER-Laser is the abbreviation of Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
It is a device that creates a narrow and low-divergent beam of coherent light, while most other light sources emit incoherent light, which has a phase that varies randomly with time and position. Most lasers emit nearly "monochromatic" light with a narrow wavelength spectrum. The principle of a laser is based on three separate features: a) stimulated emission within an amplifying medium, b) population inversion of electronics and c) an optical resonator. Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission According to the quantum mechanics, an electron within an atom or lattice can have only certain values of energy, or energy levels. There are many energy levels that an electron can occupy, but here we will only consider two. If an electron is in the excited state with the energy E2 it may spontaneously decay to the ground state, with energy E1, releasing the difference in energy between the two states as a photon. This process is called spontaneous emission, producing fluorescent light. The phase and direction of the photon in spontaneous emission are completely random due to Uncertainty Principle.

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CHAPTER 5: OPTICS: CONVEX AND CONCAVE GLASSES: DIFFERENCES, APPLICATIONS, AND REFRACTIONS
Concave lens is the one whose curved surface is bent inside. It diverges the rays from the principal axis. It generally forms virtual and erect image i.e. image on the same side of the object. This image can't be taken on the screen. Convex lens is the one whose curved surface is bulged out. Simplest example is dewdrop on a leaf. It generally gives real and inverted image and has a capacity to magnify the image. Convex lens:

Concave lens:

USES
1. Both concave and convex lenses are used in glasses 2. A microscope, like a reflecting telescope, uses a concave mirror

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A plane mirror, and a convex lens A refracting telescope uses two convex lenses to magnify images in the sky Binoculars use concave lenses to improve detail. Convex mirrors are often found on the passenger sides of motor vehicles. These mirrors make objects appear smaller than they really are. Due to this compression, these mirrors to reflect a wider image area, or field of vision. 7. Convex mirrors are often placed near ATMs to allow bank customers to see if someone is behind them. This is a security measure that helps keep ATM users safe from robbery of any cash withdrawals and helps keep ATM users' identity more secure. 8. Two convex mirrors placed back to back are used to make a magnifying glass. 9. Concave mirrors are used in vehicle headlights to focus the light from the headlight. The light is not as diffused and the driver can see better at night. 10. Concave mirrors are used to focus light for heating purposes.

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CHAPTER 6: PRESSURE COOKERS, DTH TV, RADAR, OVEN, NIGHT VISION GOGGLES, REFRIGERATION
Pressure cooking is the process of cooking food, using water or other cooking liquid, in a sealed vessel known as a pressure cooker, which does not permit air or liquids to escape below a pre-set pressure. Pressure cookers are used for cooking food quicker than conventional cooking methods, which also saves energy. Pressure cookers heat food quickly because the internal steam pressure from the boiling liquid causes saturated steam (or "wet steam") to bombard and permeate the food.Thus, higher temperature water vapour (i.e., increased energy), which transfers heat more rapidly compared to dry air, cooks food very quickly. Pressure cooking allows food to be cooked with greater humidity and higher temperatures than possible with conventional boiling or steaming methods. In an ordinary non-pressurised cooking vessel, the boiling point of water is 100 C (212 F) at standard pressure; the temperature of food is limited by the boiling point of water because excess heat causes boiling water to vaporize into steam. In a sealed pressure cooker, the boiling point of water increases as the pressure rises, resulting in superheated water. At a pressure of 15 psi (103 kPa) above atmospheric pressure, water in a pressure cooker can reach a temperature of up to 121 C (250 F). Some foods are not recommended for pressure cooking in liquid. Such foods could expand too much, froth, and sputter, which can result in blocking the steam vent. Examples include macaroni, cranberries, and cereals such as oatmeal.

DTH TV- DIRECT TO HOME TELEVISION

DTH stands for Direct-To-Home. DTH is defined as the reception of satellite programmes with a personal dish in an individual home. DTH does away with the need for the local cable operator and puts the broadcaster directly in touch with the consumer. Only cable operators can receive satellite programmes and they then distribute them to individual homes. A DTH network consists of a broadcasting centre, satellites, encoders, multiplexers, modulators and DTH receivers. A DTH service provider has to lease Ku-band transponders from the satellite. The encoder converts the audio, video and data signals into the digital format and the multiplexer mixes these signals. At the user end, there will be a small dish antenna and set-top boxes to decode and view numerous channels. On the user's end, receiving dishes can be as small as 45 cm in diametre. www.jagranjosh.com
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The way DTH reaches a consumer's home is different from the way cable TV does. In DTH, TV channels would be transmitted from the satellite to a small dish antenna mounted on the window or rooftop of the subscriber's home. So the broadcaster directly connects to the user. The middlemen like local cable operators are not there in the picture. DTH can also reach the remotest of areas since it does away with the intermediate step of a cable operator and the wires (cables) that come from the cable operator to your house. As we explained above, in DTH signals directly come from the satellite to your DTH dish. Also, with DTH, a user can scan nearly 700 channels!

RADAR
Radar is an object detection system which uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish or antenna transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves which bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's energy to a dish or antenna which is usually located at the same site as the transmitter. Radar was secretly developed by several nations before and during World War II. The term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air traffic control, radar astronomy, airdefense systems, antimissile systems; marine radars to locate landmarks and other ships; aircraft anticollision systems; ocean surveillance systems, outer space surveillance and rendezvous systems; meteorological precipitation monitoring; altimetry and flight control systems; guided missile target locating systems; and ground-penetrating radar for geological observations. High tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing and are capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels. Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One example is "lidar", which uses visible light from lasers rather than radio waves. The first use of radar was for military purposes: to locate air, ground and sea targets. This evolved in the civilian field into applications for aircraft, ships, and roads. The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively long ranges ranges at which other electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, are too strongly attenuated. Such weather phenomena as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet that block visible light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain radio frequencies that are www.jagranjosh.com
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absorbed or scattered by water vapor, raindrops, or atmospheric gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars, except when their detection is intended.

REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration is a process in which work is done to move heat from one location to another. The work of heat transport is traditionally driven by mechanical work, but can also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to: household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning. Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to refrigeration units. The measured capacity of refrigeration is always dimensioned in units of power. Domestic and commercial refrigerators may be rated in kJ/s, or Btu/h of cooling. For commercial and industrial refrigeration systems, most of the world uses the kilowatt (kW) as the basic unit of refrigeration. Typically, commercial and industrial refrigeration systems in North America are rated in tons of refrigeration (TR). A refrigeration system's coefficient of performance (CoP) is very important in determining a system's overall efficiency.

METHODS OF REFRIGERATION CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS NON-CYCLIC, CYCLIC, THERMOELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC

In non-cyclic refrigeration, cooling is accomplished by melting ice or by subliming dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide). These methods are used for small-scale refrigeration such as in laboratories and workshops, or in portable coolers. This consists of a refrigeration cycle, where heat is removed from a low-temperature space or source and rejected to a high-temperature sink with the help of external work, and its inverse, the thermodynamic power cycle. The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems.

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CHAPTER 7: SOLAR COOKER, THERMOFLASK, CAR ENGINE RADIATOR, AIR CONDITIONERS

SOLAR COOKER
A solar cooker, or solar oven, is a device which uses the energy of direct sunlight to heat, cook or pasteurize food or drink. The vast majority of solar cookers presently in use are relatively cheap, low-tech devices. Because they use no fuel and cost nothing to operate, many nonprofit organizations are promoting their use worldwide in order to help reduce fuel costs (for lowincome people) and air pollution, and to slow down the deforestation and desertification caused by gathering firewood for cooking. Solar cooking is a form of outdoor cooking and is often used in situations where minimal fuel consumption is important, or the danger of accidental fires is high.

SIMPLE SOLAR COOKERS USE THE FOLLOWING BASIC PRINCIPLES

Concentrating sunlight: A reflective mirror of polished glass, metal or metallised film concentrates light and heat from the sun on a small cooking area, making the energy more concentrated and increasing its heating power. Converting light to heat: A black or low reflectivity surface on a food container or the inside of a solar cooker improves the effectiveness of turning light into heat. Light absorption converts the sun's visible light into heat, substantially improving the effectiveness of the cooker. Trapping heat: It is important to reduce convection by isolating the air inside the cooker from the air outside the cooker. A plastic bag or tightly sealed glass cover traps the hot air inside. This makes it possible to reach temperatures on cold and windy days similar to those possible on hot days. Greenhouse effect: Glass transmits visible light but blocks infrared thermal radiation from escaping. This amplifies the heat trapping effect. Solar cookers use no fuel, which means that their users do not need to fetch or pay for firewood, gas, electricity, or other fuels. Therefore, over time a solar cooker can pay for itself in reduced fuel costs. Since it reduces firewood use, the solar cooker reduces deforestation and habitat loss. Since there are about 2 billion people who are still cooking on open fires, widespread use of solar cookers could have large economic and environmental benefits. Solar box cookers attain temperatures of up to about 165 C (325 F), so they can be used to sterilize water or prepare most foods that can be made in a conventional oven or stove, from baked bread to steamed vegetables to roasted meat. When solar ovens are placed outside, they do not contribute unwanted heat inside houses.

THERMOFLASK
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Is an insulating storage vessel that greatly lengthens the time over which its contents remain hotter or cooler than the flask's surroundings. Invented by Sir James Dewar in 1892, the vacuum flask consists of two flasks, placed one within the other and joined at the neck. The gap between the two flasks is partially evacuated of air, creating a near-vacuum which prevents heat transfer by conduction or convection.

AIR CONDITIONERS
Air conditioning is the process of altering the properties of air (primarily temperature and humidity) to more favorable conditions. More generally, air conditioning can refer to any form of technological cooling, heating, ventilation, or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. An air conditioner (often referred to as air con, AC or A/C, and not to be confused with the abbreviation for alternating current) is a major or home appliance, system, or mechanism designed to change the air temperature and humidity within an area (used for cooling and sometimes heating depending on the air properties at a given time). The cooling is typically done using a simple refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation is used, commonly for comfort cooling in buildings and motor vehicles. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as "HVAC".

AIR CONDITIONERS HAVE THE FOLLOWING USES

Air-conditioning engineers broadly divide air-conditioning applications into what they call comfort and process applications. Comfort applications aim to provide a building indoor environment that remains relatively constant despite changes in external weather conditions or in internal heat loads. Air conditioning makes deep plan buildings feasible, for otherwise they would have to be built narrower or with light wells so that inner spaces received sufficient outdoor air via natural ventilation. Air conditioning also allows buildings to be taller, since wind speed increases significantly with altitude making natural ventilation impractical for very tall buildings. Comfort applications are quite different for various building types and may be categorized as:

Low-rise residential buildings, including single family houses, duplexes, and small apartment buildings High-rise residential buildings, such as tall dormitories and apartment blocks Commercial buildings, which are built for commerce, including offices, malls, shopping centers, restaurants, etc. Institutional buildings, which includes government buildings, hospitals, schools, etc. Industrial spaces where thermal comfort of workers is desired. Sports stadiums: recently, stadiums have been built with air conditioning, such as the University of Phoenix Stadium and in Qatar for the 2022 FIFA World Cup.

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CHAPTER 8: CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND HEAT, ELECTRONIC THERMOMETER, RADIATION

HEAT
Heat is energy transferred from one body to another by thermal interactions.The transfer of energy can occur in a variety of ways, among them conduction, radiation, and convection. Heat is not a property of a system or body, but instead is always associated with a process of some kind, and is synonymous with heat flow and heat transfer. The SI unit of heat is the joule. Heat can be measured by calorimetry, or determined indirectly by calculations based on other quantities, relying for instance on the first law of thermodynamics. In calorimetry, the concepts of latent heat and of sensible heat are used. Latent heat produces changes of state without temperature change, while sensible heat produces temperature change. The transfer of heat from a warm object to a cooler one takes place by one of three methods or a combination thereof. These methods are: conduction, convection or radiation.

CONDUCTION
Conduction of heat occurs when faster moving molecules pass on some of their energy to adjacent molecules which are slower-moving, i.e. at a lower temperature. This may occur within a solid or between a solid and an adjacent fluid such as air. In any heated building or enclosure, heat is conducted or transmitted from the warm inside air to the inside surfaces, then through the wall or roof, to the cooler outside surface and on to the outside air.

CONVECTION
Convection transfer of heat involves the mixing of warm and cool particles of fluid. The mixing may come as a result of density differences due to temperature differences which is natural convection, or, if the mixing is produced by mechanical means, forced convection. In a heated building, convection losses occur when cold outside air enters a building, mixes with the warmer inside air, and then exits through an exhauster or through doors, cracks, etc.

RADIATION
Heat transfer by radiation differs from the transfer of heat by conduction or convection in that it does not need matter to accomplish the transfer. Radiated heat is usually termed infra-red. This is just one of the several forms of radiation. Infra-red is transmitted at the speed of light, 186,000 miles per second, in a straight line with minimal loss to the air. It can be aimed, reflected or focused by materials that have a highly reflective surface, bright aluminum, for example. When infra-red strikes an absorptive object such as concrete, wood, water, paint, www.jagranjosh.com
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skin or clothing it is converted into heat at the surface. Surrounding air is then warmed by conduction and convection. The best example of this transfer of heat is from the sun to the earth without loss of heat to outer space. Radiation or infra-red energy is emitted by all matter that is above absolute zero (-460F). The net transfer of heat is from one object to a cooler object. Warm objects, including people inside a heated building lose or radiate heat to the cooler inside surfaces of the walls. The walls conduct heat to the outside surface and then lose heat by radiation, conduction and convection to the outside.

LATENT HEAT
Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a body or a thermodynamic system during a process that occurs without a change in temperature. A typical example is a change of state of matter, meaning a phase transition such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water.

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CHAPTER 9: DENSITIES, SURFACE TENSION, VISCOSITY

DENSITIES
Densities-The mass density or density of a material is its mass per unit volume. The symbol most often used for density is (the lower case Greek letter rho). Mathematically, density is defined as mass divided by volume:

Where is the density, m is the mass, and V is the volume. Different materials usually have different densities, so density is an important concept regarding buoyancy, purity and packaging. Less dense fluids float on more dense fluids if they do not mix. This concept can be extended, with some care, to less dense solids floating on more dense fluids. If the average density (including any air below the waterline) of an object is less than water it will float in water and if it is more than water's it will sink in water. The mass density of a material varies with temperature and pressure. (The variance is typically small for solids and liquids and much greater for gasses.) Increasing the pressure on an object decreases the volume of the object and therefore increase its density. Increasing the temperature of a substance (with some exceptions) decreases its density by increasing the volume of that substance. In most materials, heating the bottom of fluid results in convection of the heat from bottom to top of the material. This causes it to rise relative to more dense unheated material.

SURFACE TENSION
Surface tension-Surface tension is a contractive tendency of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external force. It is revealed, for example, in the floating of some objects on the surface of water, even though they are denser than water, and in the ability of some insects (e.g. water striders) to run on the water surface. This property is caused by cohesion of similar molecules, and is responsible for many of the behaviors of liquids. Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length, or of energy per unit area. The two are equivalentbut when referring to energy per unit of area, people use the term surface

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energywhich is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids and not just liquids. In materials science, surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy. The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension. In the bulk of the liquid, each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules, resulting in a net force of zero. The molecules at the surface do not have other molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards. This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area. Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena, especially when surfactants are used to decrease it:

Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Notice that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more. Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role. Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses. But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension, which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water (or vice versa). Several effects of surface tension can be seen with ordinary water: A. Beading of rain water on a waxy surface, such as a leaf. Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself, so water clusters into drops. Surface tension gives them their near-spherical shape, because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio. B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched. The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer bind it to the faucet. It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere. If a stream of water were running from the faucet, the stream would break up into drops during its fall. Gravity stretches the stream, then surface tension pinches it into spheres. C. Flotation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension. For example, water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond. The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film: the insect's feet cause indentations in the water's surface, increasing its surface area. D. Separation of oil and water (in this case, water and liquid wax) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids. This type of surface tension is called "interface tension", but its physics are the same. E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage. Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface General Science
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tensions of water and ethanol; it is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water.

VISCOSITYThe viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress or tensile stress. For liquids, it corresponds to the informal notion of "thickness". For example, honey has a higher viscosity than water. Viscosity is due to friction between neighboring parcels of the fluid that are moving at different velocities. When fluid is forced through a tube, the fluid generally moves faster near the axis and very little near the walls, therefore some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between layers and keep the fluid moving. For the same velocity pattern, the stress is proportional to the fluid's viscosity. A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. In the real world, zero viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures, in superfluids. Otherwise all fluids have positive viscosity. If the viscosity is very high, such as in pitch, the fluid will seem to be a solid in the short term. In common usage, a liquid whose viscosity is less than that of water is known as a mobile liquid, while a substance with a viscosity substantially greater than water is simply called a viscous liquid.

THE WORKING PRINCIPLES BEHIND ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES

A satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavor. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon. To place a satellite at a height of 300 km, the launching velocity should at least be about 8.5 km s-1 or 30600 kmph. If this high velocity is given to the rocket at the surface of the Earth, the rocket will be burnt due to air friction. Moreover, such high velocities cannot be developed by single rocket. Hence, multistage rockets are used. To be placed in an orbit, a satellite must be raised to the desired height and given the correct speed and direction by the launching rocket At lift off, the rocket, with a manned or unmanned satellite on top, is held down by clamps on the launching pad. Now the exhaust gases builtup an upward thrust which exceeds the rocket's weight. The clamps are then removed by remote control and the rocket accelerates upwards. To penetrate the dense lower part of the atmosphere, initially the rocket rises vertically and then tilted by a guidance system. The first stage rocket, which may burn for about 2 minutes producing a speed of 3 km s-1, lifts the vehicle to a height of about 60 km and then separates and falls back to the Earth. The vehicle now goes to its orbital height, say 160 km, where it moves horizontally for a moment. Then the second stage of the rocket fires and increases the speed that is necessary for a circular orbit. By firing small rockets with remote control system, the satellite is separated from the second stage and made to revolve in its orbit.

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CHAPTER 10: NEWTON'S PRACTICAL APPLICATION

LAWS

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THEIR

Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis for classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several different ways over nearly three centuries, and can be summarized as follows: 1. First law: If there is no net force on an object, then its velocity is constant. The object is either at rest (if its velocity is equal to zero), or it moves with constant speed in a single direction. 2. Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional to the net force F acting on the body, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e., F = ma. 3. Third law: When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force F2 = F1 on the first body. This means that F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Newton's law of universal gravitation states that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Every point mass attracts every single other point mass by a force pointing along the line intersecting both points. The force is proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:

Where:

F is the force between the masses, G is the gravitational constant, m1 is the first mass, m2 is the second mass, and r is the distance between the centers of the masses.

EVERYDAY APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON'S FIRST LAW

There are many applications of Newton's first law of motion. Consider some of your experiences in an automobile. Have you ever observed the behavior of coffee in a coffee cup filled to the rim while starting a car from rest or while bringing a car to rest from a state of

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motion? Coffee "keeps on doing what it is doing." When you accelerate a car from rest, the road provides an unbalanced force on the spinning wheels to push the car forward; yet the coffee (that was at rest) wants to stay at rest. While the car accelerates forward, the coffee remains in the same position; subsequently, the car accelerates out from under the coffee and the coffee spills in your lap. On the other hand, when braking from a state of motion the coffee continues forward with the same speed and in the same direction, ultimately hitting the windshield or the dash. Coffee in motion stays in motion. Have you ever experienced inertia (resisting changes in your state of motion) in an automobile while it is braking to a stop? The force of the road on the locked wheels provides the unbalanced force to change the car's state of motion, yet there is no unbalanced force to change your own state of motion. Thus, you continue in motion, sliding along the seat in forward motion. A person in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction ... unless acted upon by the unbalanced force of a seat belt. Yes! Seat belts are used to provide safety for passengers whose motion is governed by Newton's laws. The seat belt provides the unbalanced force that brings you from a state of motion to a state of rest. Perhaps you could speculate what would occur when no seat belt is used. There are many more applications of Newton's first law of motion. Several applications are listed below. Perhaps you could think about the law of inertia and provide explanations for each application.

Blood rushes from your head to your feet while quickly stopping when riding on a descending elevator. The head of a hammer can be tightened onto the wooden handle by banging the bottom of the handle against a hard surface. A brick is painlessly broken over the hand of a physics teacher by slamming it with a hammer. (CAUTION: do not attempt this at home!) To dislodge ketchup from the bottom of a ketchup bottle, it is often turned upside down and thrusted downward at high speeds and then abruptly halted. Headrests are placed in cars to prevent whiplash injuries during rear-end collisions. While riding a skateboard (or wagon or bicycle), you fly forward off the board when hitting a curb or rock or other object that abruptly halts the motion of the skateboard.

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UNIT 3 CHEMISTRY

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CHAPTER 1: THE THREE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

- The first law of thermodynamics, also called conservation of energy, states that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant. This means that all of the energy has to end up somewhere, either in the original form or in a different from. We can use this knowledge to determine the amount of energy in a system, the amount lost as waste heat, and the efficiency of the system. -The second law of thermodynamics states that the disorder in the universe always increases. After cleaning your room, it always has a tendency to become messy again. This is a result of the second law. As the disorder in the universe increases, the energy is transformed into less usable forms. Thus, the efficiency of any process will always be less than 100%. - The third law of thermodynamics tells us that all molecular movement stops at a temperature we call absolute zero, or 0 Kelvin (-273oC). Since temperature is a measure of molecular movement, there can be no temperature lower than absolute zero. At this temperature, a perfect crystal has no disorder.

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CHAPTER 2: POLYSACCHARIDES-USE AND SOURCES

Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules of repeated monomer units joined together by glycosidic bonds. They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their monosaccharide building blocks. They may be amorphous or even insoluble in water. When all the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are the same type, the polysaccharide is called a homopolysaccharide or homoglycan, but when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are called heteropolysaccharides or heteroglycans. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin. Polysaccharides have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y where x is usually a large number between 200 and 2500. Considering that the repeating units in the polymer backbone are often sixcarbon monosaccharides, the general formula can also be represented as (C6H10O5)n Sources of Polysaccharides-Glycogen (cereals, tubers, roots, banana, sweet potatoes, yams, beans) Starch (bread, fruit, grain, rice, pasta),Cellulose (crisp fruits and vegetables)

FUNCTIONS OF POLYSACCHARIDES:
Basic energy sources for living organisms GLYCOGEN- an energy reserve, (stored in liver), can break down into glucose when it is needed -Precursors for other biologically important molecules---i.e. mono saccharides are used to make other molecules like glycerol and fatty acids and some amino acids. -Cellulose-structural material in plants (not in syllabus)

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CHAPTER 3: BIOTECH APPLICATIONS

NANOTECH

AND

THEIR

Biotechnology is the use of living systems and organisms to develop or make useful products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity). For thousands of years, humankind has used biotechnology in agriculture, food production and medicine. Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, cleanup sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons. A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology; for example: Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale." Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare. Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants viamicropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

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Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation. White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.

MEDICINE
In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as drug production pharmacogenomics gene therapy genetic testing (or genetic screening): techniques in molecular biology detect genetic diseases. To test the developing fetus for Down syndrome, Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling can be used. DNA microarray chip some can do as many as a million blood tests at once

PHARMACOGENOMICS
Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body's response to drugs. It is a compound derived from the root of the word "pharmacology" plus the word "genomics". It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person's genetic makeup. Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits: 1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells. 2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient's genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose. 3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as

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targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process. 4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once. Diseases, and Rituximab, a chimeric monoclonal antibody used in the treatment of cancer. Due to their larger size, and corresponding difficulty with surviving the stomach, colon and liver, biopharmaceuticals are typically injected. Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary cells (CHO), are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals. Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.

NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology (sometimes shortened to "nanotech") is the manipulation of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. The earliest, widespread description of nanotechnology referred to the particular technological goal of precisely manipulating atoms and molecules for fabrication of macroscale products, also now referred to as molecular nanotechnology.

THE APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY

Nanotechnology may be able to create many new materials and devices with a vast range of applications, such as in medicine, electronics, biomaterials and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as any new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials, and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted. Nanotechnology can be helpful in

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1) Reduction of energy consumption 2) Increasing the efficiency of energy production 3) Nuclear accident cleanup and waste storage

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4) In creating Nano-foods The most prominent application of nanotechnology in the household is self-cleaning or "easy-to-clean" surfaces on ceramics or glasses 5) It is also used in manufacturing stain-repellent and wrinkle free textiles. 6) In making sunscreens. 7) In manufacturing sports goods. 8) In aircraft manufacturing 9) Nanotechnology is also used in fire protection and detection

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CHAPTER 4: EMULSION AND GELS

An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that are normally immiscible (nonmixable or unblendable). Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion should be used when both the dispersed and the continuous phase are liquids. In an emulsion, one liquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other (the continuous phase). Examples of emulsions include vinaigrettes, milk, mayonnaise, and some cutting fluids for metal working. The photo-sensitive side of photographic film is an example of a colloid. Emulsion stability refers to the ability of an emulsion to resist change in its properties over time. There are four types of instability in emulsions: flocculation, creaming, coalescence and Ostwald ripening. Flocculation occurs when there is an attractive force between the droplets, so they form flocs, like bunches of grapes. Coalescence occurs when droplets bump into each other and combine to form a larger droplet, so the average droplet size increases over time. Emulsions can also undergo creaming, where the droplets rise to the top of the emulsion under the influence of buoyancy, or under the influence of the centripetal force induced when a centrifuge is used.

OIL-IN-WATER EMULSIONS
Crema (foam) in espresso coffee oil in water (brewed coffee), unstable emulsion Mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce these are oil-in-water emulsions that are stabilized with egg yolk lecithin, or with other types of food additives, such as sodium stearoyl lactylate Homogenized milk an emulsion of milk fat in water and milk proteins Water-in-oil emulsions Butter an emulsion of water in butterfat Vinaigrette an emulsion of vegetable oil in vinegar. If this is prepared using only oil and vinegar (i.e. without an emulsifier), an unstable emulsion results In pharmaceutics, hairstyling, personal hygiene, and cosmetics, emulsions are frequently used. These are usually oil and water emulsions, but which is dispersed and which is continuously depends in many cases on the pharmaceutical formulation. These emulsions may be called creams, ointments, liniments (balms), pastes, films, or liquids, depending mostly on their oil-towater ratios, other additives, and their intended route of administration.

EMULSION IS ALSO USED IN FIREFIGHTING.

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Examples of food emulsifiers are:

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Egg yolk in which the main emulsifying agent is lecithin. In fact, lecithos is the Greek word for egg yolk. Mustard where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers Proteins Low molecular weight emulsifiers Soy lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener Pickering stabilization uses particles under certain circumstances sodium stearoyl lactylate DATEM (Diacetyl Tartaric (Acid) Ester of Monoglyceride) an emulsifier primarily used in baking Detergents are another class of surfactants, and will physically interact with both oil and water, thus stabilizing the interface between the oil and water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in soap, to remove grease for the purpose of cleaning. Many different emulsifiers are used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creams and lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax, cetearyl alcohol, polysorbate, and ceteareth. Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier, and the result is a nanoemulsion, where the inner state disperses into "nano-size" droplets within the outer phase. A well-known example of this phenomenon, the Ouzo effect, happens when water is poured into a strong alcoholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, arak, or raki. The anisolic compounds, which are soluble in ethanol, then form nano-size droplets and emulsify within the water. The resulting color of the drink is opaque and milky white.

GEL
A gel is a solid, jelly-like material that can have properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when in the steady-state. By weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids due to a three-dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. It is the crosslinking within the fluid that gives a gel its structure (hardness) and contributes to the adhesive stick. In this way gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in which the solid is the continuous phase and the liquid is the discontinuous phase. Gels consist of a solid three-dimensional network that spans the volume of a liquid medium and ensnares it through surface tension effects. This internal network structure may result from physical bonds (physical gels) or chemical bonds (chemical gels), as well as crystallites or other junctions that remain intact within the extending fluid. Virtually any fluid can be used as an extender including water (hydrogels), oil, and air (aerogel). Both by weight and volume, gels are mostly fluid in composition and thus exhibit densities similar to those of their constituent liquids. Edible jelly is a common example of a hydrogel and has approximately the density of water.

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CHAPTER 5: COLLOIDS-BASIC DEFINITION, TABLE OF TYPES OF COLLOIDAL SYSTEM

A colloid is a Suspestion microscopically dispersed throughout another substance. A colloidal system consists of two separate phases: a dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous phase (or dispersion medium) in which the colloid is dispersed. A colloidal system may be solid, liquid, or gas. Classification Based on Physical State of Dispersed Phase and Dispersion Medium. Depending upon the physical state of the dispersed phase and dispersion medium, eight types of colloidal systems are possible. These are described in the table given below: Depending upon the affinity of the dispersed phase for the dispersion medium, colloidal systems can be classified into following two categories. (i) Lyophilic sols (ii) Lyophobic sols

Classification of Colloids Based on Type of Particles of the Dispersed PHASE: Multimolecular, Macromolecular and Associated Colloids We have already seen that the colloidal particles present in a colloidal system have size lying in the range 1nm-100nm. Depending upon how different substances forming colloidal solution acquire the size of particles in this range, colloidal solutions may be classified into the following three categories. (i) Multimolecular colloids (ii)Macromolecular colloids (iii) Associated colloids

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CHAPTER 6: BASICS OF METAL EXTRACTION, PETROLEUM, STEEL, RUSTING, CEMENT GLASS

Metal extraction: It can be defined as the separation of metals in a pure or relatively pure state from the minerals in which they naturally occur. The earth's crust is the biggest source of metals. Some soluble salts of the metals are also found in sea-water. Metals occur in nature sometimes free but mostly in combined state. The natural mode of occurrence of a metals is largely dependent on its nature. Those metals which are least reactive and have little or no affinity for oxygen, moisture and other chemical reagents occur in free or metallic or native state i.e., in uncombined state. Most of the metals are reactive and hence are found in combined state i.e., as compounds. The natural substances in which the metals or their compounds occur in the earth are called minerals. The mineral has a definite composition. It may be a single compound or a complex mixture. The minerals from which the metals can be conveniently and economically extracted are known as ores. All the ores are minerals but all minerals cannot be ores. For example, both bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O) and clay (Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O) are minerals of aluminium. It is bauxite which is used for extraction of aluminium and not clay. Thus, bauxite is an ore of aluminium.

PETROLEUM
Petroleum is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. The name Petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil fuel, it is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and undergo intense heat and pressure. Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling

COMPOUNDS
Steel Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, principally carbon. When carbon is the primary alloying element, its content in the steel is between 0.002% and 2.1% by weight. The following elements are always present in steel: carbon, manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and

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traces of oxygen, nitrogen and aluminum. Alloying elements intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel are: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium and niobium. Rusting The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons from iron to oxygen. The rate of corrosion is affected by water and accelerated by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt on the corrosion of automobiles. Rust is composed of iron oxides. In colloquial usage, the term is applied to red oxides, formed by the reaction of iron and oxygen in the presence of water or air moisture. Other forms of rust exist, like the result of reactions between iron and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen rebar used in underwater concrete pillars is an example which generates green rust. Several forms of rust are distinguishable visually and by spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances. Rust consists of hydrated iron (III) oxides Fe2O3nH2O and iron (III) oxide -hydroxide FeO(OH)Fe(OH)3. Given sufficient time, oxygen, and water, any iron mass will eventually convert entirely to rust and disintegrate. Surface rust is flaky and friable, and provides no protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper surfaces. Rusting is the common term for corrosion of iron and its alloys, such as steel. Cement Glass: A binding mixture used to affix glass to glass or to some other material (as metal)

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CHAPTER 7: CARBON, ITS COMPOUNDS ALLOTROPES, CARBON CYCLES

AND

Carbon is the chemical element with symbol C and atomic number 6. As a member of group 14 on the periodic table, it is nonmetallic and tetravalent making four electrons available to form covalent chemical bonds. There are three naturally occurring isotopes, with 12C and 13C being stable, while 14C is radioactive, decaying with a half-life of about 5,730 years. Carbon is one of the few elements known since antiquity. Carbon is the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust, and the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. It is present in all known life forms, and in the human body carbon is the second most abundant element by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen. This abundance, together with the unique diversity of organic compounds and their unusual polymer-forming ability at the temperatures commonly encountered on Earth, make this element the chemical basis of all known life. Carbon is the fourth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the Sun, stars, comets, and in the atmospheres of most planets. Some meteorites contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the solar system was still a protoplanetary disk. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts.

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CHAPTER 8: OXIDATION-REDUCTION MECHANISM AND EXAMPLES

Oxidation is usually used to describe a process in which electrons are removed from a molecule or atom. Reduction is used to describe a process in which electrons are added to a molecule or atom. Oxidation means the addition of oxygen to a molecule or the removal of hydrogen from a molecule. Reduction means the addition of hydrogen to a molecule or the removal of oxygen from a molecule. Let's look at some examples:

What about a reaction in which both oxygen and hydrogen are added or subtracted. If the ratio is one oxygen to two hydrogens (in other words, water), neither oxidation or reduction is happening. Addition or removal of water does not involve, by itself, an oxidation or a reduction reaction. The addition of water to an aldehyde to form a hydrate does not involve oxidation or reduction. You may wish to look at the formation of an acetal or hemiacetal in this way. If the net change in the number of hydrogens and oxygens comes out to be a ratio of two hydrogens to one oxygen, neither oxidation nor reduction is involved.

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CHAPTER 9: CONCEPT OF SOLUBILITY

Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous solvent to form a homogeneous solution of the solute in the solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the physical and chemical properties of the used solute and solvent as well as on temperature, pressure and the pH of the solution. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a specific solvent is measured as the saturation concentration, where adding more solute does not increase the concentration of the solution and begin to precipitate the excess amount of solute. Most often, the solvent is a liquid, which can be a pure substance or a mixture. One may also speak of solid solution, but rarely of solution in a gas (see vapor-liquid equilibrium instead). The extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble (without limit) (fully miscible) such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term insoluble is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds. Under certain conditions, the equilibrium solubility can be exceeded to give a so-called supersaturated solution, which is metastable. Solubility is not to be confused with the ability to dissolve or liquefy a substance, because the solution might occur not only because of dissolution but also because of a chemical reaction. For example zinc, which is insoluble in hydrochloric acid, does dissolve in hydrochloric acid but by chemical reaction into hydrogen gas and zinc chloride, which in turn is soluble in the acid. Solubility does not also depend on particle size or other kinetic factors; given enough time, even large particles will eventually dissolve. Solubility is defined for specific phases. For example, the solubility of aragonite and calcite in water are expected to differ, even though they are both polymorphs of calcium carbonate and have the same chemical formula. The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute, and the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility. Solubility may also strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example, complex-forming anions (ligands) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect. To a lesser extent, solubility will depend on the ionic strength of solutions. The last two effects can be quantified using the equation for solubility equilibrium.

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CHAPTER 10: USE OF CHEMICAL COMPOUND

A chemical compound is a pure chemical substance consisting of two or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical reactions. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure; they consist of a fixed ratio of atoms that are held together in a defined spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Chemical compounds can be molecular compounds held together by covalent bonds, salts held together by ionic bonds, intermetallic compounds held together by metallic bonds, or complexes held together by coordinate covalent bonds. Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, even if they consist of molecules which contain only multiple atoms of a single element (such as H2, S8, etc.), which are called diatomic molecules or polyatomic molecules. Here are some examples of Chemical compounds and their uses: Sodium fluoride (NaF) in toothpaste Sodium lauryl sulphate (C12H25SO4Na) in soap Sucrose (C12H22O11) in foods Titanium dioxide (TiO2) as white pigment in paint Vinegar (CH3COOH, acetic acid; ethanoic acid) in foods Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in bleach Sodium nitrate (NaNO3) in fertiliser Phosphoric acid (H3PO4) in cola Ethanol (CH3CH2OH) in alcoholic drinks Methane (CH4) to burn for fuel in gas boilers and hobs Butane (C4H10) as lighter fuel Octane (C8H18) as automobile fuel Phenol (C6H5OH) in antiseptics

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UNIT- 4 AGRICULTURE

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CHAPTER 1: TYPE OF PLANTS, MEDICINAL PLANTS, BIO INSECTICIDES

Plants are the fundamental building blocks of life on earth. Plants are life forms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. The scientific study has revealed at least 500,000 species of plants. The types of plants vary in size from microscopic algae, to huge sequoia trees more than 8m (26 ft) tall. Plant Kingdom is mainly classified into two. This type of plant classification is done according to how they reproduce. Spore bearing plants (Algae, mosses, ferns and their relatives) Seed bearing plants (Conifers and flowering plants)

The plant kingdom can also be classified on the basis of the presence or absence of conductive (vascular) tissue. Ferns (pteridophytes), gymnosperms and angiosperms have vascular tissue which transports the nutrients and water through the plant. They are collectively known as tracheophytes. Mosses, liverworts, hornworts (bryophytes) are non-vascular i.e. they do not have conductive tissue to transport sugar, water and nutrients.

SPORE BEARING PLANTS

Algae, mosses, ferns and their genus all reproduce by means of spores. These are minute and are formed inside the sporangia that look like fine powder. Each spore contains a small quantity of vital genetic matter in a compact sheathe.

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Algae The simplest plants of this type is algae. They do not have leaves,stems or roots.Algae thrive in a moist or wet environment. Many are tiny single celled plants, but some seaweeds are huge.

Mosses Mosses and most liverworts have simple stems and tiny, slender leaves. They can be found growing on the plain land, on rocks, and on other plants. They habitually live in mild, damp regions, but some can live in very cold places.

Ferns Ferns are the most superior spore bearing type of plants. Many ferns grow in cool, dry places but the largest ones are found in the hot, damp tropic regions. Around 15,000 species of ferns are there in existence now according to scientific researches. Seed Bearing Plants Plants that reproduce by means of seeds belong to this type of plants. Conifers or gymnosperms and flowering plants or gymnosperms reproduce by seeds. Each seed contains an emryo and a food supply. This is enclosed by a seed covering. A germinating seed is nourished by the food treasury until it can start to make its own. Conifers or Gymnosperms Gymnosperms or conifers are plants that have cones instead of flowers. Their seeds grow within female cones. The seeds develop on scales inside cones. The majority of gymnosperms are trees or shrubs. The cones are not as diverse as flowers but they can be brilliantly coloured and attractive.

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Flowering plants or Angiosperms

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Angiosperms or flowering plants are the most varied set of land vegetation. There are at least 250,000 kinds of flowering plants identified till now. The distinguishing trait of flowering plants or angiosperms is the flower. The chief role of the flower is to make certain that fertilization of the ovule occur and that result in the growth of fruit containing seeds.

MONOCOTYLEDONS AND DICOTYLEDONS

Flowering plants or angiosperms have either one or two cotyledons. Monocotyledons (one seed leaf) have floral parts in multiple of three. Dicotyledons( two seed leaves) have floral parts usually in multiple of four or five. In the figure, left side plant is monocotyledon and right is dicotyledon.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF PLANTS

Annuals: Annuals are one type of plants based on the Latin word. They live for one year hence they have very short period of life. These plants are grown for their colored look. These annuals flower for only less than four months which grow through the seeds. Example for this type of plant is Asters, Phlox, Balsam, Dianthus, and Cosmos. Biennials: This is one type of plants which grows from the seeds and it takes two years for growing. This name is derived from the Latin word bennis. This type of plant is also a seasonal flowering plants which gives flower only in the second year after planting. Thes plants are considered as the short lived perennials. Example for this type of plant is Foxglove, wildpretti and some others. Perennials: This type of plant lives for many years. This type of plant keeps on flowering for long years. This type does not need any replanting and they can change the layout of garden. In this type we should provide deep watering which improve the deep rooting and also help in the reduction of the diseases. Example of this type is Water lily, Gerberas, Geraniums and Anthuriums. Shrubs: Shrubs are the plants which are smaller than the trees and they are considered as the woody plants. These shrubs have the short stem which occurs near the ground.

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Flowering shrubs:

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This type of shrubs produces flowers continuously throughout the year. These shrubs are long lived shrubs and are grown for designing the garden. Examples are Mosanda, Pentas, Ixora. Ornamental shrubs: These shrubs do not produce flowers but these are used for creating the ornamental look. These shrubs can be modified into various shapes and sizes. Examples are Juniperus, Tuja, Aralia, Crotons. Creepers and climbers: This is another type of plants which is grown at the wall of a compound. It is also grown as the cover for the walls. Climbers: Climbers are the plants which grow with a support. This type of plant contain the soft stem hence they need a support. Both the creepers and also the climbers are grown in mixture of earth as well as manure. Bulbs: This type is planted under the soil which is in a specific stem structure and stays underground. These bulbs have a resting period whenever there is no growth. Here these plants they grow the flower which remains for some time. These plants are easy to grow and they can bloom. Examples Daffodils, Tulips, Bluebells.

MEDICINAL PLANTS: EXAMPLES AND USES

Those plants that have healing properties are termed as medicinal plants or herbs. Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines derived from natural sources, including plants. Medical herbalism is the practice of healing with medicinal plants. Some examples of Aloe vera gel is used to treat burns. Aloe Vera - Aloe is a common plant. Aloe vera gel is used to treat burns. Basil - A common garden herb. It is used to treat stomach cramps, constipation and flatulence. Calendula (AKA pot marigold) is anti-septic and is used to treat wounds as well as added to a lotion to treat chapped skin. Dill - found in most herb gardens. A decoction of dill is used to treat stomach upsets, insomnia, and flatulence. Echinacea - (AKA purple cone flower) Used as an immune system support.

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Feverfew - a small daisy like plant that is used in the treatment of migraines.

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Ginger - used to treat motion sickness Hops - used to treat anxiety and insomnia Irish moss - a form of seaweed - is used in treatment of coughs and ulcers. It is currently being studied as a treatment for influenza B and mumps because it is anti-viral. Joe Pye Weed - (AKA gravel root) used to treat kidney stones.

Bio-insecticides are organic formulations recommended for the management of insects that feed on crops. They are different from chemical pesticides in several ways. They contain live bacteria that produce toxins which cause stomach poison in the insects and kill them. The resistance power of plant pathogens increased several folds due to indiscriminate and over use of chemical pesticides. Several generic chemical pesticides became obsolete due to this reason. Bio-insecticides are the best remedies where the growers were not able to control the insects in spite of using heavy doses of chemical pesticides. They cure the plant and soil from disease causing pathogens. Unlike chemical pesticides, bio-insecticides give everlasting protection to the crop and soil. We recommend VBT, Toxin, Shock and Biostorm based on your crop and the type of insects plaguing the crops.

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UNIT-5 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

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CHAPTER 1: ANIMAL INSEMINATION

HUSBANDRY

ARTIFICIAL

The branch of agriculture is concerned with the care and breeding of domestic animals such as cattle, hogs, sheep, and horses. The contribution of animal husbandry and dairying to total gross domestic product (GDP) was 5.9 per cent in 2000-2001 at current prices. The value of output of livestock and fisheries sectors was estimated to be Rs 1,70,205 crore during 20002001, which is 30.3 per cent of the total value of output of Rs 5,61,717 crore from the agricultural and allied sectors. The Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying (AH&D) - now renamed as Department of Animal Husbandry Dairying & Fisheries (DADF) is one of the Departments in the Ministry of Agriculture and came into existence on 1st February, 1991, by converting two divisions of the Department of Agriculture and Cooperation namely Animal Husbandry and Dairy Development into a separate Department. Animal husbandry includes domestication of animals to obtain animal products like milk, meat, wool, skin and Hyde etc. and to use them for draught and transportation. These animals are cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, pig, camel, horse, mule, donkey and yak etc. India has about 500 species of animals of which only few are domesticated for different uses.

CATTLE
India has about 20 per cent of the world's cattle population. These animals are the backbone of the country's agriculture and have significant contribution in rural economy. Bullocks have major role in agricultural operations and rural goods movement and transportation while cows provide nutritious milk to enrich Indian diet. These are also good source of hides and skins for leather industry which earns substantial foreign exchange. Also cow dung is a good source of manure and domestic fuel. According to 1997 live stock census there were 198.9 million cattle in the country of which 42 per cent were bullocks, 32 per cent cows and 26 percent young livestock. There has been 28.1 per cent increase in the number of cattle between 1951 and 1997. Cattle population in India belongs to different breeds. These include: (i) milch breed, (ii) draw' breed, and (iii) mixed or general breed.

MILCH BREEDS
Here cows yield higher quantity of milk but the bullocks are not of good quality. Some important milch breeds include Gir, Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparkar and Deoni. The Gir breed is a

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native of Saurashtra ' which yields about 3175 kg of milk per lactation period. Sahiwal breed belongs to Montgomery district of Pakistan yielding 2725-4535 kg of milk per lactation period. The Sindhi and Red Sindhi breeds hail from the Sindh area of Pakistan producing about 5440 kg of milk per lactation period. The Deoni breed belongs to the western and north-western parts of Andhra Pradesh where cow yields 1580 kg of milk; per lactation period. The Tharparkar breed is also a native of Sindh area of Pakistan whose cow yields 1815 to 2720 kg of milk per lactation period.

DRAUGHT BREEDS
Here the cows are poor milkers but the bullocks are excellent draught animals. This group consists of (a) short-horned, white or light grey colour with coffin-shaped skull and face slightly convex in profile, e.g. Nagori and Bachaur; (b) the lyre horned grey coloured with wide forehead, prominent orbital arches, flat or dished profile, deep body and powerful draught capacity, e.g., Kathiawar, Malvi and Kherigarh; (c) the Mysore type characterised by prominent forehead with long and pointed horns which rise close together, e.g. Mallikar, Amritmahal, Kangyam and Killari; and (d) small black, red or dun coloured with large patches of white markings, found in the foot hill region of the Himalayas, e.g., Ponwar and Siri.

DUAL PURPOSE BREEDS

Here cows are fairly good yielders of milk and the bullocks are good for draught purposes. The group includes: (a) short-horned, white or light grey cattle with long coffin-shaped skull and face slightly convex in profile, e.g., Mariana, Ongale, Gaolo, Rath, Dangi, Krishna Valley and Nimari etc; and (b) lyre-horned, grey cattle, deep bodied with wide forehead, prominent arches, flat or dished in profile and good draught capacity, e.g., Tharparkar and Kankrej. The Mariana breed is very popular in Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar Pradesh. Bullocks are strong and useful for draught purposes and cows yield up to 5 kg. of milk per day. The Ongale belongs to Guntur and Nellore districts of Andhra Pradesh whose bullocks are heavy ploughing and carting. The Gaolo breed is indigenous to Nagpur and Wardha districts of Maharashtra and Chhindwara district of Madhya Pradesh whose cows yield about 7.5 kg of milk every day. Rath breed is an admixture of the Mariana, Nagori and Mewati breeds. Its cows give up to 5 kg of milk per day and the bullock is fit for draught work. The Dangi breed comes from Nashik, Thane, Ahmadnagar and Kolaba districts of Maharashtra. The Krishna Valley is very popular breed of north Karnataka and southern Maharashtra. Its cows provide about 916 kg of milk per lactation period while bullocks are good for agricultural work. The Nimari breed is very common in East and West Nimar districts of Madhya Pradesh whose cows yield about 915 kg of milk per lactation period. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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The Kankrej breed is indigenous to the Gujarat plains whose cows provide 4.5 to 6.5 kg of milk per day and the bullocks are sturdy for draught work. In order to improve the breed of the Indian cattle 7 central cattle breeding farms have been established. Some of the exotic breeds yielding higher quantity of milk like Jersey, HolsteinFriesian, Swiss-Brown, Gurnsey, German Fleckvich and Ayreshire have been introduced in the country which is becoming popular amongst dairy farmers. Breeds Hallikar Kangayam Red Sindhi Tharparkar Vechur Jersy Breeding Centres Remarks

Tumkur, Hassan and Draught Breed Mysore(Karnataka) Erode(Tamil Nadu) Draught Breed Dairy Breed Umarkot, Naukot, Dairy Breed Dhoro naro Chor Kerala Island of Jersy, Dairy Breed crossbreds available in all Indian states Province of North Daily Breed Holland and West Friesland

Holstein Swiss

Artificial Insemination Artificial insemination (AI) is the deliberate introduction of semen into a female's vagina or oviduct for the purpose of fertilisation by means other than ejaculation. It is the medical alternative to sexual intercourse, or natural insemination. Artificial insemination is a fertility treatment for humans, and is a common practice in the breeding of dairy cattle and pigs. Artificial insemination may employ assisted reproductive technology, donated sperm, and/or animal husbandry techniques.

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APPENDIX A: QUESTIONS (200 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS)

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APPENDIX A: QUESTIONS (200 MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS)

1. The space telescope of NASA discovered astonishing magnetic braids of super-hot matter in outer atmosphere of the Sun. Which of the following statements is true in context with this statement? a) The scientists claimed that this discovery could help in explaining the mysterious hot centre of the Sun. b) The NASAs telescope captured 1000 photograp hs depicting astonishing details. c) It was found out that the Suns surface was almost up to 6125 degrees Celsius. d) The scientists also discovered that the powerful magnetic waves which rippled from within the surface of the Sun. 2. Iran on 28 January 2013 announced that it had successfully sent into space a primate. Which primate did it send into space? a) Worms b) Monkey c) Turtle d) Mouse 3. NASA on 1 February 2013 marked 10th anniversary of which Space Shuttle? a) Columbia b) Challenger c) Both of these d) None of these 4. Scientists from NASA in the last week of January 2013 discovered an old star called TW Hydrae which they believe could create new planets even now. How old is this star? a) 100 million years old b) 50 million years old c) 20 million years old ) 10 million years old 5. The Japanese scientists from the Saitama University in the first week of February 2013 filmed for the first time, the thoughts of which animal while it was tracking its prey? a) A fish b) A zebra c) An elephant d) A snail 6. UK scientists in the third week of January 2013 discovered a set of hydrothermal vents, the deepest anywhere in the world while exploring the ocean floor in the __________. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option.

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a) Caribbean Islands b) Cayman Trough c) Atlantic d) None of these

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7. Where did the researchers in the third week of February 2013 detected water traces inside the crystalline structure? a) Mars b) Sun c) Earth d) Moon 8. The astronomers in the second week of February 2013 discovered the proof that cosmic rays originate as the results of explosions of stars or supernova, these are termed as the most energetic event in the galaxy. Who discovered the cosmic rays first in 1912? a) Eratosthenes b) Victor Hess c) Claudius Ptolemy d) Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi 9. Scientists discovered in their study that Bumblebees (Bombus terrestris) can detect the electric fields of _________. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option. a) Plants b) Vegetables c) Flowers d) Fruits 10. Where will the first wildlife skywalk of India come up? a) Shillong b) Manali c) Manipur d) Sikkim 11. NASA on 9 February 2013 announced that its Mars rover Curiosity drilled into the surface of the planet for first time. Which of the following statements is not true in context to this statement? a) As an outcome of the drilling, the pictures were sent by Curiosity which depicted a hole of around 0.63 inches wide and 2.5 inches deep in the fine-grained sedimentary bedrock. b) Engineers are absolutely clear whether the powder was produced in what quantity but it is enough for laboratory analysis. c) NASA announced that using drill was the biggest achievement for the team of Curiosity ever since the rover landed on Mars in August 2012. d) The final target of Curiosity is 3-mile- (5-km) high mound of layered sediment which rises from floor of Gale Crater landing site. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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12. A new study using data from a pair of gravity-measuring NASA satellites found on 12 February 2013 that large parts of the arid __________ region lost freshwater reserves rapidly during the past decade. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option. a) Middle East b) South Eastern c) Saudi Arabia d) North Western 13. Astronomers in the third week of February 2013 discovered six speeding stars which were racing through the space at a speed of 3.2 million kilometres per hour. The mass of these stars is equivalent to what? a) Moon b) Earth c) Milky Way d) Sun 14. NASA scientists discovered the youngest black hole in our galaxy, Milky Way in February 2013. How far is this black hole from Earth? a) 26000 light years away b) 12000 light years away c) 10000 light years away d) 25000 light years away 15. The core of Milky Way is actually cloaked in dust which makes all stars unclear from telescopes of the astronomers, except the brightest stars. But these hypervelocity stars were useful in providing a peep into _________. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option. a) Deaths of stars in Milky Way b) Birth of the stars in the universe c) Deaths of the stars around the Sun d) Formation of stars in Milky Way 16. Name the Mars rover of NASA. a) Era b) Curiosity c) Discovery d) Challenger 17. Where was the first bionic man of the world called Rex unveiled on 7 February 2013? a) London's Science Museum b) American Science Museum c) Paris Science Museum d) Europe Science Museum 18. Which of the following statements is not true? www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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a) NASA on 9 February 2013 announced that its Mars rover Curiosity drilled into the surface of the planet for first time. b) The drilling into Martian surface took place for the first time on 8 February 2013. c) As an outcome of the drilling, the pictures were sent by Challenger which depicted a hole of around 0.63 inches wide and 2.5 inches deep in the fine-grained sedimentary bedrock. d) The first drill target of Curiosity was a Martian rock which was laced with the veins which appeared like water-deposited minerals. 19. In the first bionic man of the world, Rex, where did the synthetic blood come from? a) MIT b) Swansea c) University College London d) Sheffield University

20. Curiosity is on a _________ mission on Mars for finding out the chemical and geologic conditions on Mars which are required for supporting as well as preserving the microbial life. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option: a) 3-year b) 5-year c) 2-year d) 10-year 21. Scientists at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, US and Karolinska Institute in Sweden got a genetic get through into the main cause of arthritis. What, according to the scientists could be used for predicting the person who could potentially be at a risk of this disease? a) Simple X-Ray b) Simple Blood test c) Simple Diagnosis d) None of these 22. A team at Intel, the computer hardware firm created a device, which is said to allow which renowned physicist of the world to communicate faster than before? a) Nikola Tesla b) Antoine Henri Becquerel c) Max Planck d) Stephen Hawking 23. The researchers from EMBL- European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI) in January 2013 developed a new method that allows storage of 100 million hours of high definition video in a cup of DNA. Which of the following statements is true in context to this? a) The scientists in Cambridge downloaded all the 154 sonnets of Wordsworth on the strands of the synthetic DNA, a genetic storage device have been used. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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b) Scientists were successful in encoding the information and reproduction of the Brads words with complete accuracy. c) One sonnet from Shakespeare weighs 0.3 millionths of a millionth of a gram when written on the DNA and thus a gram of the DNA can easily store information that more than one million of compact disks (CDs) can store. d) Scientists claimed that the genes can be used as the robust way to store information as the information once stored in it can be extracted from the mammoth bones, even after tens of thousands of years. 24. In which Indian zoo were the thirty one Black Bucks killed by the stray dogs on 19 January 2013? a) Kanpur Zoo b) Lucknow Zoo c) Delhi Zoo d) Patna Zoo 25. Where was the Vulture Population Estimation-2013 conducted by the State Government? a) Manas Tiger Reserve b) Panna Tiger Reserve c) Palamau Tiger Reserve d) Pench Tiger Reserve 26. Researchers at the University of California, San Diego, in the third week of January 2013 developed a fresh technique that enables surgeons to find out about the reach of tumours and helps them to decide which tissues should be removed for saving the healthy cells in cancer patients. What is the name of this new technique? a) Laser Imaging b) Molecular-Laser Imaging c) Molecular-Targeted imaging d) Target Imaging 27. Kaspersky Lab, the Russian cyber security firm on 14 January 2013 revealed that India is one among various nations which are hit by the cyber spying which has been targeting governmental, diplomatic and scientific research organisations for around 5 years. What is the name of this cyber spying campaign? a) Blue October b) Red December c) Blue December d) Red October 28. Which space agency released surprising pictures of the remains of huge river which ran across the Red Planet, Mars at some point of time, on 17 January 2013? a) NASA b) European Space Agency www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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c) Australian Space Agency d) None of these

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29. The meteorological authority of China issued yellow alert in various cities. Which of the following statements is not correct in this context? a) Yellow alert indicated the presence of fog that shows dangerous smog levels in the northern as well as western regions of China. b) The Beijing Municipal Environmental Monitoring Center website declared that the density of the PM2.5 particulates crossed the 700 micrograms per cubic meter level in various parts of Beijing. c) Initially, it was found that the PM2.5 that is an indicator of the air quality had reached 500 point in certain monitoring stations. d) PM2.5 is an indicator of the extent of pollution in the air. 30. Astronomers had already discovered that the super-massive black holes which sit in the centres of various galaxies were growing faster. Professor Graham explained that every time there is a ten times increase in the stellar mass of the galaxy, it leads to around 100 times increase in the ______________. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option: a) Mass of black hole b) Density of black hole c) Both of these d) None of these 31. NASA in the first week of January 2013 unveiled that Mars Curiosity Rover has captured an image of a flower like object embedded on the rocks of Mars. It has also photographed a snakelike rock formation on the Martian Rocks. What was the name of microscope that captured the image? a) Light Microscopy Module b) Mars Hand Lens Imager c) Fluorescence light microscope d) None of these 32. Scientists at the University of Edinburgh's School of Biological Sciences in the second week of January 2013 discovered that the oldest known super predator of the world was the marine crocodile. What is the name of this oldest known super predator of the world? a) Tyrant Swimmer b) Tylosaurus c) Predator X d) Basilosaurus 33. Scientists at the Stanford University in the second week of January 2013, California developed an experimental drug called LM11A-31 which is claimed to help paralysed people reclaim their movements. Which of the following statements is true in context to this sentence?

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a) The new drug enabled the dogs which had no movements in lower limbs, to walk again with the coordinated steps. b) In the tests, it was also observed that the medication did not cause any pain in dogs. c) Blood brain barrier, which is responsible for protecting the central nervous system (CNS) from harmful chemicals carried in the bloodstream, was also crossed efficiently. d) None of these 34. Which kind of wine can distort the results of testosterone level in body? a) White Wine b) Rose Wine c) Purple Wine d) Red Wine 35. Which is the largest cosmic structure in the universe that is powered by super massive black holes clump together? This structure was discovered by the astronomers in the first week of January 2013. a) Large Quasar Group b) Galaxy Filaments c) Inflationary universe d) None of these 36. Astronomers studying about the newborn star called HD 142527, observed glimpses of the planets which were forming around it, depicting the stage of planetary evolution which was never seen before. Which telescope helped to observe these planets? a) Large Binocular Telescope b) Gemini South c) Hale Telescope (200 inch) d) Atacama Large Millimetre /submillimeter Array 37. A team of researchers including that of an Indian-origin, at Oregon State University discovered in the first week of January 2013, one malfunctioning protein which leads to itchy, dry as well as inflamed skin wounds in a kind of eczema. What is the name of this protein? a) Tropomyosin b) Fibronectin c) Ctip2 d) Coronin 38. Scientists claimed that the 2-billion year old dark black rock, called Northwest Africa (NWA) 7034 or Black Beauty is actually new kind of Martian meteorite which contains 10 times excess water than the normal. Where did this rock land in 2011? a) Mexico b) Sahara c) Antractica d) None of these www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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39. Astronomers studying about the newborn star observed glimpses of the planets which were forming around it. Astronomers were studying the HD 142527 which is __________ away from the Earth. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option: a) 450 light years b) 350 light years c) 250 light years d) 150 light years 40. Which largest mountain glacier of the world was claimed to have been reduced to 5.9 km in its longitudinal extent from the time period of 1989 to 2009 because of increasing temperatures and presence of humans? a) Gangotri b) Janapa c) Miyar d) Siachen 41. The Mayan Doomsday predictions about the world ending on 21 December 2012 had failed and additionally NASA ruled out the asteroid collision with Earth in 2040. What is the name of this as teroid which was feared to be collided? a) 2011 AG5 b) 5224 Abbe c) 2646 Abetti d) 6805 Abstracta 42. The spaceplane constructed by Richard Branson's spaceflight company called Virgin Galactic successfully completed the important flight test which would be able to carry the people to space. What is the name of this spaceplane? a) Boeing X-37 b) Soviet Buran c) SpaceShipTwo d) BOR-4 43. Astronomers claimed that a rare supercomet called ___________ was moving towards the Sun from outer solar system. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option: a) C/1980 E1 (Bowell) b) Comet HaleBopp (C/1995 O1) c) Comet Lulin (C/2007 N3) d) C/2012 S1 (ISON) 44. Australian researchers of Sydneys Garvan Institute claimed that they dis covered primary factor which made breast cancer aggressive as well as resistant to the treatments. Which of the following statements is false in this context? a) Protein called ELF5 is responsible for making the tumours of breast cancer more aggressive

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as well as resistant to treatments, revealed the key researcher Chris Ormandy. b) The study would be helpful in targeting ELF5 in such a way that it would help in treating the breast cancers which are not numb to anti-oestrogens. c) Around half of the women will eventually not be able to tackle to anti-oestrogen treatment which they would have been undergoing, which would in turn further progress their tumour. d) In the tissue-culture models of this type of cancer which were made numb to anti-oestrogen treatment, levels of ELF5 increase dramatically. 45. Researchers from the Penn State University in the last week of December declared that the cause of encouragement of human evolution might have been the swift environmental changes in areas like East Africa around _____________. Fill in the blank with appropriate option: a) 3 million years ago b) 200 million years ago c) 2 million years ago d) 300 million years ago 46. The Central Zoo Authority of India approved exchanging white tigress from the Delhi Zoo against an animal from the Krasnoyarks Park of flora and fauna, Roev Ruchey in Russia. Which animal was traded in exchange of white tigress? a) South American Jaguars b) Kangaroos c) Puma d) Leopard 47. NASA developed new next-gen spacesuit called Z-1 Prototype Spacesuit and Portable Life Support System (PLSS) 2.0 for the sophisticated and complex space ventures, which also include Mars mission. Which of the following statement is not true in this context: a) The spacesuit is crafted out of various hard elements on the fabric. It also becomes flexible after being inflated. b) There is no need of an airlock for seeking entry or getting exit in and out of this suit. c) It makes use of the recent technique that includes sublimator which works only in hard vacuum. d) The spacesuit packs in itself water membrane evaporation cooler which cools the suit through same method like sweating. 48. The gravity mapping satellites of NASA ended the successful mission to Moon by crashing on the rim of crater. What is the name of these gravity mapping satellites of NASA? a) Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 b) Ebb and Flow c) Orion and Kepler d) Dawn and Orion 49. Scientist in the month of December revealed a planet that could support life, orbits a Sunlike star near the Earth. What is the name of the star around which this planet was found orbiting?

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a) Tau Ceti b) Sirius c) 36 Ophiuchi d) Gliese 33

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50. A microbe led to extinction of more than 90 species on Earths surface around 251 million years ago, the researchers found out in the second week of December 2012. Which of the following statements is true in this context: a) According to the current theory, mass extinction by end of Permian period was started because of volcanic eruptions on a large area, now called Siberia. b) When the group of researchers analysed genome of Methanosarcina - a methanogen which is accountable for most of the biogenic methane on Earth today, it was discovered that microbe acquired this ability some 231 million years ago. c) Methanosarcina needs huge amount of nickel for producing methane fast. d) All the statements are true 51. French scientists claimed that they developed a new system which enables humans to get 360 degree vision. The headset in the system is said to capture the images from different directions and thereafter transform these into the matter which is possible for the human vision system to comprehend. What is the name of this new system? a) Eidograph b) FlyVIZ c) Scoliometer d) Xylometer 52. Scientists from NASA spotted the longest extra-terrestrial river system ever on Saturns moon Titan which appears to be a miniature version of one of the Earths rivers. Titan which appears to be a miniature version of which river of Earth? a) Amazon River b) Thames River c) Nile River d) Rhine River 53. Researchers of the University of Michigan Health System and Harvard Medical School in the second week of December 2012 showed that anti-ageing genes might be helpful in curtailing the multiplication of cancer. Which of the following statements is not true in context of this? a) The researchers had shown that the decrease in SIRT6 protein in rats increased the size, aggressiveness as well as number of tumours. b) In the new research the role of SIRT6 in diminishing the growth of cancer by repressing aerobic glycolysis was highlighted. c) SIRT6 is also responsible for inhibiting the activity of major cancer gene called Myc. d) SIRT6 does not play any role in stopping cancer or controlling cellular metabolism. 54. Scientists in northern Mexico discovered a new dinosaur with a large prominent nose which lived about 73 million years ago. What is the name of this new dinosaur?

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a) Latirhinus Uitstlani b) Gigantoraptor c) Khaan d) Raptorex

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55. British scientists claimed that they developed in the first week of December 2012, the first toothbrush of the world called Emmident toothbrush which makes use of the _________ for cleaning teeth. Fill in the blank with appropriate word: a) X-Ray b) Ultrasound waves c) 3D Imaging d) None of these 56. Scientists in the last week of November 2012 developed a new drug for stopping the cancerous cells from multiplying. The new drug compels the cancerous cells to sleep which in turn stops them in multiplying. The drug is said to trick the tumours for becoming inactive by swapping the molecular switches in cancer structure so that there is no multiplication of the cancerous cells. What is the name of this drug? a) Letrozole b) Mitomycin c) Cyclophosphamide d) Aflibercept 57. Astronomers claimed that they have discovered the biggest ever black hole in the small galaxy which is situated around 250 million light years away from our planet. This galaxy constitutes the mass equal to 17 billion suns. The biggest ever black hole sits in the Perseus constellation. What is the name of this galaxy in which the black hole sits? a) Milky Way b) Cartwheel Galaxy c) NGC 1277 galaxy d) Mayalls Object Galaxy 58. The temperature variations at the shallow levels under the surface of Earth are influenced by the _________. Fill in the blank with an appropriate option. a) Topography b) Geography c) Both of these d) None of these 59. Software engineers as well as neuroscientists at University of Waterloo, Canada claimed that they have developed a closest model of the functioning human brain. What is this artificial human brain called? a) AbioCor b) Bioartificial

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c) i-Limb d) Spaun

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60. Boeing, the US aircraft manufacturer claimed that a new missile was tested which can permanently blackout the electronics of the country without causing any harm to people. What is the name of this missile? a) CHAMP b) Mathago c) Ikara d) ERYX 61. Which of the following statements are true? a) The Solar Eclipse occur when the moon crosses between the Sun and the Earth blocking the sun completely or partially. b) The Solar Eclipse can occur only on the day of a new moon when, the sun and the moon lies in conjunction to each other when seen from the earth. c) Statements a and b are true. d) None of the statements is true. 62. Researchers of University of Edinburgh discovered a new gene known as miR-941, which explains the evolution of humans from the chimpanzees. Which of the following statements is true in this context? a) The gene is found only in human beings. b) The gene is found in humans and apes. c) The gene could be used for knowing how humans learnt the usage of languages as well as tools. d) Statements (a) and (c) are true. 63. Which of the following statement/statements is/are true? a) Rheumatoid arthritis affects various organs. b) Rheumatoid arthritis affects tissues, various organs as well as joints. c) Both (a) and (b) are true. d) Only (b) is true. 64. A study led by Scientist and Evolutionary Anthropologist, Dean Falk of Florida State University revealed in the Month of October that a Physicists brain had an "extraordinary" prefrontal cortex - unlike those of most people which may have contributed to his remarkable genius. What is the name of this physicist? a) Stephen Hawking b) Charles Darwin c) Sir Issac Newton d) Albert Einstein 65. Researchers from Stanford who were led by the scientists of Indian origin, in the third week of November 2012 claimed the development of fastest as well as most reliable mathematical

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algorithm which can help the disabled trick the computer cursors. The computer cursors could be controlled with the help of which mechanism? a) Thoughts b) Sight c) Smell d) Touch 66. Gases that come out from the volcano provides a potential threat to the people, animal and agriculture as well as property of the people residing in the nearby area of the volcano. The gases released from the volcano contains gases like sulphur dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and carbon dioxide in huge amount, which pollutes the air in the atmosphere. Which of the following gas causes acid rain? a) Hydrogen Fluoride b) Carbon Dioxide c) Helium d) Sulphur Dioxide 67. Researchers fabricated an all-new paperthin bullet-proof super material, which has the capability to self-assemble into alternating rubbery as well as glassy layers. The nano-material has the ability to translate into the safety beyond the vests. These technological advancements could be used for protective coating for the jet engine turbine blades as well as the satellites. Name the institute from which the researchers and scientists belong to? a) University of Edinburgh and Rice University b) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Rice University c) Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and University of Edinburgh d) Rice University and University of Sterling 68. Australia on 22 November 2012 approved the plan to save an ailing river system. What is the name of this ailing river system? a) Murray-Darling Basin River System b) Cooper Creek- Darling Basin River System c) Murrumbidgee - Murray Basin River System d) Flinders- Cooper Creek Basin River System 69. Which is the third brightest object in the sky after sun and moon? a) Venus b) International Space Station (ISS) c) Saturn d) None of these 70. Scientists on 8 November 2012 revealed about the discovery of a special type of bacteria in the Ocean with abilities of combining together for the formation of the long conducting nano wire cable for transportation of electrons and capturing the oxygen available at the surface for carrying out the metabolic activities. What is the live wire made up of? www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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a) Living neurons b) Living bacteria cells c) Living biological cells d) None of these

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71. Scientists tracked 55 large robber crabs on the Christmas Island in South of Indonesia in the third week of November, 2012. It was found that the land crabs having the leg span of around 3.3 feet or 1 metre usually stay in the small home range. Which technology was used to track these crabs? a) Infrared Technology b) GPS Technology c) Google Maps Technology d) None of these 72. Major changes on the earths surface by checking the increase or decrease in gravity level are detected by which organisation/organisations? a) World Meteorological Organization (WMO) b) Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) c) Both of these d) None of these 73. Which of these is not a greenhouse gas? a) Carbon Dioxide b) Methane c) Hydrogen d) Nitrous Oxide 74. The Tongariro Volcano in Mount Tongariro at Tongariro National Park, New Zealand erupted on 21 November 2012. This was which kind of a volcano? a) Shield Volcano b) Cinder Cones c) Compound Volcano d) Composite Volcano 75. The Mantle comprises of thick molten rock. What is this thick molten rock called? a) Crust b) Lava c) Core d) Magma 76. The Supreme Court of India in November 2012 expressed its concerns on the growing smog cover over the National Capital, which is caused due to the pollution created by the increase in the number of vehicles in the Capital. Which of the following statements is true in this context?

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a) One can see the smog cover in the sky even during the hot summer days when the wind density is low and weak. b) Smog cover in the sky can only be seen in the cold winter months. c) Smog in itself is the mixture of smoke and fog, which is the combination of pollutants created from industries and vehicles. d) Smog is a mixture of fog and pollutants. i. Statements a and c are correct ii. All the above statements are correct iii. Statements a and d are correct iv. None of the above statements is correct 77. When was the term Photochemical Smog first used and described? a) In 1970s b) In 1980s c) In 1950s d) In 1940s 78. The world's rarest whale species was spotted for the first time by scientists of New Zealand in the Pacific Ocean. What is the name of this rarest whale species? a) Spade-toothed beaked whales b) Bowhead Whales c) North Pacific Right Whales d) Southern Right Whales 79. The research paper published by the scientists presents a positive report about the change in the number of vultures, which resulted in a catastrophic decline in its number by more than 99 percent in past two decades. The study reveals that there has been a marginal rise in the population of Vultures between 2011 and 2012. Who published the research paper? a) Delhi Development Authority (DDA) b) Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) c) Delhi Universitys Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Systems d) None of these 80. Australia on 16 November 2012 created the world's largest network of marine reserves, protecting more than 2.3 million square kilometres of ocean environment. However, the Marine reserve creation is going to ruin coastal communities and it will also affect thousands of jobs with a serious impact on US $ 2 billion aquaculture Industry. This was criticised by which organisation/organisations? a) Commonwealth Fisheries Association b) Australian Marine Alliance c) Both of these d) None of these

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81. Scientists at NASA on 27 September 2012 announced that the Mars Curiosity Rover has discovered stream bed gravel, which hints towards the presence of waist-deep water on the surface of Mars in the past. What is this Mars Curiosity Rover? a) Satellite b) Team of Astronauts c) Robotic explorer d) Meteors 82. The Indian Institute of Toxicology Research reported that the water in and around the deserted Union Carbide plant is contaminated and not fit for consumption. Where is this Union Carbide Plant Located? a) Bhopal b) Jaipur c) Shimla d) Bhubaneswar 83. The endangered species, Great Indian Bustard and Lesser Florican have got a dedicated land for breeding in the Shonkaliya Region of Ajmer District, Rajasthan. What are they? a) Birds b) Animals c) Insects d) Amphibian 84. The simultaneous earthquakes seen in past few years in which region is found to be a cause of the Tectonic Plate Disintegration? a) Arabian Sea b) Indian Ocean c) Arabian Peninsula d) Himalyan Region 85. On which date the most outstanding demonstrations of its own kind in Khandawa district of Madhya Pradesh named Jal Satyagraha which had continued for 17 days at Omkareshwar Dam Project came to an end? a) 10 September 2012 b) 15 September 2012 c) 17 September 2012 d) 12 September 2012 86. Name the astronaut of Indian American origin who took over the command of International Space Station on 15 September 2012. a) Sunita Williams b) Kalpana Chawla c) Ravish Malhotra d) None of these www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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87. Scientists at Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) warned that most of Earth's land areas might face an extreme summer heat wave than they did faced in between 1951 to 1980. Goddard Institute of Space Studies is a division of which space research centre? a) ISRO b) NASA c) Centre of astrophysics d) European Space Agency 88. On which date from 1995 onwards the International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer is celebrated worldwide? a) 15 September b) 18 September c) 16 September d) 12 September 89. Where the ozone layer is mainly found in the Earths atmosphere? a) Stratosphere b) Hemisphere c) Ozonosphere d) Troposphere 90. The environment ministry on 12 September 2012 suspended the clearance of environmental guidelines issued to 93 Mines across which state? a) Himachal Pradesh b) Rajasthan c) Goa d) Madhya Pradesh 91. Scientists of the University of Michigan developed a gene therapy which they claimed could restore the sense of olfactory function. What is this olfactory function related to? a) Sense of hearing b) Sense of smell c) Sense of sight d) Sense of touch 92. Australian scientists along with US experts claimed that they have discovered treatment for Alzheimer patients following a study finding a link to abnormalities in Alzheimer Patients. Alzheimers disease is related to? a) Brain b) Heart c) Eye sightedness d) Liver

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93. Researchers from the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute in Australia discovered that two proteins that work together to kill self-reactive immune cells can protect against diseases such as type1 diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis principally attacks which part of the body? a) Joints b) Skin c) Lungs d) Kidney 94. India enter into its first multi-lateral Social Science research collaboration with four European Nations by the approval of projects for networking and social science research cooperation in between the researchers of these nations. The colaboration came into existence on which date? a) 2 September 2012 b) 7 September 2012 c) 5 September 2012 d) 4 September 2012 95. The Zoological Society of London and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) released a list of 100 different species to be first in line for extinction from 48 different countries during the World Conservation Congress held in Republic of Korea on 11 September 2012. The Indian species that was categorised under first line of extinction was_____________ a) Great Indian Bustard b) One horned Rhino c) Indian giant Squirrel d) Asiatic Lion 96. A new strain of rice developed by the scientists, which can enhance the productivity in the soil that lacks a nutrient content. Name the nutrient, lack of which effects crop yield. a) Sulphur b) Oxygen c) Phosphorous d) Carbon 97. Name the two planets that came together in the Western sky on 15 August 2012 after sunset. a) Mars and Saturn b) Earth and Mars c) Jupiter and Saturn d) Venus and Earth 98. The identified singing mice that use songs to communicate are found in which region? a) The Himalayan terrain www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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b) The tropical cloud forests in the mountains of Costa Rica c) On the volcanic plates of Pacific d) Greenland 99. Name the NASAs Robert that has recently touched the surface of Mars a) Rover Curiosity b) Gale Crater c) Martian home d) Calif

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100. Name the process that will be applied for transferring the gene of the newly developed Stained Rice to the modern variety of rice a) Cross-Breeding b) Genetic Engineering c) Hybridization d) None of these 101. Which Indian University signed an agreement for establishing a centre for earthquake and hydrological studies with Hyderabad based NGRI (National Geophysical Research Institute) on August 15, 2012? a) University of Kerala b) University of West Bengal c) University of Kashmir d) University of Assam 102. On 25 August 2012, the ballistic missile "Prithvi II" was successfully launched from the test range off Odisha Coast. Which type of missile is Prithvi II? a) Air-to-air missile b) Surface-to-air missile c) Air-to-surface missile d) Surface-to-surface missile 103. On 23 August 2012, ______________________ won environmental approval for its A$10 billion Alpha coal and rail project in Australia's Queensland. a) Jaypee Enterprises b) GMR Infrastructure c) GVK Power and Infrastructure d) Adani Enterprises 104. Which university scientists developed a mechanical device that measures the mass of individual molecules? a) University of Oxford b) University of Delhi c) University of China www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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d) California University of Technology

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105. On which date NASA's Mars rover Curiosity has fired its laser for the first time on Mars, using the beam to study a fist-size rock called "Coronation." a) Aug. 10, 2012 b) Aug. 20, 2012 c) Aug. 15, 2012 d) Aug 22, 2012 106. Prime Minister said India will send a mission to "Mars" to collect scientific information. What is the name of this mission? a) Mars Orbitor Mission b) Mars Yojana c) Mangal Yaan d) India Mars Plan 107. The House Sparrow was on ___________ declared as state bird of Delhi by the state government. The new status of the bird is likely to help in its conservation. a) 14 August 2012 b) 13 Feb 2012 c) 12 March 2012 d) 16 July 2012 108. Which Indian institute developed a web-based system for advising farmers the right quantity of fertilizers that they should use in their soils for a particular type of crop? a) Indian Institute of Management b) Indian Institute of Soil Sciences c) Indian Institute of Foreign Trade d) Indian Institute of Finance 109. On which date in August 2012, the Ring-planet Saturn and Red planet Mars came together in Western Sky after sunset? a) August 12 b) August 05 c) August 15 d) August 11 110. Scientists in the second week of August 2012 found a stem cell therapy to prevent which disease? Scientists used MSCs (mesenchymal) stem cells in mice with fractures that typically result into developing arthritis. a) Osteoarthritis after a joint injury b) Cataract c) Cancer d) Skin Infection www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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111. The Australian Climate Commission warned that the worlds sea levels could increase by _ the end of the 21st Century. a) 1.5 Metre. b) 2 Metres. c) 3 Metres. d) 1 Metres. 112. Isle of Wight rock yielded three fossil footprints of Dinosaurs. In which one of the following countries Isle of Wight is located? a) USA b) UK c) India d) Germany 113. In the studies conducted by American, Belgian, British and Dutch researchers it was found that tumors contain their own pool of stem cells that can multiply and keep fueling the cancer, seeding regrowth. Which one of the following techniques researchers used to trace the ancestry of cells within mouse tumors? a) labeling technique b) Striking technique c) Bubble technique d) None of the above 114. US researchers are using a new tool called___ for detecting illegal nuclear explosions. a) The Earths Global Positioning System (GPS) b) Water alarm device c) Seismometer d) Geiger counter 115. A Rare bird Jerdans Baza was found for the first time in Dantepally tank area in Pocharam reserve forest of on 16 June 2012. Consider the given facts regarding Jerdans Baza. i) Jerdans Baza mainly eats frogs, lizards and large insects. ii) The bird id recognized by broad round wings, a long squarish tail, jaunty crest and forest dwelling habits. Choose the right option: a) Only i is correct. b) Only ii is correct. c) Both i and ii are correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 116. Which one of the following cities has been slated to host the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development 2012? a) Rio de Janeiro b) Buenos Aires www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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c) Hawana d) Toronto

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117. NASA on 13 May 2012 launched Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array (NuSTAR) on a Pegasus rocket from Kwajalein Atoll in the Marshall Islands. Consider the following given facts related to NuSTAR and chose the right option? i) NuSTAR will help scientists find the most subtle and energetic black holes. ii) NuSTAR will work in coordination with other telescopes in space, including NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory, which observes lower-energy X-rays Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are wrong. b) Only i is wrong. c) Only ii is correct. d) Both i and ii are correct 118. China on 16 June 2012 launched its spacecraft Shenzhou-9 from the Jiuquan satellite launch centre in north-western Gansu province. Which of the following facts related to Shenzhou-9 is not true? i) Shenzhou-9 is Chinas fourth human spaceflight ii) Shenzhou -9 spacecraft will conduct the first manned docking mission iii) Shenzhou-9 space mission comprise three astronauts including Chinas first woman astronaut Liu Yang iv) Shenzhou-9 is Chinas first manned space programme Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are wrong b) Only i is wrong c) Only iv is wrong d) Neither i nor ii is wrong 119. According to the World Health Organization's cancer agencys report declared on 12 June 2012, .. is the most probable cause of cancer among the people. a) Diesel Fumes b) Dust c) Petrol exhaust d) None of the above 120. According to a new government report India's greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions rose by 58 per cent between 1994 and 2007. Greenhouse gases are those gases that can absorb and emit infrared radiation. Which one of the following is not a green house gas? a) nitrogen (N) b) methane (CH4) c) nitrous oxide (N2O) d) ozone (O3)

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121. The World Environment Day was observed across the globe on 5 June 2012. Theme for the World Environment Day 2012 was a) Green Economy: Does it include you? b) Forests-Nature At Your Service c) Water- all we need d) None of the above 122. The UN General Assembly started observing the World Environment Day in 1972 to i) raise public awareness about the need of better environment. ii) to mark the opening of the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 123. World IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) Launch Day held globally on 6 June 2012. Which of the following facts related to World IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) Launch Day is not true? i) The day, organized by Internet Society, represents a major milestone in the global deployment of IPv6. ii) Previous year the World IPv6 Day was observed on 8 June iii) World IPv6 Day 2012 was an event sponsored and organized by the Internet Society and several large content providers to test public IPv6 deployment iv) The day was announced by Google Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are wrong b) Only i is wrong c) Only iv is wrong d) Neither i nor ii is wrong 124. Scientists discovered eight genes which could pave the way for the development of effective treatments for ankylosing spondylitis which is painful form of_ a) Joint pain b) Headache c) Arthritis d) Cancer 125. Scientists at the Tomato Genome Consortium (TGC) successfully sequenced the genomes of which of the following vegetables? a) Tomato b) Onion c) Brinjal d) Potato www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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126. Scientists found diarrhea bug called Dientamoeba Fragilis in_. a) Pigs b) Rabbits c) Rats d) Cows 127. Scientists identified common childhood obesity genes called__ and__. a) OLFM4 and HOXB5 b) OLFM and HOX c) OFM4 and HOXC5 d) OFFM and HOXCC 128. Assam registered a_ percent increase in last three years. a) 14 b) 15 c) 16 d) 17

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129. The Union Cabinet of India on 12 April 2012 approved India`s Second National Communication to the Secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Consider the following statements: i) India is party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). ii) The Convention, in accordance with its Article 4.1 and 12.1, enjoins all Parties, both developed and developing country Parties, to furnish information, in the form of a National Communication (a national report). a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. Answer: (a) Both i and ii are correct. 130. The Union ministry of environment and forests (MoEF) banned the use of live animals in dissection and other experiments in educational and research institutions. The ban is based on __. a) The prevention of cruelty to Animals Act 1960. b) The prevention of cruelty to animals act 1970 c)The prevention of cruelty to animals act 1980 d) The Prevention of cruelty to animals act 1990 131. Scientists recently found the treatment for Glaucoma in rats. Glaucoma is an __ disease. a) Eye b) Ear c) Lung d) Skin www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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132. Scientists identified two genes, which are linked to Parkinsons. The genes are called__. a) NACP and MAPT b) NCAP and MPAT c) NPAC and MTPA d) NNCP and MMPA 133. Erosion and diversion of Rushikulya river mouth in Odisha's Ganjam district seem to be posing a serious threat to the annual mass nesting of the endangered Olive Ridley sea turtles. Consider the following statements: i) The olive ridley sea turtle is also known as the Pacific ridley. ii) It is a species of sea turtle. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 134. Which one of the following state governments imposed restrictions on the visit of foreign tourists to the areas inhabited by Tribals? a) Odisha b) Bihar c) Madhya Pradesh d) Uttar Pradesh 135. Indian black eagle was spotted in the Aravali Biodiversity park after a gap of __ years. a) 90 b) 80 c) 70 d) 60 136. Scientists identified a new gene in maize plants called__. a) Meg1 b) Meg2 c) Meg3 d) Meg4 137. Researchers discovered new earthworm species in Port Blair. What is the name of the new species? a) Moniligaster ivaniosi b) Annelida c) Nematoda d) Onychophora

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138. Scientists recently developed a new wireless device to detect the presence of termites. Consider the following statements: i) when the new device detects the presence of termites, it sends an SMS or email to a pest control firm. ii) The device is made of a tiny sensor, even smaller than a fingernail. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 139. The scientists claimed that the Meteorite, which fell in Morocco in July 2011, was from Mars. The event happened for the first time in__ years. a) 50 b) 100 c) 200 d) 150 140. Scientists found the Extinct Monkey, the Millers Grizzled Langur in the forests of___. a) Indonesia b) Malaysia c) India d) Africa 141. Scientists for the first time produced mixed embryo monkeys. Consider the following statements: i) Scientists produced monkeys composed of cells taken from separate embryos. ii) The cells stay together and work together to form tissues and organs. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 142. Scientists discovered unknown species off the coast of Antarctica. Consider the following statements: i) The temperature in this region rises to 380 degree Celsius. Ii) There is plenty of light in this region. Which of the above statements is/ are correct? a) Only i b) Only ii c) Both i and ii d) Neither i nor ii 143. The worlds first hybrid sharks was discovered by the researchers in Australian waters. The hybrid shark is the result of cross-breeding between which one of the following set of shark www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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species? a) Common black tip Shark and Australian black-tip shark b) Indian black-tip Shark and Australian black-tip Shark c) Blue Whale and Common black-tip Shark d) Blue Whale and Australian black-tip Shark

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144. Scientists produced artificial human semen to help infertile men. Consider the following statements: i) The scientists grew the sperm by enveloping the germ cells in a special compound called agar jelly. ii) The artificial human semen could help infertile men father their own children. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 145. Health Authorities in Australia recently detected Deadly Disease, Murray Valley Encephalitis. The disease is caused by the__. a) Flies b) Mosquitoes c) Birds d) Dogs 146. Name the Cyclone, which hit the coast of Chennai and south-eastern coastal areas. a) Thane b) Nargis c) Rita d) Katrina 147. Name the gene, which controls memory in human brain. a) Npas4 b) Npas3 c) Mpas4 d) Npas2 148. WGEEP designated entire Western Ghats as an ecologically sensitive area. What is the full form of WGEEP? a) Western Ghats expert panel b) Western Ghats environmental panel c) Western Ghats environmental expert panel d) Western Ghats ecology expert panel 149. China launched a High-Speed Bullet Train in Quingdao, Shandong. Consider the following statements: www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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i) Its speed can reach up to 500 kilometres per hour. ii) The train was launched by Chinas largest rail vehicle maker, CSR Corp. Ltd. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct.

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150. Scientists discovered a Way to Transform Ordinary Tissue into Heart Muscle Cells. Consider the following statements: i) It could pave the way for new therapeutic approaches for making a damaged heart to repair itself. ii) Scientists used a zebrafish system to develop a small and robust molecule, which can transform stem cells into beating heart muscle cells. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 151. NASA's Kepler mission discovered the first Earth-size planets orbiting a sun-like star outside our solar system. These planets are called ___ and____. a) Kepler-20e; Kepler-20f b) Kepler-20a; Kepler-20b c) Kepler-20c; Kepler-20d d) Kepler-20m; Kepler-20n 152. Scientists at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies report discovered a missing link between the bodys biological clock and sugar metabolism system. Consider the following statements i) Sugar Metabolism is a process by which the body uses sugar for energy. ii) If the human body produces too little insulin, the amount of sugar in the blood increases abnormally, a condition known as hyperglycemia. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Neither i nor ii is correct. c) Only i is correct. d) Only ii is correct. 153. China on 23 December 2011 launched a High-Speed Bullet Train in Quingdao, Shandong. Its speed can reach upto __kilometres. a) 500 b) 300 c) 400 d) 200

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154. The WGEEP (Western Ghats expert Panel) designated ____ as an Ecologically Sensitive Area. a) Western Ghats b) E astern Ghats c) Malabar Coast d) Coromandel Coast 155. Name the gene found by the neuroscientists, which could help in creating and altering memory. a)Mpas4 b) Npas4 c) Npas3 d) Mpas2 156. Scientists discovered that the protein__ is responsible for regulating fatty acid oxidation in the liver and is critical for metabolism. a) CPT1 b) CTP1 c) CTT1 d) CPT2 157. NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) developed Space Harpoon to take Samples from Comets. Where are the headquarters of NASA located? a) Washington DC b) New York c) Florida d) Paris 158. British Scientists recently developed a technology to produce pocket TV. Consider the following statements: i) Scientists developed a new form of light-emitting crystals, known as quantum dots. ii) These tiny crystals are 100000 times smaller than the width of human hair. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 159. Scientists developed a hydrogel that regenerate healthy and scar-free tissue on skin damaged by severe burns. Consider the following statements: i) The hydrogel helps in formatting of new blood vessels and skin including hair follicles. ii) The injured soldiers, fire victims and people with third degree burns can avail of the gel. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct.

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160. A cargo ship called MV Rak sank off Mumbai coast on 5 August 2011. Consider the following statements: i) The oil spill from the ship enters into the food chain. ii)The algae imbibe the oil and this affects entire marine ecology. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 161. NASAs Kepler mission recently discovered a Habitable Earth-like planet__. a) Kepler 22-b b)Kepler-22 b c) Kepler 22-c c) kepler 22-a 162. Which one of the following countries recently approved the bill that reformed the rules on the amount of land farmers must preserve as forest? a) Brazil b) India c) USA d) China 163. The Labour Party conference in Australia approved Uranium Exports to India. What is the atomic number of Uranium? a) 92 b) 82 c) 88 d) 86 164. Scientists produced the most detailed map of Antarctica called BEDMAP. Consider the following statements on BEDMAP: i) This is the second generation of the digital BEDMAP. ii) It incorporates 27 million measurement points. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Both i and ii are incorrect.

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165. Cargo Ship MV Rak sank 20 nautical miles off Mumbai coast in August 2011. Consider the following statements: i) The oil spill from a ship accident can be harmful for fishing activity. ii) The oil spill can damage the mangrove belt in and around the city. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 166. Scientists identified genes that can increase a persons risk of developing multiple myeloma by 30 percent. Consider the following statements on multiple myeloma: i) Multiple myeloma is also known as plasma cell myeloma or Kahlers disease. ii) It is a cancer of plasma cells. a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 167. As per the report compiled by British-based firm Maplecroft, which one of the following countries is top greenhouse gas emitter? a) India b) USA c) China d) Japan 168. NASA launched rover, nicknamed Curiosity to explore the planet Mars. The rover was launched from which one of the following province of USA? a) Florida b) Texas c) Washington d) California 169. The Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (CCEA) on 1 December 2011 approved 1656 crore rupees scheme for __ of Yamuna Action plan. a) phase-3 b) phase-2 c) phase-1 d) phase-4 170. The first Elds deer was born via in vitro fertilization in Thailand. i) Eld's Deer is also known as the Thamin or Brow-antlered Deer. ii) It is an endangered species of deer indigenous to southeastern Asia. Consider the following statements: www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 171. Scientists discovered gene __ which makes people alcoholic. a) HTR7 b) HHR7 c) HHH7 d) THR7

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172. The Delhi Jal Board (DJB) signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with which one of the following countries for upgrading its sewage treatment plant at Keshopur? a) Sweden b) UK c) China d) Russia 173. What is the name of the gene that can reduce the length of time people sleep? a) ABCC9 b) ACCB9 c) ABCC 6 d) ABBB9 174. Scientists discovered a planet, which has an environment much similar to that of Earth. Consider the following statements: i) The Planet is called Gliese 581g. ii) The planet is located around 123 trillion miles away from Earth. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 175. NASA launched a rover, from Florida on an Atlas 5 rocket. What is the name of the rover? a) Discovery b) Rover-d5 c) Curiosity d) Experiment 176. In Japan, rice with radiation levels exceeding the countrys safety levels was discovered for the first time since the nuclear disaster at Fukushima in early 2011. The acronym LASER stands for____. a) Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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b) Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Rays c) Light Amplified by Stimulated Emission of Radiation d) Light and Sound emitted by Radiation

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177. Anti erosion project to protect Moisa and Belguri villages in Assam was approved by the Planning commission of India. Consider the following statements on the project. i) The project aims to protect villages from the River Gangadhar. ii) The project will cost 14.97 crore rupees. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 178. Assam government launched a pilot project to vaccinate girls against human papiloma virus (HPV) causing cervical cancer. HPV is a member of the_____ family of viruses. a) Papilomavirus b) Human T-cell lymphotropic virus c) Bluetongue virus d) Reoviridae 179. Scientists recently discovered Sunken Islands that linked India to Australia. These islands were once part of the supercontinent Gondwana. The islands were formed during Cretacious period___. a) When dinosaurs roamed the Earth b) When Himalayas were formed c) When the very first man came on earth d) When there was no life on earth 180. The latest technique in Medical Science, dracula therapy is now available in India. Dracula therapy is used to fight against which one of the following? a) Ageing b) Cancer c) Aids d) Dengue 181. What Crops in India faces threat from Ug99 stem rust. Ug99 was first discovered in Uganda in__. a) 1999 b) 2000 c) 2001 d) 2002 182. A 400-metre-wide giant asteroid, called 2005 YU55, came within 201700 miles of earth on www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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8 November 2011. 2005 YU55 makes one complete lap around the Sun every __ months. a) 15 b) 14 c) 17 d) 25 183. Union Environment Ministry approved the Lavasa township project in Pune. Consider the following statements: i) Lavasa is a private, planned city being built near Pune. ii) The project is being developed by HCC ( Hindustan Construction Company). Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 184. Russia successfully launched a manned spacecraft Soyuz TMA-22 spaceship from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Consider the following statements: i) When a spacecraft is manned, it can be piloted directly, as opposed to robotic space probes and satellites. ii)The only countries to have independent human spaceflight capability are Russia and China. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor ii is correct. 185. Arctic ozone hole was detected at record level. The journal nature reported. The ozone layer blocks _____from the Sun. a) Infra-Red rays b) Ultraviolet-B rays c) Ultraviolet-C rays d) X-rays 186. Scientists found a new species of Trap-door spider, the albino spider, in Australia. Consider the following statements. i) The albino spider is white headed and the colour of its legs is black and brown. ii) It is about the size of a 50-cent piece. Choose the right option: a) Only i is correct. b) Only ii is correct. c) Neither i nor ii is correct. d) Both i and ii are correct.

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187. The government gave its approval to revive 60 Mines in the Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary. The sanctuary is located in ___. a) Goa b) Jharkhand c) Tamil Nadu d) Madhya Pradesh 188. India scientists succeeded in decoding the genome of the arhar dal, which is also known as _____. a) Pigeon Pea b) Black-eyed Pea c) Sweet Pea d) Split Pea 189. Scientists are set to begin a six-week mission to explore the Indian Ocean's underwater mountains. Name the ship, which will carry out the mission. a) RRS James Cook b) RRS Ernest Shackleton c) RRS James Clark Ross d) Royal Research Ship 190. A report recently stated that bluefin tuna was fished illegally during Libya conflict. Consider the following statements: i) Bluefin Tuna are dark blue-black on the back, and white on the lower sides and belly. ii) The scientific name of bluefin tuna is Thunnus thynnus. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Neither i nor ii is correct. c) Only i is correct. d) Only ii is correct. 191. Scientists identified the bug, which caused the Bubonic plague (Black Death) in Europe between 1347 and 1351. Consider the following statements on Bubonic plague: i) Bubonic plague still strikes somewhere between 1000 and 3000 people. ii) Bubonic plague is caused by Yersinia pestis. Choose the right option: a) Both i and ii are correct. b) Only i is correct. c) Only ii is correct. d) Neither i nor iii is correct. 192. Scientists identified the genes, which increase a Persons risk of getting Dengue. Dengue is the most common mosquito-borne infection after ____. a) Malaria www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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b) Yellow Fever c) Japanese encephalitis d) West Nile Virus

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193. Scientists found the Ozone hole above Antarctica, which is the fifth largest on record. The size of this Ozone hole is___ square kilometres. a) 27 b) 25 c) 23 d) 29 194. Union government of India decided to ban the use of infertility drug Letrozole. Letrozole is mainly recommended for treating ____. a) Cancer b) AIDS c) Dengue d) Malaria 195. Australian Scientists created the worlds first drug, wh ich can prevent blindness from cataracts. Cataracts are formed when a protein, known as calpain, clouds the eye lens and impairs vision. a) Hemoglobin b) Keratin c) Calpain d) Myosin 196. European Scientists reported particles apparently travelling faster than light called__. a) Neutrinos b) Endothelial c) Polyglactin d) Pollen 197. Planetary scientists provided new insights into the process behind the evolution of Earth. Earths core is mainly made of _ a) Iron b) Silicon c) Oxygen d) Nitrogen 198. China Successfully launched its first unmanned space laboratory. What is the name of this space laboratory? a) Tiangong-1 b) MEASAT-1 c) ZY-2 www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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d) CH 726

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199. Scientists recently discovered genetic factors in frogs that make it immune to the fungal disease__. a)Pathogenic b) Chytridiomycosis c) Sporothrix schenckii d) endophyte 200. What is the name of the powerful Typhoon which hit Japan on 21 September 2011? a) Roke b) Nargis c) Nesat d) Nalgae

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Answer
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 C B A D A A D B B D B A D A D B A C D C B D C A B 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 C D B D A B A C D A D C B A D A C D B C C C B A D 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 B C D A B d c a d a c d c d a d b a b c b b c c d 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 a c a b a c a a b a a b C a c b a a c a c a b a a

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101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125

c d c d b a a b c a d b a a c a d c a a a a c c a

126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150

a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a d a a

151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175

a a a a b a a a a a b a a a a a c a a a a a a a c

176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200

a a a a a a a a a b d a a a a a a b a c a a a a a

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SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UPATES

INDIAN SPACE RESEARCH ORGANISATION (ISRO) SET TO ESTABLISH NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
Indian Space Research Organisations scientists will establish a navigation satellite system for India like that of Americas Global Positioning System (GPS). Very much similar to the GPS, the Indian satellite is supposed to transmit data continuously that will allow correctly equipped receivers to establish their location with considerable precision. The project is set to establish the IRNSS at a cost about 1420 crores rupees and was approved by the Union Government in June 2006. The first of the IRNSS satellites is scheduled go into space aboard the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle on 1 July 2013. The GPS requires a constellation of 24 orbiting satellites, which will be supported by a global network of ground stations, so that every part of the world is covered. ISRO will create a system wholly in India's control for providing navigation signals over this country and surrounding areas. After seeing many configurations, the finally chosen configuration was the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) which required just seven satellites. All seven IRNSS satellites will be at a height of about 36000 km, which will take a whole day to circle the Earth. Three of the satellites will be placed over the equator, in what is known as the geostationary orbit, where they match the Earth's rotation and therefore appear from the ground to remain at a fixed position in the sky. The remaining four satellites will be in pairs in two inclined geosynchronous orbits. From the ground, these satellites will appear to travel in figures of 8 during the course of a day.

SATELLITES LAUNCHED TO BRING RURAL AREAS ONLINE

O3b Networks, whose name represents the other 3 billion in month of June 2013, launched a series of satellites which is supposed to provide fast, cheap Internet and phone service to remote areas in 180 countries. The idea behind launching such satellite is to bring people from remote area online by the end of the year 2013. Google have already committed to invest about 1.2 billion dollars in support. O3b Networks is planning to supply the bandwidth for voice and data traffic to mobile phone www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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operators instead of being sold directly to customers and internet service providers who will be able to track the satellites with ground stations. A group of four satellites was launched on 25 June 2013 in a Soyuz rocket from French Guiana and it is going to be followed with similar satellite launch of four more in September 2013 and another four next year. The Outstanding property of the satellite is that is every satellite will be able to transfer data at a rate of 12 gigabits per second. Other satellites may eventually be launched to increase the data capacity of the cohort. Advantage of the Satellite launched The launch of satellite will provide cheap, fast data transfer to remote areas without Internet access or phone service. The satellite service accessible and affordable, even in poorer regions.

SCIENTISTS CREATED THE WORLD'S FIRST ULTRA-HIGH RESOLUTION 3D MODEL OF A HUMAN BRAIN

Scientists in the Month of June 2013 have created the world's first high-definition 3D model of a complete human brain which is named by Big Brain.

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The 3D model of a HUMAN BRAIN was prepared by mounting thin sliced sections of the wholebrain on slides. The stained sections were then scanned and reconstituted by supercomputers into a 3D model of an entire brain. The Scientist used a tool called a microtome by which they have sliced the postmoterm brain of a 65 year old woman preserved in paraffin wax into about 7400 sections each 20 microns thick and used it to create the most detailed map yet of a human brain. It has taken several years for supercomputers in Germany and Canada to reconstruct images of the slide-mounted thin sections into a 3D volume image of the brain, taking into account tears and wrinkles in individual slices of thin and thus fragile tissue. During the formation of Brain around 80 billions neurons were captured. It is conceived that Scientists from Canada and Germany spent 1000 years collecting the data and the total brain reconstruction has taken 10 years to complete. Some Facts About Big Brain The BigBrain is 250000 times more detailed than a regular brain scan. The Big Brain was created using 7400 individual slices from the brain of a deceased 65 -yearold woman. Each individual slice is half the width of a human hair. The brain can be seen in microscopic detail at a spatial resolution of 20 microns. The Brain shows the anatomy of a brain in microscopic detail for the first time ever - at a spatial resolution of 20 microns which is smaller than the size of one fine strand of hair and 250000 times more detailed than current MRI brain scans. The Big Brain presents the analytic details of organization of cerebral neurons at an unprecedented resolution of 20 micrometers, about 50 times higher than the resolution of previous atlases of the brain constructed from whole brain scans.

DRAYSON RACING ELECTRIC CAR ESTABLISHED NEW WORLD RECORD OF TOP SPEED OF 328.6 KMPH
Drayson Racing Technologies established the new world record on Federation Internationale de l'Automobile's (FIA) world electric land speed record when the lightweight electric powered car reached the top speed of 328.6 km per hour. The British team broke all the world land speed records for the lightweight electric car after the car named Lola B12 69/EV crossed the previous top speed record of 281.6kph at a Royal Air Force base in Yorkshire. The Chief Executive of Drayson Racing Technologies, Lord Drayson, who drove the car, explained that the car was designed to highlight about the technology potential of electronic vehicle. The previous record of top speed was 281.6kph, which was set up by Battery Box General electric in 1974.

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In order to be eligible for an attempt on Federation Internationale de l'Automobile's (FIA) world electric land speed record, Drayson Racing Technologies team needed to make the vehicle less than 1000 kg of weight without the driver. In order to achieve this eligibility, the team adapted Le Mans Series car which was designed by it earlier and had bio-ethanol fuel engine originally fitted into it. This engine was replaced by lightweight 20 kilowatt hour battery which offered 850 horsepower. Apart from this, the chassis of the vehicle was also adapted. The chassis was made from recycled carbon fibre, which enabled the car to minimise air friction.

CHINA ORGANISED FIRST CLASSROOM LECTURE FROM SPACE

China, on 20 June 2013 conducted the first classroom lecture from space which was given by female Chinese astronaut Wang Yaping. Wang Yaping, 33, addressed around 330 primary as well as middle school students at the High School Affiliated to Renmin University in Beijing through live video feed from space module Tiangong-1. Wang Yaping lectured the students while orbiting at 340 km above Earth at zero gravity in space. The lectured students included those from Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, m igrant workers families as well as of ethnic minorities. The CCTV network live broadcast was showcased to over 60 million students as well as the teachers at 80000 middle schools in China. Wang Yaping demonstrated the calculation of weight by the astronauts in space. In the meanwhile, she also answered the questions related to recycling of water in the orbiter, view from the orbiter as well as the space debris. Wang Yaping along with her crew commander Nie Haisheng and Zhang Xiaoguang left for the space on 11 June 2013 aboard Shenzhou-10 spacecraft. This spacecraft then docked with Tiangong space module on 13 June 2013. Wang Yaping is second Chinese female astronaut after Liu Yang.

SENSOR CHIP TO DETECT DISEASE FROM BLOOD DROP DESIGNED

Scientists at the New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) engineered a cutting-edge sensor chip which is capable of detecting the diseases just from the drop of blood. The study describes how the researchers- Reginald Farrow and Alokik Kanwal along with their team created a carbon nanotube-based device in order to rapidly and noninvasively detect the mobile single cells with potential of maintaining high degree of spatial resolution. Reginald Farrow, the research explained that with the help of sensors, the device was created which will enable the medical personnel to measure the electrical properties of the cells by simply putting s tiny drop of liquid on active area of the device.

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The researcher, in the meanwhile also explained that this was not the first time that such kind of work was brought out, but the unique property of this device is the technique with which the electrical properties or patterns of cells are measured. Also, the device can explain how electrical properties differentiate between the cell types.

ESO DISCOVERED DUSTY SURPRISE AROUND GIANT BLACK HOLE

European Southern Observatory (ESO) in the Month of June 2013 gathered the most detailed observations ever of the dust around a huge black hole at the centre of an active galaxy with the help of Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI). The astronomers found that the glowing dust is located above and below the torus rather than being located in a dough nut shaped torus around the black hole. As per the observations it was found that dust is being pushed away from the black hole as a cool wind disrupting the current theories and revealing, evolving supermassive black hole and its interacting with surroundings. Summing up all the last twenty years study by astronomers it was found that almost all galaxies have a huge black hole at their centre. Few of these black holes are growing by drawing in matter from their surroundings, which in turn is creating the process of formation of most energetic objects in the Universe: active galactic nuclei (AGN). According to the new observations of a nearby active galaxy called NGC 3783, harnessing the power of the VLTI at ESOs Paranal Observatory in Chile, have given a team of astronomers a surprise. The newly-discovered dust forms a cool wind which stream outside from the black hole. This wind must play an important role in the complex relationship between the black hole and its environment. The new observation made is going to lead a paradigm shift in the understanding of AGN. They are direct evidence that dust is being pushed out by the intense radiation.

SUPERMOON, LARGEST & BRIGHTEST MOON OF 2013 OBSERVED

The largest as well as the brightest moon of the year 2013, called the Supermoon was observed on 23 June 2013 as it passed the closest point to Earth. Supermoon is said to be that situation when the natural satellite of the Earth is closer to Earth in the orbit than every day. This effect can be noticed when it happens at same time like the full moon. Therefore the Supermoon seems very big, even though the only difference is in the distance from Earth. This kind of a moon is called Supermoon because of its very noticeable alignment. The distance of moon varies from Earth because it follows the elliptical orbit than the circular one.

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CONCEPT OF PERIGEE AND APOGEE

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NASA explained that in 2013, the Supermoon is around 14 percent larger as well as 30 percent brighter than the typical Full Moon. This happens when the moon reaches perigee, which is the closest distance that moon, can reach to Earth during course of its orbit. Perigee is a situation when the moon is around 356992 km away in comparison to 405696 km away, which is the farthest distance from the Earth (apogee).

EFFECTS OF SUPERMOON ON EARTH

The effects of Supermoon on Earth are very minor. It does not affect the E arths internal energy balance. Scientists explained that this will not cause any natural disasters. The only significant impact of Supermoon is on the tides. Next Supermoon would appear in August 2014.

RESEARCHERS DEVELOPED ECO-FRIENDLY BATTERY USING WOOD

Researchers from University of Maryland in third week of June 2013 developed an eco-friendly battery using wood, tin and sodium as raw materials. This battery is thousand times thinner than a paper and can store large amount of energy to last longer than a commercial battery. Use of sodium instead of lithium makes these batteries eco-friendly. Limitation of this battery is that it cant store energy as efficiently as the lithium battery and thus can be used at a power plant or to store solar energy, but not in the cell phones. Present day batteries are developed on the stiff surfaces to withstand the changing shape of the battery. Actually, the swell or shrink of the battery depends on the movement of the electrons but the wood fiber has the capability of supporting the changes due to the electron movement in context of the sodium ion battery. As per the study of the researchers, the woodbased batteries can last over 400 charging cycles. Researchers drew the inspiration of using the wood fiber from the trees, as wood fibers that make up a tree once held mineral-rich water, and so are ideal for storing liquid electrolytes, making them not only the base but an active part of the battery. As per the studies, the charging and discharging of these batteries several times brought wrinkles on the wood but it remained intact. The wrinkles on the wood supported the battery to survive for several cycles as it allowed the battery to relax the stress exerted during regular charging and discharging activity. Tins connection with its base also weakens, while pushing the Sodium ion tin anodes, but softness of the wood fiber serves as a mechanical buffer and accommodates following the changes of the tin. This phenomenon, acts a key of behind the longevity of the sodium-ion batteries.

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Liangbing Hu and Teng Li were the head of the team that worked on the project. This research was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation and the University of Maryland. The study details were published in the American Chemical Society Publications.

DEVAP AIR-COOLING SYSTEM TO BE USED IN NALANDA UNIVERSITY

Architects building Nalanda International University at Bihar decided to make use of the Desiccant Enhanced Evaporative or the Devap air-cooling system. It is the first time that this kind of system will be used in India. The Devap system functions by making use of dessicant material which gets rid of the moisture from using by making use of heat. The system also makes use of the evaporative technologies which bring cooling by making use of up to 90 percent less energy in comparison to the older methods. Rajeev Kathpalia, principal architect of the Ahmedabad-based company Vastu Shilpa Consultants explained that using the Devap system in Nalanda International University is very useful because this system easily gels up with the method of the ancient seat of learning. Using Devap in Nalanda will be an experiment because this system has never been used in India. Nalanda University will be constructed at Rajgir, which is situated around 100 km away from Patna. The construction of the University will take place on 446-acre plot, which is situated 12 km away from the ruins of ancient seat of learning. Construction would start in December 2013. The academic session of this university will begin in 2014. The buildings of Nalanda University would be designed on net zero energy consumption concept. Nalanda University would produce its energy by making use of the photo voltaics. The University additionally would collect biomass of neighbouring villages in order to generate electricity as well as harvest rainwater. The initiative of Nalanda University was taken up by former President of India, A.P.J. Abdul Kalam in the year 2006.

WHAT IS DEVAP AIR-COOLING SYSTEM?

The Devap air-cooling system provides solution to AC necessity. This system provides dehumidified, cold and clean air, but with an added advantage of less electricity and less energy-usage. It makes use of the chemical capabilities of desiccants. A desiccant is basically the hygroscopic substance which sustains or induces the dryness state in local vicinity in well-sealed container.

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The Devap air-cooling system was designed in order to replace the standard units of AC so that there was less difficulty regarding installation. It has been estimated that by making use of the Devap air-cooling system, the total energy savings are simulated to be somewhere between 40-80 percent. But the energy savings depend upon humidity level as well as geographical location. Devap air-cooling system is a good solution for curbing the greenhouse effect because of its energy efficiency as well as environmentally respectful chemicals. Though, this system has higher costs for commercial and residential units, but if operational costs are included, it becomes financially advantageous in the time span of just 30 years.

EARLY TSUNAMI WARNING SYSTEM INSTALLED IN RANGACHANG

Chief Scientist of the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Vinith Kumar on 11 June 2013 announced that the Early Tsunami Warning System (ETWS) installed at Rangachang in Andaman and Nicobar Islands can predict a tsunami immediately after an earthquake. Vinith Kumar claimed that the new technology installed can predict the Tsunami within 3 minutes after the initial tremors are felt and can send alerts. Following the alerts sent from the Tsunami Warning System, the tsunami alerts can be issued to the risk zones via Centre in consultation with Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services, INCOIS at Hyderabad. To benefit the fishermen, the National Institute of Ocean Technology has also installed 10 Fish Aggregating Devices (FAD) at ten locations in different islands namely Mayabandar, Dilgipur, Chidiayatapu, Hut Bay, Car Nicobar and Campbell Bay for the benefit of fishermen. The devices costs 10 lakh rupees each and has been designed and installed to improve the abilities of fish catching. The center has also developed an Islands Resource Information System (IRIS) for better exploitation of the resources. NIOT is also planning a solar desalination project in the islands.

INDIA-US SCIENCE BODY LAUNCHED SPACE SOLAR POWER INITIATIVE

India and a top US science body in Month of June 2013 have forged an international organisation to develop space solar power. The new solar power developed is an initiative that has that possibly can solve the humanitys energy needs and greatly extenuating climate change.

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Both the Country will give a direction and impetus to this movement to realise space solar power and its enabling technologies through international collaboration that can help rebuild our environmentally vulnerable planet. The eminent scientist of India Abdul Kalam and Executive Committee Chairman of the National Space Society of US, Mark Hopkins announced to have a clear plan of action to market the idea of a livable planet Earth through space solar power to G8 or G20 nations within a year. Both the countries are set to start team building and mission structuring phase with core members from nations who are contributing to the dream of harvesting energy from space, including the US, India, Japan, and UK. In his address to the 2013 National Space Societys International Space Development Conference (ISDC 2013) Mark Hopkins asserted to include specific mechanisms such as the Global Space Knowledge Platform, the International Virtual Laboratory, and the International Advisory Committee that Abdul Kalam has elaborated through discussion papers.

SCIENTISTS DEVELOPED NEW PROSPECTIVE BIOMATERIAL FOR BONE FORMATION

Scientists at Jadavpur University in the month of June 2013 discovered that zinc-doped hydroxyapatite (HAP) which is a calcium phosphate-based bio-ceramic material has a stimulatory effect on bone formation. Hydroxyapatite (HAP) is actually one of calcium phosphate-based bio-ceramic materials which form most of the inorganic components of human bones and teeth. It was also found that the bonding with bone was better for zinc-doped bicalcium phosphate than conventional ceramics. The benefit of Zinc is that it act to improve biological properties of synthetic HAP thus decreasing the inflammatory response and has an antibacterial effect. The scientists while synthesizing zinc doped Hap powder at Jadavpur University have also observed that it exhibits high compressive strength and hardness than the conventional HAP. The scientists have witnessed the pronounced new bone formation in doped HAP with the implantation on the tibia of an adult New Zealand rabbit for two months. The formation of osteons around zinc-doped HAP was also confirmed by the Histopathology. The scientists at Jadavpur University are also developing materials (composition of HAP and beta Tricalcium phosphate) doped with zinc which can be used for bone grafting.

TINY ARCHICEBUS FOSSIL OF OLDEST PRIMATE DISCOVERED IN CHINA

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Scientists, from the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China discovered a mouse-sized fossil, which provided new insights into the origin of Primates. The discovered fossil is 55 million years old and represents the earliest known member of the group of animals that includes humans. Scientists have named this creature Archicebus, which means ancient monkey. This specimen was discovered some ten years ago in the Jingzhou area of Hubei Province in China, by a local farmer but the researchers took time to describe the creature and its importance. The fossil of the Archicebus was discovered from two slate slabs and the scientists have discovered most of the key bones of the animal, which includes impression of its feet and rear limbs. The skeleton of the discovered fossil explains the branch that occurred at the very base of the primitive evolutionary tree. Archicebus has been put on the line that leads to tarsiers. Tarsiers are the collection of small arboreal animals that are found in south-east Asia. Archicebus will also help in understanding the emergence of tarsiers sister grouping the anthropoids (primates that include monkey, ape and human). The fossil suggests that these small creatures grew to cover the earth soon after the extinction of dinosaurs. It also suggests that the human ancestors were small animals, who were quite active and nimble and lived on trees. To study the fossil, the delicate slate pieces were sent to Grenoble, France for being imaged at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF). This giant machine uses brilliant X-rays to try to discern details of the skeleton that remain hidden inside the rock. The detailed study allowed the scientists to come up with the picture of the type of which Archicebus looked like. Thus it helped them to weigh its relationship with the primates and an idea about the first primates of earth a period when the earth was gripped in a period of outstanding global warming. Skeleton of Archicebus suggests that it used leap and grasp motion to move in the forests that covered the earth at that time. The pointed teeth indicate that it survived on insects and had high metabolic rate. Large eye sockets hint that they had good vision and were day time operators not a nocturnal animal. The finding of the report was published in Nature Magazine.

NE-RIST STUDENTS DESIGNED NEW SOLAR WATER HEATER

A new type of Solar Heater was designed by three young techies from the North Eastern Regional Institute of Science and Technology (NE-RIST). These new heaters contain a parabolic reflector that works in conjunction with the drum that contains water.

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Mechanism of the Solar Heater: Sun radiant energy is reflected by the aluminum dish of the solar heater into the drum with a lid at top. The radiant energy of the sun continuously falls on the earth and on a normal sunny day, about 1000 watt of energy per second is received by every square meter by the earth. The radiant energy from sun works on the principle on which the microwave and the electric oven functions, i.e. the energy doesnt rapidly heat the things but spreads, thus can be used for cooking, grilling, roasting and other purposes. The parabolic reflector has the capacity to raise the temperature of the water up to 139 degree C the temperature that is sufficient enough to cook cereals and vegetables. The three techies are the students of mechanical engineering from the institute namely Vikas Gautam, Suman Pao and Juwel Tripura. The newly designed solar heater can be used both for industrial and domestic purposes.

MICROSOFT UNVEILS WINDOWS 8.1

Microsoft released its updated version of its Windows 8 operating system known as Windows 8.1 at Taipei in Computex show, the second largest computer show of the world on 5 June 2013. Windows 8.1 will be made available on PCs as well as tablet computers in 2013. Windows 8.1 depicts bold vision of Windows 8 operating system because it also responds to the customer feedback and has various new features and functionality. Some of these features include the touch experience as well as mobile computing. The new operating system Windows 8.1 also features platform personalisation and search. It also restores the function of start button which was earlier removed from the Windows 8.

MOLECULE DESIGNED BY SCIENTISTS TO FIGHT PROSTRATE CANCER

Scientists at the University of Texas in Dallas on 28 May 2013 designed a novel, small molecule that could help in the treatment of prostate cancer. The molecules effectiveness lies in blocking the cancer-promoting function of proteins called androgen receptors. Androgen receptors are located inside cells. They have complex surfaces with several docking points where various proteins can bind to the receptor. Each docking point has got unique shape, so a molecule of correct shape will fit. Androgen hormones, such as testosterone are described as the primary molecules that bind to androgen receptors. Such binding triggers a series of events that activates various processes in the human body. It also stimulates the development and maintenance of male characteristics.

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SCIENTIST DISCOVERED NEW THREE-HORNED DINOSAUR

Scientists while analysing fossil records in the Month of May 2013 have discovered a new threehorned dinosaur, which is dated back 66 to 80 million years. The distinctive feature of the Three Horned Dinosaur is that it sported a hoodie-like growth on the back of its head. It differs from all other horned dinosaurs in the shape and arrangement of the scallops on the edge of the frill, which are large and triangular toward the front, and low and blunt toward the back. As per the researchers it may be the oldest known link of Triceratops and Torosaurus -- the best-known horned dinosaurs. As of today, fossil remains of at least 18 closely related dinosaurs from the region have been identified as distinct species. These species show up for just a couple million years, or even a far shorter time, before another species replaces it. The Fossil is linked to be with Judiceratops which is the earliest known member of the chasmosaurines, a group of horned dinosaurs characterised by an enlarged frill on the back of the skull. It does not appear to be a direct ancestor of Triceratops and Torosaurus. Judiceratops was basically a large plant-eating dinosaur which fed on low-growing vegetation, such as ferns, like other members of its family. It had two large horns over the brow and a smaller horn on its nose.

CAMERA SENSOR DEVELOPED THAT WOULD NOT NEED FLASH

Researchers at Nanyang Technological University (NTU) in Singapore developed an all-new as well as less-expensive camera sensor which is 1000 times more sensitive to the light. The recent development would help in clicking the photographs clearly even in the dim lights. The newly developed sensor is very sensitive to the infrared as well as visible light and it could easily be used for various applications, such as for clicking every-day pictures as well as for surveillance and satellites. The 1000 times more sensitive camera got high photoresponse from the very innovative structure. The sensor is composed of graphene. Graphene is the very strong carbon compound which has honeycomb structure. This honeycomb structure is flexible just like rubber and is also more conductive than the silicon. It also has the ability to resist the heat better than diamond. The inventor of this sensor, Wang Qijie explained that this was the very first time that high photosensitive and broad-spectrum sensor was made by making use of pure grapheme.

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Wang Qijie also explained that the innovation would provide help not just to the consumer imaging industry but also to the communication industries, mid-infrared application as well as satellite imaging. The principle behind this new and cheap sensor is use of the light-trapping nanostructures. These nanostructures make use of the graphene as its base. Unlike the conventional sensors, these nanostructures hold the light-generated electron particles for a very long time. Therefore, this helps in stronger electric signal which can then be processed in the image, just like the photograph captured by the digital camera. It is important to note that almost all the camera sensors used today make use of the metaloxide semiconductor as a base. The graphene base therefore is very effective for producing sharper and clearer images.

US SCIENTISTS DEVELOPED FIRST SMART RFID-ENABLED PAPER

The scientists at the North Dakota State University developed a process called Laser Enabled Advanced Packaging (Leap) which can help embed the radio frequency identification (RFID) chips on the paper. This process is cheaper and faster as well as it offers a range of applications than the present method. This technique is useful for preventing fraudulent practices. It also gives a new meaning to paper trail. In this process, lasers are used to transfer as well as assemble the chips on the paper. The paper would thus be called a smart paper, which in turn can be used for various purposes such as smart labels, banknotes, tickets and legal documents. These findings would be presented at Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers conference on RFID in Orlando, Florida. There are already some RFID-enabled papers in the market but chip are thicker, which leads to either bumpy surface or bulky paper. This means that such a paper would not be printed. The chips are at first, thinned by the plasma etcher. The technology is yet to be patented. It makes use of the laser beams energy in order to transfer the ultra-thin chips precisely. Antennas are embedded by making use of the same method. Prof Val Marinov, the Head of the project explained that this process was twice faster than the present method of manufacturing. It is also cheaper because of less material used. Therefore, there is an extensive potential for this technology. Prof Val Marinov also explained that the European bank and Bank of Japan had hinted towards their intention for development of this technology, but they did not go for it. Therefore, the technology developed by the US scientists is the first one which demonstrates the functional RFID tag embedded in paper. The team that developed the technology is now looking for the commercial partners of this technology.

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WHAT IS RFID?

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RFID is expanded as Radio-frequency identification. RFID is primarily the wireless non-contact application of the radio-frequency electromagnetic fields for transferring data. It is used for automatic identification as well as tracking the tags which are attached to the objects. The tags are encompassed with electronically stored information. Some of these tags are powered as well as read at the short ranges through the electromagnetic induction or magnetic fields. Other tags make use of the local power source like battery, but they collect the energy from interrogating EM field.

ISRO NAVIGATION CENTRE INAUGURATED BY V. NARAYANASAMY NEAR BENGALURU

V. Narayanasamy, the Minister of State in the Prime Ministers Office, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Bengaluru, inaugurated ISRO Navigation Centre (INC), established at Indian Deep Space Network (IDSN) complex at Byalalu, about 40 km from Bangalore on 28 May 2013. The ISRO Navigation Centre (INC) is the important element of Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), which is an independent navigation satellite system developed by India. At the inauguration event, V. Narayanasamy also gave the awards instituted by Astronautical Society of India (ASI) and ISRO.

ABOUT INDIAN REGIONAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM (IRNSS)

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) will have a total of seven satellites network and it will enable the users in determining the location as well as time accurately. All these satellites will be positioned in the geostationary and inclined geosynchronous orbits 36000 km above the surface of the Earth. The coverage of IRNSS will extend all over India and its neighbourhood. All the IRNSS satellites are equipped with high precision atomic clocks and continuously transmit navigation signals to users. IRNSS will have an overall network of twenty one ranging stations geographically distributed in India. These stations will facilitate data for orbit determination of IRNSS satellites and monitoring of the navigation signals.

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ROLE OF ISRO NAVIGATION CENTRE (INC)

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The ISRO Navigation Centre (INC) will remain the focal point of critical operations of IRNSS. The INC is responsible for providing the time reference, generation of navigation messages and monitoring and control of ground facilities which include ranging stations of IRNSS. INC will also host various technical facilities for supporting various navigation functions. The data from overall network of twenty one ranging stations of IRNSS will be sent to the data processing facility at INC where it will be processed to generate the navigation messages. The navigation messages in turn will be transmitted from INC to IRNSS satellites through the spacecraft control facility at Hassan. INC is also connected to ranging stations as well as the satellite control facilities through two highly reliable dedicated communication networks which consist of satellite and terrestrial links. The host of network of satellite communication links is INC.

RESEARCHERS REVIVED CENTURIES-OLD FROZEN PLANTS CALLED BRYOPHYTES FROM TEARDROP GLACIER
Researchers at the University of Alberta announced that the plants which were frozen centuries ago were sprouting with new growth. Samples of the bryophytes, 400-year-old plants bloomed under certain laboratory conditions. Researchers declared that this reflected the recovery of ecosystems from the cyclic long periods of ice coverage of the Earth. The group of researchers was making exploration in area around the Teardrop Glacier which is situated in Canadian Arctic. This regions glaciers are receding at a rapid pace (around 3 -4 m annually) since 2004. This is also the place where it is said that the light of daytime has not reached since Little Ice Age, the widespread cooling which took place from 1550 AD to 1850 AD. The lead author of the study, Catherine La Farge explained that huge populations of bryophytes were observed from beneath the glacier which reflected a greenish tinge. Bryophytes are very different from land plants. These plants do not have any vascular tissue. This means that these plants can survive without drying up even in the long Arctic winters. Eventually, these plants grow in warmer times. The researchers observed new growth of the green lateral branches on the stems of the plant. A lot of other species were observed in the Teardrop Glacier and almost all these are completely unknown to science.

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SOLAR IMPULSE PLANE HB-SIA SET A NEW DISTANCE RECORD

The Solar Impulse plane HB-SIA set a new distance record for solar-powered flight on the second leg of its trans-American journey on 22 May 2013. The craft landed in Dallas, Texas, after an 18-hour flight and a journey of 1541 km from Phoenix to Arizona. In the coming weeks, the craft will make a stop-over at St Louis, Missouri, and Washington DC before heading to New York in early July. The objective of this project named as Across America is to showcase the capabilities of renewable energy. The Across America is termed as the first cross-continental, solar powered flight. The Solar Impulse HB-SIA has the same wingspan as an Airbus A340. The plane's wing and stabiliser are covered with approximately 12000 solar cells, which drive its four propellers and charge the plane's 400kg of lithium-ion batteries for night-time flying.

LOST APOLLO 11 MOON DUST DISCOVERED AFTER 40 YEARS IN CALIFORNIA LAB

In a rare kind of discovery, various priceless vials of Moon dust which were gathered by one and only Apollo 11 by the late Neil Armstrong, and Buzz Aldrin were found after almost 40 years in the lab warehouse of California. Vials of the Moon Dust brought on Earth by Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were discovered in the month of April 2013 by an archivist, Karen Nelson in the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, California. Apollo 11 returned from the historic flight in the year 1969. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin collected the lunar soil and brought to Earth, which was sent to around 150 laboratories across the world. One of these labs was Space Sciences Laboratory in Latimer Hall on the UC Berkeley campus. But, after experiments were done and publications of the papers, the lunar soil samples should have been sent to NASA but they were found in storage for over four decades. Karen Nelson discovered these samples of Moon Dust with handwritten labels which dated back to 24 July 1970.

INDIA TEST FIRED BRAHMOS SUPERSONIC CRUISE MISSILE

India on 22 May 2013 successfully test fired the 290-km range BrahMos supersonic cruise missile from the Navy's latest guided missile frigate INS Tarkash off the coast of Goa. The missile performed the high-level 'C' manoeuvre in the pre-determined flight path and successfully hit the target. Jointly developed by India and Russia, the BrahMos is capable of

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carrying a conventional warhead of 300 kg. India is readying several different versions of the missile which includes land attack, anti-ship and submarine- launched versions.

SCIENTISTS DISCOVERED THAT VITAMIN C KILLS TUBERCULOSIS

Scientists recently discovered that Vitamin C kills tuberculosis. Scientists in an experiment managed to kill lab-grown tuberculosis (TB) bacteria with good old Vitamin C. This scientific discovery will lead to better, cheaper drugs. A team from Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York made the finding while researching how TB bacteria become resistant to the TB drug isoniazid. TB was declared a global health emergency by the World Health Organisation (WHO) 20 years ago, but remains a leading cause of death by an infectious disease despite a 41-percent drop in the death rate from 1990 to 2011. As per WHO data, in 2011, 8.7 million people fell ill with TB and 1.4 million died.

OPPORTUNITY ROVER OF NASA BROKE THE 40-YEAR-OLD EXTRATERRESTRIAL DISTANCE RECORD

The Opportunity rover of NASA broke the 40-year-old extraterrestrial distance record on 16 May 2013, after 9 long years of Mars exploration. The six-wheeled robot, Opportunity created record by travelling a total distance of 35.760 kilometres ever since it landed on Mars in 2004. The team that operates Opportunity received a confirmation in transmission from the Red Planet that opportunity drove 80 metres on 16 May 2013, thus bringing its overall odometry to 35.760 km since its landing on Mars. When the astronauts of Apollo 17, Harrison Schmitt and Eugene Cernan visited the Moon for three days in 1972, they drove the roving vehicle for 35.744 km or 19.3 nautical miles. Since then, this was the farthest overall distance travelled by any NASA vehicle that drove on world apart from Earth. At present, the international record of extraterrestrial distance is held by remote-controlled Lunokhod 2 rover of Soviet Union that travelled 37 km on Moon in 1973.

NASA'S OBSERVATORY DISCOVERED EXOTIC NEUTRON STARS

Scientists from the NASA Obsevatory in the month of May 2013 have found that magnetars the dense remains of dead stars that erupt periodically with bursts of high-energy radiation may be more diverse and common than earlier considered. It is found that when a massive star runs out of fuel, its core collapses to form a neutron star, which is an ultra-dense object about 16 to 24 kilometres wide. The gravitational energy

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released in this process blows the outer layers away in a supernova explosion and leaves the neutron star behind. Most magnetars have extremely high magnetic fields on their surface that are ten to a thousand times stronger than for the average neutron star. As per the observations it was show that the magnetar known as SGR 0418+5729 (SGR 0418 for short) does not fit that pattern. It has a surface magnetic field similar to that of mainstream neutron stars. The researchers monitored SGR 0418 for over three years using Chandra, ESAs XMM -Newton as well as NASAs Swift and RXTE satellites. They were able to make an accurate estimate of the strength of the external magnetic field by measuring how its rotation speed changes during an X-ray outburst. These outbursts are likely caused by fractures in the crust of the neutron star precipitated by the buildup of stress in a relatively strong, wound-up magnetic field lurking just beneath the surface.

CANADIAN SCIENTISTS: NEURON GROWTH CUTS MEMORY SPACE

Canadian scientists discovered that the reason we struggle to recall memories from our early childhood is due to high levels of neuron production during the first years of life. The formation of new brain cells increases the capacity for learning but also clears the mind of old memories. The findings were presented to the Canadian Association of Neuroscience. Neurogenesis or the formation of new neurons in the hippocampus, a region of the brain known to be important for learning and remembering, reaches its peak before and after birth. It then declines steadily during childhood and adulthood. Scientists wanted to find out how the process of new neuron generation impacted on memory storage. They carried out their research on younger and older mice in the lab.

NASA TO LEASE HISTORIC LAUNCH PAD OF FIRST MOON MISSION

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is looking forward to lease out the historic launch pad in Florida that was used for the first moon mission and by the Atlantis Shuttle to commercial operators. The Launch complex of 39A at the Kennedy Space Centre in Cape Canaveral has not been in use since the retirement of Atlantis in 2011. NASA expects that at least two privately-owned space exploration companies can bid for the contract. The Launch Complex 39A is one of the two launch pads that was built during 1960s as part of the Apollo Moon Programme and has supported more than 90 launches since November 1967. NASA is looking forward to lease the Complex 39A because since 2011, after the end of NASAs space shuttle programme the facilities have not been in use.

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More than 150 facilities at Florida Spaceport has been demolished or transferred to commercial operators. NASAs commitment towards right-sizing its portfolio is based on reduction of the number of underused facilities or the facilities which are not required for Space Launch System and Orion. The Space Launch System and Orion is the next generation deep space mission of NASA and are designed for carrying the astronauts to destinations past the international space station.

FIRST AND ONLY SATELLITE OF ECUADOR, PEGASO COLLIDED WITH RUSSIAN SPACE DEBRIS
The only satellite of Ecuador, Pegaso (Pegasus) nanosatellite collided with the Russian space debris, the Ecuadorean space agency (EXA) announced on 23 May 2013. The Pegasus collided with the Russian rocket debris which was launched 30 years ago. The hit took place around 1000 miles above the east coast of Madagascar. Pegaso (Pegasus) nanosatellite was launched on 25 April 2013 in Jiuquan spaceport in China. It is important to note that the only purpose of this satellite was nothing more than transmitting video images as well as sending Morse Code Signals from the space. Russia will launch another satellite in July on behalf of Ecuador. This satellite is named Kryasor. Pegasus is the first and only satellite in the space from Ecuador. The US-based Joint Space Operations Center explained that the crash did not take place directly but there was a lateral collision with the particles of Russian rocket. US-based Joint Space Operations Center is responsible for monitoring all the artificial objects that orbit around the Earth. The Joint Space Operations Center keeps an eye on over 22000 objects which orbit the Earth. Out of these, 87 percent are debris and inactive satellites. It would still take 48 hours time duration to find out the damage by making use of radar. Pegasus is a nanosatellite which weighs merely 1.2 kg. It has been orbiting Earth at the height of 650 km and transmits pictures from the space.

MANGALORE UNIVERSITY AND BARC SIGNED MoU

The University Science Instrumentation Centre at Mangalagangotri and Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) signed a memorandum of understanding (MoU) for conducting collaborative research on amount of radioactivity in Chitradurga district. Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) and Mangalore University, in the month of May 2013, decided to conduct the collaborative research on quantity of radioactivity in or around Dodda Ullarti near Challakere in Chitradurga district. BARC is constructing its new campus on 1810 acres.

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There will be a special material facility whose aim would be upgrade the nuclear fuel which in turn will be used for applications such as strategic purposes as well as power production.

OBJECTIVE OF THE MoU

The objective of this MoU is carrying out detailed and independent study in order to establish the extensive baseline database on radiation levels as well as radionuclides in or around Dodda Ullarti. Also, the aim is to conduct study for understanding concentration of stable elements in environment around the area of Dodda Ullarti.

In order to facilitate the detailed and independent study, environmental samples (which include aquatic, atmospheric and terrestrial samples) will be gathered from around this project site, within the 30 km radius. Detailed analysis would be conducted on 222 Rn concentrations in outdoor as well as indoor air and in the ground water as well. 222 Rn is the colourless, radon, radio-active gas which is formed during the process when uranium and thorium decay into lead.

MARS ROVER DISCOVERED ROCK ESPERANCE IS WEATHERED BY WATER

Mars Rover, Opportunity of NASA in the third week of May 2013 completed examining the fractured rocks on Mars, the red planet those were altered by water. The rover was searching for the evidences of the wet ancient environment that possibly favoured the life of the planet Now the Opportunity has been driven towards a new study area after finishing 20 months on the dubbed Cape York location. The scientists from NASA gave several weeks to study and get the measurement of the fractured rock named Esperance, which was important for them from many aspects. Esperance was spotted by the team of NASA, while exploring a portion of Cape York, where the Compact Reconnaissance Spectrometer for Mars on NASAs Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter detected the clay mineral. After studying the area, the rover team found an outcrop called Whitewater Lake that has a small amount of clay altered due to its exposure to clay.

RUSSIAN CAPSULE BION-M RETURNED FROM SPACE TOUR

A Russian Capsule Bion-M craft that was filled with 45 mice and 15 newts along with other animals returned from a months long mission in Orbit on 19 May 2013. The data received on the return of the orbit mission may pave a way ahead for the scientists for a manned flight to Mars.

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The study was aimed at determining the way bodies adapted the weightlessness so that the living creatures can survive the extended flights. Other animals those were sent in the capsule were lizards, snails, small crayfish & fish and gerbils as well as plants and micro flora. Less than half of the 45 mice and other animals sent on the mission survived the flight. The capsule was launched on 19 April 2013 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Earlier, research craft that carried animals into the space spent 12 days in orbit in 2007. Bion-M craft landed in the Orenburg Region about 1,200 kilometres south-east of Moscow with the help of a special parachute system.

SCIENTISTS DISCOVERED A NEW LESS EXPENSIVE TECHNIQUE OF CREATING 3D IMAGES

Scientists at University of Glasgow's School of Physics and Astronomy discovered a new less expensive technique of creating 3D images. They created a system which makes use of the detectors that have single pixel for sensing the light instead of various pixels used in imaging sensors found in digital cameras. The detectors have the capability of judging the frequencies beyond visible light, which in turn would help in various new applications for 3D imaging in geography and medicine. The scientists explained that the single pixel detectors will cost just a few pounds in comparison to present systems which amount to thousands of pounds. The scientists believe that the ability of this system to sense the wavelengths beyond digital cameras capabilities, as well as its low cost would result in making it a valuable tool for various industries. Possible applications include use in medical industry for finding tumours. Prof Miles Padgett, the lead researcher of the team at University of Glasgow's School of Physics and Astronomy explained that single pixel detectors in four locations can be used for detecting the light from data projector, which elucidates objects with the sequence of black-and-white patterns. 3D images were created with the combination of images from four detectors while making use of a technique known as shape from shade. The 3D computational imaging, also known as ghost imaging produces the detailed images of the objects in merely a few seconds. Conventional 3D imaging systems make use of multiple digital camera sensors for producing 3D image from 2D information. However, there is a need of careful calibration for making sure that multi-megapixel images align properly. The digital camera sensors have restricted sensitivity beyond spectrum of light, where single pixel detector can be used for capturing information beyond visible reaching wavelengths from the X-ray to TeraHertz.

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CLUSTER OF HYDROGEN CLOUDS DISCOVERED BETWEEN TWO NEAREST GALAXIES

Astronomers at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory discovered a cluster of hydrogen clouds between our two nearby galaxies- Triangulum (M33) and Andromeda (M31). The cluster of these clouds was never seen before. The researchers contemplated that these were the rare blobs of gas condensed from gigantic and undetected pool of ionized and hot gas. These objects were detected by the astronomers by making use of National Science Foundation's Green Bank Telescope (GBT) at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) in Green Bank. Spencer Wolfe of West Virginia University in Morgantown explained that when the area between M31 and M33 was observed, presence of neutral and colder hydrogen was detected but the astronomers were not able to find out if this hydrogen had any definitive structure or not. But with the help of high resolution images sent by GBT, the astronomers were able to see distinct concentrations of neutral hydrogen which emerged from featureless field of gas. The astronomers were able to see neutral atomic hydrogen, also referred to as HI (H and the Roman numeral one). This is because of the unique signal that it emits at the radio wavelengths that can be detected on our planet by the radio telescopes. It is interesting to notice that this material is found abundantly throughout the universe, but in space between the galaxies, it is very shaky. Also, between the two signals, it sends very faint signals which are very difficult to catch. Astronomers explained that more than 10 years ago, they had hint about unrecognized abundance of hydrogen lying between M31 and M33. But because of very faint signal from the gas, no firm conclusions about the origin, nature or its existence could be made. But in 2012, data from GBT confirmed the presence of hydrogen gas between the nearest galaxies. Thorough studies of the data from GBT revealed that presence of hydrogen gas was not there in the form of just streamers but a complete 50 percent of hydrogen was clustered into discrete and self-gravitating blobs. These blobs could also hint towards dwarf galaxies, which, as the name says, are small collection of stars tied together by gravitational pull. These dwarf galaxies contain a few thousands to few million stars. Interestingly, GBT also tracked motion of the newly discovered clouds of hydrogen, depicting that these were travelling across the space at velocities which were like M31 and M33. Felix J. Lockman, the astronomer from NRAO in Green Bank explained that the clouds had their own identities and that they were not suburbs of either of the two galaxies. The reason why GBT could detect the signal from the gas is because of it huge size, exceptional design and location at National Radio Quiet Zone of West Virginia. Otherwise, radio telescopes could not catch these faint signals.

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National Radio Astronomy Observatory is the facility of National Science Foundation which is operated under the cooperative agreement by Associated Universities.

SCIENTISTS FROM SWITZERLAND CREATED WORLD'S SMALLEST DROPLETS

Scientists from Switzerland created the smallest drops of liquid ever made in the lab. Scientists carried out a series of experiments at the Large Hadron Collider, the worlds largest and most powerful particle collider located at the European Laboratory for Nuclear and Particle Physics (CERN) in Switzerland. Evidence of the tiny droplets was obtained following the collision of protons with lead ions at velocities approaching the speed of light. These short-lived droplets are the size of three to five protons-that is about one-100000th the size of a hydrogen atom or one-100000000th the size of a virus according to scientific calculation. These small droplets flow in a same manner as quark-gluon plasma does. It can be defined as a state of matter that is a mixture of the subatomic particles that constitutes protons and neutrons and only found at extreme temperatures and densities. Scientists proposed that the whole universe once consisted of this strongly interacting elixir for fractions of a second after the Big Bang when conditions were dramatically hotter and denser than todays conditions. Since then the universe has spent billions of years expanding and cooling, the only way scientists can reproduce this primeval plasma is to bang atomic nuclei together with a very large amount of energy.

ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY IN CHINA PRODUCED WO RLDS LIGHTEST SUBSTANCE CALLED CARBON AEROGEL
Zhejiang University in China in May 2013 announced that the team of scientists produced an ultra-light substance known as carbon aerogel, which has the density of 0.16 milligrams per cubic centimeters. The scientists claimed that this was the lightest material ever produced by anyone. The carbon aerogel is made of granite as well as the carbon nanotubes which can absorb around 900 times its own body weight. The lead scientist, Professor Gao Chao explained that carbon aerogel was structure-wise, just like carbon sponge. When the aerogel with the size of a mug was put on Setaria, then even the grass would not bend. Professor Gao Chao also explained that the carbon aerogel can provide effective solutions to major problems like cleaning oil spills as well as pollution control.

WHAT ARE AEROGELS?

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Aerogels are primarily produced by extraction of liquid component of the gel through supercritical drying. This enables liquid to slowly dry off without having an impact on solid matrix. This means that the solid matrix in gel does not collapse from the capillary action, which would take place with conventional evaporation. First aerogels were manufactured from the silica gels. Samuel Stephens Kistler in 1931 produced aerogels based on tin dioxide, chromia and alumina. First carbon aerogels were developed in late 1980s.

ISRO PLANNED TO LAUNCH GSLV D5 TO PLACE THE COMMUNICATION SATELLITE GSAT-14 IN ORBIT
Scientists at ISRO will launch a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle, GSLV D5 from the spaceport in Sriharikota in July 2013. The announcement of the launch schedule was announced by Union Minister, V Narayanasamy on 16 May 2013. The GSLV D5 that is fitted with the indigenously developed Cryogenic Engine will place a communication satellite GSAT-14 into orbit. Russia denied India from offering a cryogenic engine as a result of which, the Indian scientists started their work for development of the GSLV D5 with cryogenic engine.

ABOUT GSAT-14
It is a satellite with six extended C band and 6 Ku band transponders The communication satellite GSAT-14 will enhance the communication transponder capacity

Earlier, two attempts of ISRO to launch the satellites GSLV-F06 carrying satellite GSAT-5P on 25 December 2010 and GSLV-D3 carrying satellite GSAT-4 on 15 April 2010 resulted in a failure.

RESEARCHERS DISCOVERED NEW SPECIES OF DRAGONFLY IN GOA

Researchers in the Month of May 2013 discovered a new species of dragonfly from a wildlife sanctuary in Goa. The new species was spotted at Bhagwan Mahaveer Wildlife sanctuary at Collem in south Goa by researchers Parag Rangnekar and Rohan Naik in collaboration with Dr K A Subramanian, the scientist with Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. The species is scientifically named as (Idionyx Gomantakensis), and is restricted to evergreen forest. As per the researchers, most of the species of this genus are known from South India, while Goa has two.

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It is important here to note that, the research was conducted under the banner of Mineral Foundation of Goa and supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Government of Goa. The government wild be conducting focused surveys could result in discovery of more species from the state.

SOME POINTS TO REMEMBER ABOUT DRAGONFLY

Dragonflies and Damselflies belong to the Order Odonata. This group of insects is dependent on water for completion of their life-cycle and hence the quality of water defines the species composition. The group was an excellent indicator of the health of a water body and can be effectively used in bio-monitoring.

US SCIENTISTS CREATED FIRST CLONED HUMAN EMBRYO

A group of US Scientists in second week of May 2013 declared that they have succeeded in creating a cloned human embryo using the technique that helped in developing the cloned sheep in 1996. The scientists took fifteen years to create the cloned embryo. The team of scientists developed the embryo using skin samples of a womans egg to develop an early cloned human embryo. Aim of this research is development of a source of stem cells not a baby. These can be helpful in repair of damage created after heart attack or brains of patients of Parkinsons disease. Somatic Cell Nuclear transfer technique was used in development of the embryo and it is the same technique that was used for developing the Ship Dolly, the first cloned animal in 1996.

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ANGELINA JOLIE UNDERWENT DOUBLE MASTECTOMY TO REDUCE CHANCES OF BREAST CANCER

Angelina Jolie, the Hollywood actress on 14 May 2013 revealed that she has undergone double mastectomy for reduction of her chances of getting Breast Cancer. She took the decision of undergoing mastectomy as she was tested positive for a genetic mutation known as BRCA1. BRCA1 presents a high risk of developing breast and ovarian cancer in a female. Angelina Jolies step of revealing the secret of mastectomy was largely applauded as this will influence many women across the world with strong family histories of breast cancer to get genetic tests done. Earlier before Angelina Jolie, in the history of breast cancer the defining moment occurred in 1974, when Betty Ford, the first lady of United States wife of Gerald Ford reveled about her mastectomy to spread awareness about breast cancer.

ABOUT BRCA1 AND BRCA 2

BRCA 1 BRCA1 is a human caretaker gene that produces a protein called breast cancer susceptibility gene 1, responsible for repairing DNA. It has been linked with the hereditary breast and ovarian cancer in a female and prostate cancer in men. It also increases chances of cervical, uterine, pancreatic and colon cancer. BRCA 2 BRCA 2 is a protein found inside cells and is called breast cancer susceptibility gene 2. BRCA 2 also belongs to the tumor suppressor gene family and the protein encoded by these genes are involved in repair of the chromosomal damage and plays an important role in free repair of DNA double strand breaks. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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SCIENTISTS DESIGNED PEPTIDE-BASED DELIVERY PLATFORMS TO CURE CANCER

Scientists at CSIR-Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology (CCMB) invented peptide-based delivery platforms for targeting tumours. This can be helpful in curing Cancer. The scientists developed this platform by using bacterial fermentation to bind DNA or small interfering RNA (siRNA) or short hairpin RNA (shRNA) and delivering them into cells to target tumours. Given that DNA, siRNA and shRNA are negatively-charged, they need carriers like recombinant proteins. The benefit of DNA or siRNA is that they help in silencing the targeted genes. For example, if the TF gene involved in new blood vessel formation is silenced, the tumour will degenerate. At CCMB, the scientists developed chimeric peptide by fusing three peptide modules to deliver DNA or shRNA for degenerating tumours. Chimeric proteins with varied functional properties can be obtained from any organism or a virus and produced in bacterial factories using standard practices of recombinant DNA method. The advantage of using chimeric proteins is that they could be changed to target different tumours. Scientists are making efforts to evolve peptide-based platform technology with other homing ligands recognising different targets.

A NEW TYPE OF WHEAT DEVELOPED TO INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY

British scientists developed a new type of wheat which could increase productivity by 30 percent. The last 15 years have registered little growth in the average wheat harvest from each acre in Britain. The Cambridge-based National Institute of Agricultural Botany combined an ancient ancestor of wheat with a modern variety to produce a new strain. The scientists used cross-pollination and seed embryo transfer technology to transfer some of the resistance of the ancient ancestor of wheat into modern British varieties. The resulting crop turned out to be bigger and stronger than the current modern wheat varieties. Scientists will carry out more tests before it is harvested by farmers. This Scientific development ensures that the global food security demands of the next five decades can be met.

BENEFITS OF EXPOSING SKIN TO SUN CAN OUTWEIGH RISKS OF SKIN CANCER: RESEARCH
Edinburgh University research suggested that the benefits of exposing the skin to sun can outweigh the risks posed to health. The research indicated that sunlight is useful for reducing the blood pressure, stroke risks as well as risks of heart attack. It can even prolong the life.

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It was found that the ultraviolet rays exposed from the sun release a compound called nitric oxide which can lower the blood pressure. The heart strokes as well as heart diseases which are associated with high BP can prove to be 80 times more fatal than the deaths due to skin cancer in UK. Nitric Oxide production is different from the manufacturing of vitamin D in human body. Vitamin D can be increased in the body after exposure to the sunlight. During their research, the researchers studied blood pressure of 24 volunteers under heat and UV lamps. In a single session, these volunteers were exposed to heat of the lamps as well as the UV rays. In the other session, volunteers were not exposed to the UV rays and so, they were exposed only to the heat of lamps. The result indicated that volunteers exposed to UV rays during one hour session had significant drop in the blood pressure level, than that of heat-only sessions. The researchers thus suggested that the UV rays of the sun can lead to benefits. During both the sessions, the level of Vitamin D remained unaffected. The study will be presented in Edinburgh on 10 May 2013 at largest gathering of the skin experts, International Investigative Dermatology conference.

IISC DESIGNED A NEW CONCEPT OF VACCINE DELIVERY SYSTEM

The Indian Institute of Science (IISc) designed and successfully tested a new concept of needleless vaccine delivery system in the laboratory. IISc has become the only organization in the world that has developed such a device. The new device was the result of collaboration among the laboratory for hypersonic and shock wave, the department of aerospace engineering, and the microbiology and cell biology department of the Indian Institute of Science. Typhoid vaccine was successfully delivered into mice in laboratory using the new technique. The device utilizes the instantaneous mechanical impulse produced by micro-blast waves to achieve delivery of vaccines into mice. A negligible amount of chemical energy is used to generate the micro-blast wave inside a small disposable plastic tube. Since the depth of penetration of drug below the skin is not much, animals do not feel the pain during vaccine delivery. The trials on animals have proved that by using this device a lesser quantity of vaccines is sufficient to provide resistance to animals against in comparison to conventional methods. The new system is safe, economical and painless.

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SOLAR IMPULSE, THE SUN-POWERED AIRCRAFT COMPLETED FIRST LEG OF JOURNEY TO CROSS US
Solar Impulse, the plane powered by Sun completed its first leg of journey with an aim to cross US. The plane took off from San Francisco, California on 3 May 2013 and landed in Phoenix, Arizona on 4 May 2013. It is planned that Solar Impulse will also halt in Dallas, St Louis, Washington DC and New York. The wingspan of the plane is similar to that of Airbus A340, but its weight is merely 1.6 tonnes. Solar Impulse already completed a flight which lasted more than 26 hours. The aim is now to circumnavigate it around the world in 2015. This indicated that Solar Impulse spent a lot of hours in darkness and relied only on energy which was stored in a range of lithium-ion batteries, used to drive the propellers. In the daylight, these lithium-ion batteries were charged by around 12000 solar cells which cover the wings as well as stabilizer of the plane. Bertrand Piccard, the co-founder of this plane project was the pilot of HB-SIA craft. He is also the same person who circumnavigated the globe in hot air balloon in 1999. This is the first ever attempt of America to create zero-fuel aircraft. At present, the HB-SIA aircraft is the prototype of plane which will be used for round-the-world trips as well as transoceanic flights. By the end of 2013, HB-SIB will be completed. The Solar Impulse is said to be the Clean Generation Initiative of the creators. This would serve as an effort for encouraging the policy makers as well as businesses for the development as well as adoption of sustainable energy technologies.

WHAT IS SOLAR IMPULSE?

Solar Impulse is the Swiss long-range solar-powered project. The aim of this project is to circumnavigate the globe with the use of just solar power. Bertrand Piccard as well as Swiss businessman Andr Borschberg led the project. Successful solar flights were conducted by Piccard and Borschberg in 2012 from Switzerland to Spain and Morocco. In 2013, successful flight was taken within USA.

CHEAP AND EFFECTIVE METHOD DEVISED TO PRODUCE CLEAN DRINKING WATER

A team led by an IIT-Madras professor devised a cheap and effective method for producing clean drinking water. With this device in place, 10 liters of water could be produced which will be free from bacteria and virus. The total cost for producing this amount of water will be 10-12 rupees per month. The team headed by T Pradeep used silver nanoparticles in his device.

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Silver nanoparticles are not only affordable but they also do not need electricity or hydrostatic pressure to produce potable water. They can operate at ambient temperatures ranging from 535 degrees Celsius. Moreover, the production of the nanoparticle matrix is eco-friendly. The team applies sustained release of about 50 parts per billion (ppb) of silver ions in a large volume of water to destroy microorganisms. Silver ions have the ability to destroy the integrity of cell membranes and damage DNA. To achieve this, Scientists prepared a composite of aluminium oxy-hydroxide on which silver nanoparticles were deposited. The composite with silver nanoparticles is in the form of sand grains.

WORLDS FIRST GUN MA DE FROM 3D PRINTER TECHNOLOGY FIRED SUCCESSFULLY

The first gun of the world made out of 3D printer technology was fired successfully in US. Defense Distributed created this firearm and the form also planned to make these blueprints available online. Defense Distributed spent a year for creation of this firearm, which was fired successfully on 4 May 2013 at firing range south of Austin, Texas. The anti-gun campaigners criticised this project, while the law enforcement of Europe is monitoring the developments of this project. Victoria Baines of cybercrime centre of Europol explained that the criminals at present were likely to pursue the established routes for obtaining these firemans, but with the passage of time, the 3D printer technology would become more user-friendly as well as cost-effective, thereby posing risks. Cody Wilson, 25, a student of the University of Texas is the head of Defense Distributed. 3D printing has successfully been called the future of manufacturing.

WORKING OF THE 3D PRINTER TECHNOLOGY

The 3D printer technology works by building layer upon layer of the material, which is basically plastic. This is done in order to build the complex and solid objects. This technology is cheaper and instead of buying the goods from markets, the consumers will be able to download its designs. Then these can be printed out at the home itself.

However, like all technologies, there are advantages as well as disadvantages. The first gun of the world made out of 3D printer technology cost 8000 US dollar from eBay. The gun was assembled from different printed components which were made out of ABS plastic. The firing pin was made out of metal.

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Cody Wilson was fiven the manufacturing as well as sellers license from US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) in order to make this gun. US Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) official Donna Sellers explained that the gun was legal in US as long as it wasnt a National Firearms Act weapon. 3D printing technology was used in the past by certain criminal organisations for creation of card readers skimmers, which are inserted in the bank machines. Law enforcement agencies across the world have professionals for monitoring cybercrimes.

FIRST GLOBAL MODEL DEVELOPED TO ANALYSE ROUTES OF MARINE SPECIES

Scientists developed the first global model that analyses the routes taken by marine invasive species. They examined the movements of cargo ships across the world to detect the hot spots where these aquatic aliens could thrive. Marine species wreak havoc in new locations causing the extinction of natives. A welldocumented boom has been observed in global shipping over the last 20 years and this has resulted into growing numbers of species moving via ballast tanks. The ports such as San Francisco and Chesapeake Bay have informed about several exotic new species arriving every year. Economic data indicates that marine invaders can have effects that last for decades. Therefore, scientists came out with a model that can curb these marine species. They procured detailed logs from nearly three million voyages that happened in 2007 and 2008.

SCIENTISTS FOUND IN HYPOTHALAMUS MECHANISM RESPONSIBLE FOR AGEING

The US team of scientists found the mechanism in the hypothalamus- which is located deep inside the brain- and showed that it is responsible for the ageing process. Scientists carried out a series of experiments to find that they could extend the lives of mice by a fifth, without the problems such as animals suffering from muscle weakness, bone loss or memory problems associated with old age. Scientists discovered that a chemical called NF-kB became more active in the hypothalamus of mice as they reached old age. When they blocked NF-kB, mice lived up to 1100 days, compared with 600 to 1000 days in normal condition. But all the mice died within 900 days, when NF-kB was given to them in abundance.

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Further experiment showed that NF-kB reduced levels of a hormone called GnRH, which plays a key role in fertility and the development of sperm and eggs. When the mice were given daily dose of GnRH, it resulted into fresh neurons growing in their brains.

US SCIENTISTS CREATED WOR LDS SMALLEST FLYING ROBOT CALLED ROBO-FLY

US Scientists at the Harvard University created a robot of the size of fly which can perform fast manoeuvres of omnipresent insects. The robot called Robo-Fly is built from the carbon fibre which weighs just a fraction of the gram and also has super-fast electronic muscles that are used to power the wings. The developers of the robot described that the tiny robots like these could be used in various rescue operations. For example, such a kind of the robot could be used for navigating through the tiny spaces in buildings which have collapsed. Dr Kevin Ma of Harvard University as well as his team which was led by Dr Robert Wood described their creation as the world's smallest flying robot. The fly-like agility that this robot encompasses, allows it to evade the fastest human efforts to swat them. This ability came because of precise wing movements. The robot has the ability to perform immediate evasive manoeuvres as well as hover, by constant adjustment of the effect of lift and thrust which acts on the body at extremely high speed. Like any real fly, the flexible and thin wings of the robot can beat around 120 times per second. This high speed of the wings can be achieved with the help of a special substance known as piezoelectric material. This material contracts each time with the application of the voltage to it. The scientists switched on and off the voltage very rapidly and this helped them in making the material behave like tiny muscles which make the flys wings beat very fast. The scientists explained that the primary goal of this research was not to build the useful robot, but understand the flight working of the insects. However, now, with the development of the robot, there could be various uses of the machine. These robots could also be used for the monitoring of the environment by being dispersed into habitat for sensing trace chemicals or certain other factors. Dr Ma also explained that these robots were able to behave like the real insects and could also help in pollination of crops. At present, the model of robo-fly is small, off-board power source. However, in the next step, it would be created as the completely wireless flying robot.

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IBM RELEASED WORLD'S SMALLEST STOP MOTION FILM: A BOY AND HIS ATOM
The IBM scientists on 1 May 2013 released the smallest movie of the world called A Boy and His Atom. The movie tracks movement of the atoms which are magnified 100 million times. The movie, A Boy and His Atom, is a story of the character called Atom who in turn befriends the single atom and then follows him on journey of bouncing and dancing which helps in explaining the science behind the data storage. A scientist at IBM Research, Andreas Heinrich explained that positioning, shaping and capturing the atoms in order to create the original motion picture on atomic level was completely first-ofits-kind and precise science. The movie is actually a fun-filled way of sharing the atomic-scale world.

HOW WAS THE SMALLEST MOVIE OF THE WORLD MADE?

In order to make this movie, the scientists moved the atoms with the help of IBM-invented scanning tunneling microscope. Scanning Tunneling Microscope is the device which helped its inventors get the Nobel Prize as well. This was the first tool which helped the scientists in seeing the world in the form of single atoms. The device weighs two tons and operates at the temperature of -268 degrees Celsius. It magnifies the atomic surface more than 100 million times. With the availability of this device, IBM Research lab is one of those rare places in the world where it is possible to move the atoms with precision of such a level. Guinness Book of World Records certified this movie as the World's Smallest Stop Motion Film. The film made use of the microscope in order to control the super-sharp needle along copper surface in order to attract the atoms as well as molecules and then, in turn, pull them to specified location on any surface. Such a kind of science could help in improvement of computer data storage. This is so because the data creation as well as consumption is getting bigger and therefore, there is a need of making data storage smaller. IBM is now applying this technique for developing new computer architectures as well as alternative ways for storing the data in order to make this movie.

EUROPEAN SPACE TELESCOPE HERSCHEL COMPLETED ITS JOURNEY

The Herschel observatory, a European space telescope for which NASA helped build instruments and process data, stopped making observations after running out of liquid coolant as expected. Herschel launched aboard an Ariane 5 rocket from French Guiana in May 2009.

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NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., built components for two of Herschel's three science instruments. NASA also supports the U.S. astronomical community through the agency's Herschel Science Center, located at the California Institute of Technology's Infrared Processing and Analysis Center in Pasadena. Herschel's detectors were designed to pick up the glow from celestial objects with infrared wavelengths as long as 625 micrometers, which is 1,000 times longer than what we can see with our eyes. Because heat interferes with these devices, they were chilled to temperatures as low as 2 kelvins (minus 271 degrees Celsius, or 456 Fahrenheit) using liquid helium. The detectors also were kept cold by the spacecraft's orbit, which is around a stable point called the second Lagrange point about 930,000 miles (1.5 million kilometers) from Earth. This location gave Herschel a better view of the universe. The mission will not be making any more observations, but discoveries will continue. Astronomers still are looking over the data, much of which already is public and available through NASA's Herschel Science Center. The final batch of data will be public in about six months.

HIGHLIGHTS OF THE MISSION INCLUDED

Discovering long, filamentary structures in space, dotted with dense star-making knots of material. Detecting definitively, for the first time, oxygen molecules in space, in addition to other never-before-seen molecules. By mapping the molecules in different regions, researchers are learning more about the life cycles of stars and planets and the origins of life. Discovering high-speed outflows around central black holes in active galaxies, which may be clearing out surrounding regions and suppressing future star formation. Opening new views on extremely distant galaxies that could be seen only with Herschel, and providing new information about their high rates of star formation. Following the trail of water molecules from distant galaxies to the clouds of gas between stars to planet-forming solar systems. Examining a comet in our own solar system and finding evidence comets could have brought a substantial fraction of water to Earth. Together with NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, discovering a large asteroid belt around the bright star Vega.

Other findings from the mission include the discovery of some of the youngest stars ever seen in the nearby Orion cradle, and a peculiar planet-forming disk of material surrounding the star TW Hydra, indicating planet formation may happen over longer periods of time than expected. Herschel also has shown stars interact with their environment in many surprising ways, including leaving trails as they move through clouds of gas and dust.

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URGENT NEED TO CLEAR DEBRIS IN EARTHS ORBIT: ESA

The European Space Agency (ESA) on 25 April 2013 during the 6th European Conference on Space Debris in Darmstadt, Germany announced that the Space Junk such as the debris of rockets should be removed from the orbit of the Earth. The announcement was made to avoid potential catastrophic collisions with operational spacecrafts and satellites that would cost a loss of millions of Euros for satellite operators as well as knock out GPS and Mobile network. The agency said that the quantity of debris in the space environment is close to a situation of collision, which will make space hazardous. The agency made it clear that there is an urgent need of pulling out the redundant objects out from the sky. As per the present estimates from scientists, there exist nearly 30000 items of size more than 10 cm that circles the Earth at average speeds of 25000 kp0068. Many of the circling particles are complete rocket bodies and satellites and many are fragments. The debris in the orbit is the result of the explosion of the fuel tanks and batteries as well as from the impact of highvelocities between the objects. Debris with size 10 cm and above are traceable by the radars but the one smaller than it move unseen in the orbit, which would result in catastrophic collision among these materials. The researchers agreed to the point that the debris-environment in the orbit would become unstable within few decades and this phenomenon is called Kessler Syndrome. Removal of five to ten large debris, every year can be the solution to reverse the process of debris growth in the orbit. European Space Agency in 2012 launched Clean Space initiative that aims at developing the technology to capture and remove space debris safely. Prof Heiner Klinkrad was the chairman for the 6th European Conference on Space Debris in Darmstadt, Germany.

RESEARCHERS DEVELOPED KEYBOARD CALLED KALQ TO BEAT QWERTY

Researchers at St. Andrews, the Max Planck Institute for Informatics in Germany and Montana Tech in the US created a keyboard layout, said to be great for the touch screen devices like smartphones er. Dr. Per Ola and tablets. The new keyboard, researchers claimed, can make thumb-typing faster and easiKristensson of the St Andrews University explained that the typical QWERTY keyboard trapped its users in suboptimal text entry interfaces. New design of the keyboard is called KALQ, in order of its keys on one line. The creators of this keyboard made use of the computational optimisation techniques in order to identify the best performance. The virtual keyboard was created in alliance. This keyboard would be accessible to the users free of cost for the Android-based devices. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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The research team explained that two-thumb typing becomes very different ergonomically in comparison to the typing on physical QWERTY keyboards. QWERTY keyboards in turn were developed in late 19th century by the typewriters. The researchers claimed that any normal user making use of the QWERTY keyboard on any touch screen device could type just 20 words per minute, which is way too low than the normal physical keyboards available with the computers. Researchers explained that a process by which optimization of a keyboard for two thumbs could be done, was by minimizing the long typing sequences which involved the use of single thumb only. It was additionally imperative that the letter keys which were used frequently should be placed alongside in order to reduce the typing time. Optimal layout involved reducing the moving time of thumbs as well as enabling the typing on alternating sides of touch screen device. In the new keyboard, all vowels were placed in area which was assigned to right thumb, while the left thumb had more keys. With error-correction algorithm, the users who were trained could reach 37 words in a minute. KALQ provided better performance to users. The new keyword work of the researchers will now be presented at CHI 2013 Conference (the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems) in Paris on 1 May 2013.

NASA KEPLER MISSION DISCOVERED PLANETS KEPLER-62F & KEPLER-62E

Around 1200 light years away from Earth, there are five planets which are circling around the sun-like star called Kepler-62 in Lyra constellation, according to the latest discovery made by the scientists by making use of Kepler space telescope of NASA. Two of these planets, named Kepler-62f and Kepler-62e are said to be in such a position that they might have water on their surface, a condition which is necessary to support life. Kepler scientist William Borucki, with NASAs Ames Research Center in California explained that this is strongest evidence of the existence of Earth-sized planets in the stars habitable zone. These two new Earth-like planets are outermost pair which is circling the Kepler-62 star. The most distant planet is Kepler-62f, which is around 1.4 times as huge as that of Earths size. It can orbit its parent star in 267 days. Other Earth-like planet called Kepler-62e is 1.6 times as big as the size of Earth and it orbits around the star in 122 days. However, whether one of these or both these plants have water on their surface or not is beyond the Keplers technical capabilities or the capabilities of any other telescope. This is so because Kepler actually works by checking the slight dips in light which come from the star that is caused by the planet passing by. Checking the information is very cumbersome process. Every downloaded data from Kepler has 18000 events of interests to the scientists.

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It is important to note that the scientists are still studying the Kepler-62, which means that there might be chances of existence of other planets that have longer orbital periods. Earlier, the Kepler team discovered a star that had six planets in its orbit. European researchers on the other hand had made use of various telescopes to discover seven-planet system.

GIANT GALAXY CALLED HFLS3 DISCOVERED

Scientists in the third week of April 2013 discovered a giant galaxy called HFLS3 in the Universe which is 12.8 Billion light years away from Earth. The newly found galaxy is believed to produce 3000 Suns every year. It has stars having a total mass nearly 40 billion times the mass of our Sun. The galaxy is shrouded in a dust cloud which is 100 billion times the mass of Sun. The age of the galaxy has been estimated around 800 million years old which makes it as one of the youngest galaxies in the Universe. The astronomers used 12 orbiting and ground-based telescopes to discover HFLS3. The galaxy was described as a maximum star-burst galaxy due to its prodigious star formation rate.

UK SCIENTISTS PRODUCED A DISEASE-RESISTANT PIGLET CALLED PIG-26

Scientists produced a disease-resistant piglet called Pig-26 using a new technique which is simpler than cloning, paving way for genetically modified meat. The new technique is called gene editing and Pig 26 is the first animal to be created through gene editing. It was born in December 2012 at Edinburghs Roslin Institute, where the cloned sheep Dolly was creat ed in the year 1996.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF NEW TECHNIQUE ARE AS FOLLOWING

Pig 26 was created through a process called gene editing. It is faster and more efficient than other methods. It is immune to African swine fever which can kill within 24 hours. The new scientific development could bring GM meat a step closer.

HOBBIT HUMANS HAD LARGER BRAINS THAN ESTIMATED: RESEARCH

Hobbit Humans, who are said to be the tiny creatures living on remote Indonesian island of Flores till around 12000 years ago, had larger brains than thought, as per the recent research conducted by National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo. This research also strengthened the fact that hobbits evolved from the ancestors Homo erectus.

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Homo erectus, are said to have evolved into our species in Africa. The study revealed that environment as well as location could have created the difference between the individual who looked similar to us, and someone who looked familiar to hobbit. The Hobbit Humans were extremely short in height (36) and they had relatively shorter legs in comparison to their feet and arms. Kaifu, a senior researcher at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo who conducted the study along with lead author Daisuke Kubo and Reiko Kono, made use of highresolution micro-CT scanning in order to study about the brain regions of hobbit human skulls. In the scans, it was found out that the brains measured 426 cc in comparison to estimated 400 cc. 426 cc is just around the same size like the brain of a chimpanzee. However, this study indicated that the difference meant it was possible for the Homo erectus to have evolved from the brains like these. The researchers indicated towards the fact that Homo erectus who lived on the mainland, moved to the isolated islands of Flores. The unique evolution of the Hobbits suggested that once they got on the island, they did not move out. The researchers explained that according to the theory, big mammals decrease and small mammals increase in their body sizes on the isolated island due to energetic demands. Dean Falk, the team of whom estimated that Hobbits brain were smaller, explained that the new measurements were the most precise ones available till date. This is so because these measurements were done with great care and improved and advanced methods.

BIO-ENGINEERED KIDNEY SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANTED IN RAT

The researchers from Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, United States on 14 April 2013 announced that they had bio-engineered a kidney that can be marked a step-ahead in the quest to help patients suffering from Kidney Failure. The researchers as an experiment transplanted the bio-engineered kidney into rats and discovered that the experiment was successful. The success of the experiment has laid a way for building replacement structures of lungs, livers and hearts. The process of kidney transplant into the rat involved taking out a rat kidney and stripping out its living cells by using a solution made of detergent and leave behind a shell made of collagen. Further, the rats empty structure with living cells was repopulated that comprised human endothelial cells that lined the walls of kidney blood vessels and kidney cells taken from newborn rat. Then the cells were seeded in the correct part of the kidney with the help of a muscle duct that is called ureter as a tube and then transplanted the organ into the living rat from which the kidney was removed. The result of the experiment was that the new kidney started filtering the blood and produced urine as soon as the blood supply was restored. The results of the experiment had brought human being a step-closer to create lab grown organs for humans. The team of researchers was led by Harald Ott.

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DEVICE TO DETECT GASTRO-INTESTINAL CANCERS DEVELOPED

Scientists developed a prototype of an advanced multi-bending cholangioscope to detect and cure Gastro-Intestinal Cancers. Earlier, most patients used to visit a physician when the disease was in an advanced stage. This new equipment has a video camera and can bend easily. It could detect cancers of bile duct, liver and pancreas. It will help in detecting the disease in early stage.The multi-bending Peroral Direct Cholangioscope (PDCS) cannot be inserted free-hand into the bile duct. But a high success rate of direct insertion will be achieved if the endoscope is passed over a guide-wire and an anchoring balloon. In fact, pancreatic cancer is the third most prevalent gastro-intestinal cancer in India whereas liver cancer is the most common.

PLAN TO BUILD WORLD S LARGEST TELESCOPE APPROVED BY US GOVT

The US government approved the plan to build the worlds largest telescope at the summit of Hawaiis Mauna Kea Volcano. The telescope could observe planets that orbit stars other than the sun and enable astronomers to observe new planets and stars being formed. It will also help scientists understand the early years of the universe. The primary mirror used in the telescope is nearly 100 feet tall. It will enable nine times the collecting area of the largest optical telescopes functioning at present. Its images will also be three times brighter. There are protests against the plan arguing it would defile the mountains sacred summit. Native Hawaiian tradition considers high altitudes as sacred and a gateway to heaven. Environmentalists are also protesting on the grounds that would harm habitat for the rare wekiu bug. The University of California system, the Association of Canadian Universities and the California Institute of Technology for Research in Astronomy are leading the telescope project. India, China and Japan have joined the project as partners.

India, China and Japan have joined the project as partners.

RINGS OF SATURN PRODUCE THEIR OWN RAIN ON THE PLANET

Astronomers discovered that the rings of Saturn produce their own rain that falls onto the planet which has a major impact on its atmosphere. The Astronomers revealed that the rain influences the composition and temperature structure of parts of Saturn's upper atmosphere. In fact, Saturn is the first planet to exhibit significant interaction between its atmosphere and ring system.

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The discovery also helps scientists better understand the origin and evolution of Saturn's ring system and changes in the planet's atmosphere. Those bands were not seen again until the astronomers observed the planet in near-infrared wavelengths with the W M Keck Observatory on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. The ring rain's effect takes place in Saturn's ionosphere, where charged particles are produced when the otherwise neutral atmosphere is exposed to a flow of energetic particles or solar radiation.

SCIENTISTS DESIGNED ADAPTIVE MATERIAL INSPIRED BY HUMAN TEAR

A team of US scientists on 8 April 2013 designed a new adaptive material inspired by human tears. The new material was inspired by dynamic, self-restoring systems in Nature, such as the liquid film that coats our eyes. Individual tears join up to form a dynamic liquid film with an obviously significant optical function that maintains clarity, while keeping the eye moist, protecting it against dust and bacteria, and helping to transport away any wastes -- doing all of this and more in literally the blink of an eye. The bio-inspired material is a continuous liquid film that coats, and is infused in, an elastic porous substrate, which is what makes it so versatile. With this design architecture in place, the team has thus far demonstrated the ability to dynamically control, with great precision, two key functions: transparency and wet ability.

GENE MUTATION IS ASSOCIATED WITH FATAL PROSTATE CANCER

Researchers at the Institute of Cancer Research in London and the Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust revealed that men suffering from prostate cancer and the inherited gene mutation have worst kinds of ailments. The gene called BRCA2 is associated with hereditary breast cancer and also the ovarian and prostate cancer. Researchers revealed that men having BRCA2 gene are more prone to prostate cancer and it was also revealed that they are likely to have an aggressive form of tumour with poor survival rates. Men like these needed immediate treatment for survival. It was also revealed that one out of 100 men suffering from prostate cancer might have BRCA2 mutation. For men like these, immediate radiotherapy or surgery can work, even in the cases where the disease is in its infancy.

ABOUT PROSTATE CANCER

Prostate Cancer is a men-typical ailment which is very difficult to predict at the early stage. The disease grows at a very slow or very fast pace. It is difficult to detect Prostate Cancer because a lot of men can live with the disease without showing any signs of this disease. Over 40000 men are diagnosed with prostate cancer on a yearly basis.

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For a lot of men suffering from Prostate Cancer, treatment is not required immediately. However, researchers revealed that men, who have BRCA2 gene along with prostate cancer, should be treated immediately because in their case tumour spreads at a faster pace. Prof Ros Eeles and his colleagues at The Institute of Cancer Research in London and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust revealed that men with BRCA2 gene should be treated faster because of the greater degree of fatality. In the research, records of these prostate cancer patients were studied. 61 men having BRCA2 gene and 18 men having BRCA1 gene mutation along with 1940 men with none of these mutations were studied. It was clear after the study that men with BRCA2-mutations had less survival chances. These men lived an average of 6.5 years after the diagnosis in comparison to 12.9 years for the non-carriers of this mutation. It is worth noticing that people who have a family history of ovarian or breast cancer along with prostate cancer can go for BRCA1/2 testing at diagnosis. Nevertheless, this testing is not offered to all the patients diagnosed with prostate cancer in UK.

AEROSOLS FROM BURNING FOSSIL FUELS AFFECTING CORAL GROWTH

Scientists found very strong evidence that aerosols from burning fossil fuels were affecting coral growth. In fact, these sooty particles can cool sea surface temperatures and limit the size of reefs. However scientists suggested that this chilling effect could stop the corals from bleaching in warmer waters. Coral reefs across the world are under pressure from a range of human impacts. This does not kill them but makes them much more likely to die. The recent discovery found that as well as the warming waters, fine particulates of different types are affecting reefs near Belize and Panama. These aerosols consist of soot from burning coal, elements from volcanic eruptions and sulphates from fossil fuels. They circulate in the atmosphere and can block solar radiation and make clouds more reflective. In their study, the scientists examined records from coral skeletons, ship observations and climate models to compare coral growth rates from 1880 to 2000. They discovered that there was a correlation between increases in atmospheric aerosols and decreases in the growth rates of coral. There was so much intense effect on the reefs that the researchers believe it usurps other factors.

NUCLEAR CAPABLE AGNI-II MISSILE WAS SUCCESSFULLY TESTFIRED

The medium range nuclear capable Agni-II missile was on 7 April 2013 successfully test-fired with a strike range of more than 2000 km from the Wheeler Island off Odisha coast. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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The two-stage missile equipped with advanced high accuracy navigation system, guided by a novel scheme of state of the earth command and control system was propelled by solid rocket propellant system. The 20-metre long Agni-II is a two-stage, solid-propelled ballistic missile. It has a launch weight of 17 tonnes and can carry a payload of 1000 kg over a distance of 2000 km. The state-of-theart Agni-II missile was developed by Advanced Systems Laboratory (ASL) and integrated by the Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL), Hyderabad. Agni-II is part of the Agni series of missiles developed by DRDO which includes Agni-I with a 700 km range, Agni-III with a 3000 km range, Agni-IV with 4000 km range and Agni-V more than 5000 km range. The last trial of Agni-II conducted on 9 August 2012 from the same base, was a total success.

CAMERA THAT CAN CAPTURE OBJECTS AT LONG DISTANCES DEVELOPED

Researchers in the first week of April developed a New Laser powered Camera System that can take image of any object from a distance of about one kilometer by creating high-resolution 3D images. The technique on which the camera is based is called Time-of-Flight (ToF) navigation systems for autonomous vehicles. In this principle of photography, to capture the image of the far away object, a laser beam is bounced on the object and measure the time that is taken by the beam of light to be back to the detector. The research on the time-of-flight technology of imaging was conducted by the team of researchers from Heriot-Watt University in Edinburgh, Scotland that was led by Professor Gerald Buller.

US SCIENTISTS IDENTIFIED GENETIC MARKERS OF ALZHEIMERS RISK

US Scientists in the first week of April 2013 identified Genetic markers that could help in detecting Alzheimers disease. The research in Neuron detects mutations which impacts the building up of certain proteins in the brain. High levels of these phosphorylated tau (ptau) proteins increase the chance of Alzheimers disease in humans. The recent scientific finding could help understand the changes that occur in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. This study helps scientists to better understand the way the brain changes when dementia develops. One of the new gene variants was also shown to be linked to a small increased risk of developing Alzheimer's and a greater risk of cognitive decline. The scientists used genetic

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information from several people to carry out their experiment.UK experts said the study adds to the number of genetic markers that have been linked to the development of Alzheimer's disease.

EXHALED BREATH CAN BE AS UNIQUE AS A FINGERPRINT: STUDY

A recent study conducted by Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich found out that the compounds (metabolites) which are found in the exhaled breath are as unique as the fingerprints of an individual. The metabolites have always been seen as the waste products of the chemistry of someones body, but the uniqueness of these metabolites was never shown. The study suggested that these metabolites could be very useful for the purpose of medical diagnosis, just like that found in the blood or urine. The breath test is said to be non-invasive and their results are also available instantly, which is why a breath test can be convenient, especially for doping tests or anaesthesia. The lead author of the study, Renato Zenobi explained that in Chinese medicine in the traditional times, tongue, pulse and also the breath are used for diagnosis of ailments. Earlier researches have also depicted that particular kind of bacteria responsible for lung infections or stomach cancers can be detected using the exhaled breath. During the study, the team took breath samples of 11 volunteers over four time slots of nine working days. The samples were then run through the mass spectrometer, a device which is used to effectively measure the masses of the chemical compounds in breath. Uniqueness of the exhaled breath was thus detected. Breath test is non-invasive as well as immediate in nature, which makes it very promising. For example, it could be used for determination of appropriate dosage in anaesthesia. Now, the team is also working along with the pulmonologists for detection of signs of lungrelated ailments such as breath cancer, sarcoidosis and asthma.

FACEBOOK RELEASED SOFTWARE CALLED HOME FOR ANDROID PHONES

Facebook on 4 April 2013 released the software called Home, which puts the feeds from Facebook on Android phones home screen. Software would become the wrapper for Android operating system. It will become the primary way of handling the phone. The images, messages as well as the notifications will be visible on the main screen of Android phones. Earlier, these were accessible through the downloadable application. The Home software of Facebook will conceal all other applications and will pipe the entire content as well as the chat performed through Facebook, on the home screen. The software

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will also alter the technique in which the messages and content is being swapped. By making use of the HomeSoftware, the users will be able to respond to these messages or content by tapping the pop-up images (called chat heads), instead of opening the apps and searching through the menus. Home software will be available through Google's Play Store. It can be downloaded easily and will only be operational on the phones which run on Android 4.0 or higher versions. Facebooks Home will be accessible from 12 April 2013 onwards on six devices, three of which are from HTC and three from Samsung. But as of now, only four devices are available. Rest of the two will be launched along with Facebook Home software. Initially, Home will only be available for the phones, but later it will also be developed for the tablets. Facebook figures suggested that the users spent around 25 percent time on handsets for looking at the feeds or chatting with their friends on Facebook. The fourth quarter earnings of Facebook also showcased that around 23 percent of revenue which came from advertising was available through the advertisements shown to the mobile users.

US GOVERNMENT LAUNCHED A RESEARCH INITIATIVE CALLED BRAIN

US government on 3 April 2013 announced a new research initiative called Brain (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies) which is designed to revolutionise the understanding of the human brain. Launched with approximately 100 million US dollars in the President's Fiscal Year 2014 Budget, the BRAIN initiative ultimately aims to help researchers find new ways to treat, cure, and even prevent brain disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, and traumatic brain injury.The BRAIN Initiative will accelerate the development and application of new technologies that will enable researchers to produce dynamic pictures of the brain that show how individual brain cells and complex neural circuits interact at the speed of thought.The scientists possess the capability to study individual neurons and figure out the main functions of certain areas of the brain, but a human brain contains almost a hundred billion neurons making trillions of connections.

JEFF BEZOS RECOVERED TWO APOLLO ROCKET ENGINES

In the privately-funded expedition, a recovery team which was funded by Amazon founder Jeff Bezos, recovered two Saturn V rocket engines from beneath the Atlantic Ocean. Announcement of the recovery was made on 20 March 2013. Saturn V rocket engines are the ones which were used to send human beings to Moon from 1967 until 1973. Jeff Bezos, chief executive of Amazon, in the year 2012 announced about his plans of searching the sea floor of Atlantic Ocean for the rocket motors which plunged back www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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into the Ocean after the Saturn 5 launches to the moon during Apollo 11 moon mission. Two Saturn V first-stage engines were recovered by the Bezos Expeditions from 3 miles beneath Atlantic Ocean. Around 40 years ago, NASA had sent a total of seven missions to Moon out of which six had carried astronauts successfully. Jeff Bezos announced that the serial numbers on these engines were not found, which made it difficult for them to identify the mission for which they were used. Restoration work will now be carried out on the engines which will continue to remain a US Government property, after which they would be put on the public display. One of these engines would be at public display at Washington DC's Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Other one would be displayed at Museum of Flight in Seattle. NASA, in the meanwhile announced that this was a historic recovery that would allow in exploring the important artifacts about its first efforts of sending human beings out of the Earths orbit.

SATURN V FIRST-STAGE ROCKET ENGINES

Saturn V was the American human-rated expendable rocket which was used by Apollo of NASA and Skylab from 1967 until 1973. NASA launched a total of 13 Saturn Vs from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. It is said to be the heaviest, tallest as well as the most powerful rocket ever brought to the operational status. It holds a record of heaviest launch vehicle payload ever. Up to date, Saturn V is only launch vehicle that transported humans beyond low Earth orbit. The Saturn V first-stage rocket engines were developed by Rocketdyne. These engines were used in Saturn V. First F-1 engines were made use in S-IC first stage of each Saturn V, which was in turn used as the launch vehicle in Apollo Program. F-1 is the most powerful single-chamber liquid-fueled rocket engine.

UNKNOWN HUGE RADIO GALAXY DISCOVERED

An international team of astronomers led by ASTRON astronomer Dr. George Heald, in the third week of March 2013 discovered an unknown huge radio galaxy, by making use of the powerful International LOFAR Telescope (ILT), built by ASTRON. The galaxy was discovered in the LOFAR's first all-sky imaging survey called Multi-frequency Snapshot Sky Survey (MSSS). The new source which was equivalent to the size of full Moon was identified while analysis of the MSSS images. The radio emission was observed, which is associated with the material that is ejected from one of the members of interacting galaxy triplet system. Physical extent of this

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material is said to be much larger than system of galaxy, which actually extends millions of light years across the intergalactic space. It is important to note that the MSSS is still under process. The newly found galaxy is the member of group of objects known as Giant Radio Galaxies (GRGs). GRGs, as the name suggest, are kind of radio galaxies which have huge physical size, indicating towards the fact that either they are very old or very powerful. LOFAR is one of the most efficient tools for exploring the GRGs because it is very sensitive to the large objects. LOFAR operates at low frequencies which are very much suitable for observation of the old sources. The team of astronomers which is performing this ongoing MSSS comprises of 50 members from different institutes, most of which are in Italy, Poland, France, Netherlands and Germany.

WHAT IS ASTRON?
ASTRON stands for Dutch Stichting ASTRonomisch Onderzoek in Nederland. It is actually the Dutch foundation that conducts research in radio astronomy. Radio astronomy is basically the subfield of astronomy which conducts study of the celestial objects located at the radio frequencies.

WHAT IS LOFAR?
LOFAR stands for Low-Frequency Array for radio astronomy. It was built as well as designed by Netherlands astronomical foundation called ASTRON. Its operations are managed by the ASTRON's radio observatory. LOFAR is basically the largest connected radio telescope built by making use of the new concept based on range of omni-directional antennas.

WHAT IS MULTI-FREQUENCY SNAPSHOT SKY SURVEY (MSSS)?

The MSSS conducted by LOFAR is determined effort to analyse the northern sky at extremely low radio frequencies, between wavelengths varying from 2m to 10m. Primarily, the aim of this survey is performing the initial scan of sky for creating the all-sky model which will in turn help in deeper observations.

HERSCHEL OBSERVATORY DISCOVERED PROTOSTARS

Astronomers at the Herschel Space Observatory in the Month of March 2013 found some of the youngest stars ever seen in the Universe. The findings of new stars which is known by protostars was also contributed by Observations from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope and the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX) telescope in Chile, a collaboration involving the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy in Germany, the Onsala Space Observatory in Sweden, and the European Southern Observatory in Germany. www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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It has been observed that dense envelopes of gas and dust surround the fledging stars known as protostars, making their detection difficult. The 15 newly observed protostars turned up by surprise in a survey of the biggest site of star formation near our solar system, located in the constellation Orion. The finding of these new stars is giving scientists a glance into one of the earliest and least understood phases of star formation and it can be a witnessing moment of the phases when a star begins to form. Astronomers long had investigated the stellar nursery in the Orion Molecular Cloud Complex, a vast collection of star-forming clouds, but had not seen the newly identified protostars until Herschel observed the region.

A BRIEF INSIGHT OF THE OBSERVATION MADE

Herschel spied the protostars in far-infrared, or long-wavelength, light, which can shine through the dense clouds around burgeoning stars that block out higher-energy, shorter wavelengths, including the light our eyes see. The Herschel Photo-detector Array Camera and Spectrometer (PACS) instrument collected infrared light at 70 and 160 micrometers in wavelength, comparable to the width of a human hair. Researchers compared these observations to previous scans of the star-forming regions in Orion taken by Spitzer. Extremely young protostars identified in the Herschel views but too cold to be picked up in most of the Spitzer data were further verified with radio wave observations from the APEX ground telescope. Of the 15 newly discovered protostars, 11 possess very red colors, meaning their light output trends toward the low-energy end of the electromagnetic spectrum. This output indicates the stars are still embedded deeply in a gaseous envelope, meaning they are very young.

ABUNDANT ACTIVE BACTERIA COMMUNITY DISCOVERED

A team of researchers, led by Ronnie Glud of University of Southern Denmark discovered that a huge community of bacteria grows in depths of the Mariana Trench off the coast of the Pacific Oceans Mariana Islands. It was found that the organisms live at the densities ten times higher than shallower ocean floor at rim of trench. The deepest point on entire seafloor is called The Challenger Deep and it is situated in Mariana Trench off the coast of the Pacific Oceans Mariana Islands. This point is 36000 feet or 7.8 miles below the surface of the ocean.

HOW WAS THE RESEARCH DONE?

In order to explore the ecosystem that exists ultra-deep, the international team of researchers sent the specially-designed 1300 pound robot in the depth of the Mariana Trench in 2010. This robot was facilitated with thin sensors which could enter into the seafloor sediments in order to www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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measure organic consumption of oxygen. Because all living organisms consume oxygen while respiration, therefore it is possible to find out the amount of microorganisms living in an area by checking the tallies on what quantity of ambient oxygen is missing from the sediments. The team of researchers used the device for sampling the sediments at two sites with depths of 35476 and 35488 feet. It was found that large quantity of oxygen consumption took place. This indicated that there were ten times more bacteria at the ultra-deep site than the shallower site which was sampled just for reference around 37 miles away, at a depth of merely 19626 feet.

WHAT DID THE SPECIALLY-DESIGNED 1300 POUND ROBOT EXPLORE?

The robot brought out an overall 21 sediment cores from these two deep sites. The sediment cores were kept for analysis in the lab. Even though a lot of microorganisms died after being brought out to the surface, but it confirmed the finding that cores from Mariana Trench were habitat to higher densities of bacterial cells than the ones which existed in the reference site. Also, the video recording of the ocean floor was done by making use of the lights for illuminating the dark environment. It was also discovered that certain life forms which were larger than the bacteria on the top of the sediment, existed. It was determined that these life forms were Hirondellea gigas, a species of amphipods. Amphipods are the small crustaceans which are just less than one inch in terms of length.

IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH

The finding of abundant bacterial life at such a depth is very surprising because it was believed that at such depths, not enough nutrients can be found. The Photosynthetic plankton can act as a nutrient base for almost all the ocean food chain, but even these planktons are unable to survive in lightless seafloor. But this research has amused the scientists because ultra-deep trench was found to be the abode of so much bacterial activity than the shallower reference site just nearby. Since 2010 exploration, the team of researchers has also sent this robot to sample Japan Trench which is roughly 29500 feet deep. The researchers now plan to sample the KermadecTonga Trench, which is 35430 feet deep.

EXACT DISTANCE TO OUR NEIGHBOURING GALAXY CALCULATED

Researchers working on the accurate calculation of the distance of Milky Way to the nearest galaxy, led by Grzegorz Pietrzynski of the Universidad de Concepcion in Chile and Warsaw University Observatory in Poland, found the exact distance to our nearest galaxy. The nearest galaxy to Milky Way is called Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) and it was found that it lies at a distance of 163000 light years away or exactly 49.97 kiloparsecs.

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LARGE MAGELLANIC CLOUD (LMC)

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Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) is the dwarf galaxy which floats in the space around our galaxy, Milky Way. It floats in a similar trend like that between the Earth and the Moon. Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) encompasses huge clouds of gas in it, which gradually collapse, thereby forming new stars. These new stars are brightened in the colours which are actually visible in the images that are taken by Hubble Space Telescope. LMC also includes Tarantula Nebula which is the brightest stellar nursery in the cosmic neighbourhood.

IMPORTANCE OF THE FINDINGS

The findings about the distance of LMC from Milky Way are crucial because they can help in determining the scale of our universe, which has remained a mystery ever since its inception. These findings could also be used for determining the rate of expansion of the universe. This rate of expansion of the universe is called Hubble Constant, which is named after an astronomer Edwin P Hubble who discovered in 1929 that the Universe was growing continuously. Determination of the Hubble Constant is highly important for finding out the age as well as size of the universe. Exact distance of Milky Way to LMC has always remained one of the hugest uncertainties which affected the past measurements.

HOW WAS THE RESEARCH MADE?

Lead researcher Grzegorz Pietrzynski declared that they would now work on improving the accuracy of the measurements even more. The calculations of the distance were made by observation of the rare close pairs of stars which are called eclipsing binaries. Eclipsing binaries are actually bound to each other gravitationally. Once per orbit, the overall brightness from this system of stars drops as one of these stars eclipses its partner. It is possible to find out the hugeness of the stars as well as information of their orbits by tracking changes in the brightness carefully as well as by measuring orbital speeds of stars. By combining this with the measurement of apparent brightness, it is possible to determine absolutely accurate distances. In the study, a sample of stars that had extremely long orbital periods was observed for 16 long years. These extremely long orbital periods are absolutely perfect in order to calculate the precise distances. New measurements are useful for decreasing the uncertainty of calculating Hubble Constant to 3 percent while improving it to uncertainty of 2 percent in years to come.

JAPAN EXTRACTS NATURAL GAS FROM METHANE HYDRATE

Japan on 12 March 2013 announced that it had extracted the natural gas from frozen methane hydrate successfully off the central coast. With this, Japan became the first country to do so in www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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the world. A Japan official from Economy, Trade and Industry Ministry announced that this was the first offshore experiment of producing natural gas from methane hydrate in the world. Methane Hydrate, also known as clathrates are a kind of frozen confinements of molecules of water and methane. The gas field where the natural gas was extracted from methane hydrate is situated 50 km away from the main island of Japan in Nankai Trough. Also, apart from Japan, certain other countries such as China, US and Canada have been searching for the ways to exploit the methane hydrate deposits. Certain pilot experiments were conducted in the past few years, which depicted that it was possible to extract methane from deposits by making use of the methane hydrate which was found under the land ice. Offshore deposits have a huge source of methane but they also raise environmental concerns because underwater geology which encompasses them is unstable at various places. Now, the survey of gas field is being conducted by Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC).

HOW WAS THE NATURAL GAS FROM METHANE HYDRATE EXTRACTED?

The engineers made use of the depressurisation method which converts the methane hydrate into the methane gas. The production tests will continue till the end of March 2013. The government officials of Japan announced that now their aim was establishment of methane hydrate production technologies for the purpose of practical use by 2018.

HOW WILL THIS EXTRACTION BENEFIT JAPAN?

According to the Japanese study, it was estimated that around 1.1tn cubic metres of methane hydrate existed in the offshore deposits. This is equal to the gas consumption of Japan in more than 10 years. According to the researchers, this extraction can prove to be very beneficial because it could facilitate as an alternative source of energy for Japan. It is important to note that Japan as of now imports all the energy needs. Japan has limited natural resources. After the nuclear disaster of Fukushima plant in 2011, cost of importing the fuel has also increased. The extraction of natural gas from methane hydrate will therefore help Japan in reducing the pressure on natural resources as well as bringing down the cost of import of fuel.

INDIA RANKED THIRD IN LIST OF SPAM SPEWING NATION IN WORLD

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India ranked third on list of countries, which distribute spam all over the world, after US and China, as per the new report of SophosLabs. SophosLabs is the Sophoss global network of threat analysis centres. In the study, US was single highest ranking country, but Asia ranked at number 1 position in the list of the continents with 36.6 percent of overall spam of the world. US sent 18.3 percent of the junk emails overall in the world. In last few months of 2012, India topped the spam spewing nations list, but eventually fell back to the third position. Second position was held by China. In the study, the spam sent from December 2012 to February 2013 was tracked. China and India took second and third positions respectively with 8.2 percent and 4.2 percent of the spam of the world. Other countries which ranked high included South Korea, France, Italy and Peru. Peru was ranked at fourth position with 4.0 percent of the spam. With 3.4 percent each, France, South Korea and Italy ranked fifth. Russia and Taiwan shared eighth position with 2.9 percent. At tenth, eleventh and twelfth position were Spain (2.8 percent), Germany (2.7 percent) and Iran (2.6 percent). In order to prevent spamming, the PC users can keep the anti-virus software updated and regularly run the malware checks. Apart from this, updating passwords regularly can also help.

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NASAS SWIFT SATELLI TE DISCOVERED SUPERNOVA REMNANTS

NASA's Swift satellite in the Month of March 2013 discovered one of the youngest-known supernova remnants, which are believed to be less than 2500 years old - in our Milky Way Galaxy. The Supernova Remnants were discovered while performing an extensive X-ray survey of our galaxy's central region. Looking after the coordinates of its sky position it has been designated G306.3-0.9. As per the analysis by the scientist it was indicated that G306.3-0.9 is likely less than 2500 years old, making it one of the 20 youngest remnants identified. It has been estimated that Astronomers have previously catalogued more than 300 supernova remnants in the galaxy. To further investigate the object, the team followed up with an 83-minute exposure using NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and additional radio observations from the Australia Telescope Compact Array (ATCA), located near the town of Narrabri in New South Wales. Using an estimated distance of 26,000 light-years for G306.3-0.9, the scientists determined that the explosions shock wave is racing through space at about 2.4 million km/h. The Chandra observations reveal the presence of iron, neon, silicon and sulfur at temperatures exceeding 28 million C, a reminder not only of the energies involved but of the role supernovae play in seeding the galaxy with heavy elements produced in the hearts of massive stars.

ABOUT SUPERNOVA EXPLOSION

A supernova explosion occurs once or twice a century in the Milky Way. The expanding blast wave and hot stellar debris slowly dissipate over hundreds of thousands of years, eventually mixing with and becoming indistinguishable from interstellar gas. Earlier in 2011, Swift imaged a survey field near the southern border of the constellation Centaurus. Although nothing unusual appeared in the ultraviolet exposure, the X-ray image revealed an extended, semi-circular source reminiscent of a supernova remnant. A search of archival data revealed counterparts in Spitzer infrared imagery and in radio data from the Molonglo Observatory Synthesis Telescope in Australia.

AMS DETECTED SCOPE FOR DARK MATTER IN THE SPACE

A group of Scientists on 3 March 2013 announced that the 2 billion dollar, Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) placed on the International Space Station (ISS) may have detected the elusive dark matter. Thse scientists made the announcement after they observed an excess of positrons in the Cosmic Ray Flux, which can be the reason of the presence of elusive dark www.jagranjosh.com General Science

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matter. The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer over a period of one and a half year have detected billions of particles and recorded a signal that may be a dark matter. Before this in the year 2008 using the space-based detector named PAMELA (Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics) Satellite. PAMELA was launched into the space in 2006 and is a multinational collaboration of Russia, Italy, Germany and Sweden. The evidences collected by the AMS supports the existence of Dark Matter in the Universe but it doesnt rules out the presence of pulsars. Since May 2011, the AMS has identified more than 400000positrons, which is the largest number of positrons measured from the space directly.

ALPHA MAGNETIC SPECTROMETER

It is the most powerful and sensitive Spectrometer installed in the space It is an antimatter detector placed on the International Space Station and it is basically a giant magnet The AMS is designed for studying the cosmic ray particles that floods the space before they get in touch with the earth and its atmosphere

DARK MATTER
Dark matter accounts to more than a quarter of Universe mass energy balance. It is believed that the Dark matter holds the universe together. Dark matters dont emit any light and hence cant be seen but it communicates with the rest of the universe by its gravity. Few examples of its gravitational power includes, bending of lights around invisible objects and speed of stars orbiting their galaxies that is faster than what it actually should be or can be.

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