BOILER AND HRSG TUBE FAILURES PPChem 1 10 01 1

LESSON 2:
Corrosion Fatigue
R. Barry Dooley and Albert Bursik
586 PowerPlant Chemistry 2009, 11(10)
PPChem PPChem 101 Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
INTRODUCTION
Fatigue damage occurs in general when a boiler tube is
subject to repeat cyclic or fluctuating loading although the
stress produced is below the material yield strength. The
types of fatigue damage include, e.g., corrosion, thermal,
mechanical, vibration, and creep fatigue. It is important to
determine which form of fatigue is active, because meas-
ures to avoid repeat failures differ as the case arises. In this
lesson, the focus is exclusively on corrosion fatigue.
Corrosion fatigue occurs by the combined synergistic
actions of cyclic loading and a corrosive environment. It is
a discontinuous process with crack initiation and growth
during transient periods. The excessive stresses may be
caused during boiler operation by the restraint at tube
attachments and by load changes (in particular during cold
starts or forced cools) or during shutdown or restart of
circulation boilers by thermal stratification of water along
the tube length. Poor water chemistry and its excursions
influence both initiation and propagation of corrosion
fatigue. The key issue here is the breakdown of the protec-
tive magnetite layer. The most decisive chemistry parame-
ter is the pH (low pH excursions).
IDENTIFICATION
Pinhole thick-edged leaks are by far the most predominant
form of corrosion fatigue failures. In much fewer cases,
corrosion fatigue emanates as a long thick-edged crack.
Note that not all BTF with a thick-edged fracture surface
result from corrosion fatigue. Thick-edged fractures also
occur when thermal fatigue, mechanical fatigue, low tem-
perature creep cracking, circumferential cracking, and
hydrogen damage are active. The most important physical
feature of a corrosion fatigue failure is multiple parallel
cracks initiated on the inside of the tube. Upon metallurgi-
cal examination the cracks are transgranular as they prop-
agate through the tube wall.
FEATURES OF FAILURES
Figure 1 shows a typical multiple array of corrosion fatigue
cracks initiated from the inside surface along the neutral
axis of an economizer tube. The initiation sites of these
cracks are associated with surface defects like pits or
other discontinuities. The wide cracks have irregular pro-
files and are filled with iron oxides.
In Figure 2, corrosion fatigue failure of a low pressure econ-
omizer tube of an HRSG is depicted.
Corrosion fatigue cracks may have different appearances:
pinhole leak
thick-edged crack
thick-edged blow-out or rupture
The pinhole leak caused by corrosion fatigue may be con-
fused with a mechanical fatigue crack. In contrast to corro-
sion fatigue, the mechanical fatigue cracks initiate on the
outside surface and are associated with welds or weld dis-
continuities (e.g., the toe of a weld).
Figure 1:
Multiple array of corrosion fatigue cracks.
PPChem 101 Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
587 PowerPlant Chemistry 2009, 11(10)
PPChem
Thick-edged cracks are generally associated with attach-
ments. However, they may be of considerable length and
extend beyond the attachment.
The thick-edged rupture is characterized by cracking down
both sides of the tube along the weld lines of the mem-
brane. This relatively rarely occurring form may cause cat-
astrophic damage (an entire tube section fails) and is a
serious safety issue if it occurs on the cold side of the tube
and in high traffic areas.
LOCATION OF FAILURES
Conventional Boilers
In waterwalls, the predominant locations are those at
which large stresses develop during transient operating
conditions as thermal expansion is constrained by tube
attachments (Figure 3). Typical locations include attach-
ments in windbox casing, buckstay attachments and scal-
lop bar attachments. In economizer tubing, locations at
bends, welds with the potential for high residual stresses
(e.g., fin welds), and locations at attachments are most
threatened.
Endangered locations are, for example, lug mounted tie-
bars connected to tubes. Corrosion fatigue is often initi-
Figure 2:
Corrosion fatigue of a low pressure
economizer tube (HRSG).
Figure 3:
Typical multiple array of corrosion fatigue cracks (initiated from the inner surface at an attachment).
588 PowerPlant Chemistry 2009, 11(10)
PPChem PPChem 101 Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
ated at the end of membranes
where the membrane stops be -
cause of a tight bend in the tube or
where the tubes are bent to form an
opening such as for sootblowers or
a mandoor.
Figures 4 and 5 show some typical
examples.
Heat Recovery Steam Generators
As in conventional boilers, the most
likely failure locations are at welds,
at bends, and at attachments.
These are locations where signifi-
cant thermal stresses may develop
because of restrained thermal ex -
pansion. Jeopardized are also tube-
to-header connections where due
to significant thickness transients
local thermal stresses may develop
(a thin tube changes temperature
more rapidly than a thick header).
Large transients or temperature dif-
ferences may have different causes,
e.g., uneven distribution of gas flow
and non-uniform pressure drop in
the individual tube sections due to
design failures.
All Steam Generators
Corrosion fatigue cracks may also
develop in steam-touched tubing
when fluid of a significantly lower (or
higher) temperature than the tubing
is introduced. This may occur during
stand-by due to inappropriate boiler
layup.
MECHANISMS OF FAILURE
The synergistic effects of stress and
environment cause corrosion
fatigue. Corrosion fatigue is also
known by a number of other names designating basically
the same mechanism, for example stress-assisted crack-
ing or stress-assisted pitting. Sometimes the latter is
aligned along original extrusion marks on the tube inner
surface. Stress corrosion cracking is not the same mecha-
nism as it requires a continuous application of stress and is
most often a continuous cracking process.
It is essential in addressing the root cause of corrosion
fatigue that the importance of both the stress and the envi-
ronmental components be identified. Most often corrosion
fatigue is driven by the application of a stress imposed by
the system or restraints (attachments etc. as above). In
some cases the cycle chemistry has an influence, but it is
always minor compared to the stress, which is required in
the description of the mechanism to produce a strain on
the inner surface that is great enough to crack (initiate cor-
rosion fatigue) and continue to crack (repetitive initiation)
the protective oxide layer (magnetite) on the inner surface
of the tube.
Figure 4:
Typical scallop bar attachment on the waterwall surrounding a burner.
Figure 5:
Locations of pinhole corrosion fatigue leaks associated with the attachment for the drip
shield on a boiler.
589 PowerPlant Chemistry 2009, 11(10)
PPChem PPChem 101 Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
Breakdown of Magnetite Protective Layer
The use of carbon steel or low-alloyed steel materials
thermodynamically instable in water at operating tempera-
tures for boiler components exposed to high tempera-
tures and pressures is only possible because a protective
oxide layer is formed on the waterside surface of the tube.
This protective layer consists mainly of magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
).
When the imposed strain is greater than the fracture strain
of the oxide (magnetite), the oxide will crack in a regular
array. This cracking then allows boiler water (or evaporator
water in HRSGs) to come in touch with the tube surface.
This then causes more magnetite to grow on this exposed
surface at a relatively fast rate (parabolic growth law). This
oxide will remain in place until the next application of strain
greater than the fracture strain. This will crack the newly
formed magnetite at the bottom of the corrosion fatigue
crack. The cracks grow by a repetition of this process
(called repetitive crack initiation); see Figure 6.
Rupture of the magnetite film acts as a stress concentrator.
Generally, it is recommended to keep the strain level in the
magnetite layer below 0.2 % in tension to avoid film rup-
ture.
Addressing Root Causes of Corrosion Fatigue
Three issues are important when evaluating corrosion
fatigue occurrence on a particular boiler and its root
causes:
"Geography" of failures and damage
It is important to find out where in the boiler corrosion
fatigue failures have occurred and in what boiler areas
non-destructive evaluations have indicated damage by
the corrosion fatigue mechanisms. This "geography"
helps to identify locations at which detailed monitoring
should be carried out.
Figure 6:
Typical corrosion fatigue cracks illustrating the discontinuous nature of the cracks (bulges along the crack length).
"History" of failures
Comparison of the number of failures in different opera-
tion periods is also important. Each operation period
might have a number of hot, warm, or cold starts, unit
trips, two-shift cycles or forced cools. In this way, it
becomes obvious which of the operating spaces might
be driving the corrosion fatigue mechanism.
Operating space
It is important to delineate all the different types of oper-
ating space which have been used on the boiler.
With knowledge of these three factors, we can then move
ahead to address the root cause of the corrosion fatigue
problem on that particular boiler. This requires monitoring
(temperature, strain, and waterwall movement) selected
endangered locations (recognized from the geography)
through all the operating spaces identified by the history of
failures.
Excessive Stresses/Strains
Restraint Stresses Breakdown of the magnetite layer is
probable at locations at which excessive strains may be
developed (geography and history) during particular opera-
tion spaces. It is vital for any short-term and long-term
actions targeting corrosion fatigue failures to identify the
critical regions (geography) which often exist at tube
attachments. Redesigning tube attachments in order to
increase the flexibility at the connection and/or improve-
ment of weld profiles by grinding may be important; how-
ever, any measures taken should ensure that the fracture
strain of the magnetite will not be reached at that location
with the new design. Note that often not the design but a
change in the operation space is required to avoid exten-
sive strains and breakdown of the protective oxide layer.
Subcooling in Natural Circulation Boilers High strains
have occurred during stratification of water along the
length of boiler tubing during shutdown and restart of nat-
ural circulation boilers. This requires that the boiler be
monitored at the top and bottom to determine the stratifi-
cation amount during particular operating spaces (which in
this case may include shutdown).
Operational Aspects
Unit operation can have a significant effect on the occur-
rence of corrosion fatigue failures. Based on the evaluation
of the history of failures, the operating spaces, which might
drive the corrosion fatigue mechanism, should be identi-
fied. In this way, it becomes obvious which of the operating
spaces might be driving the corrosion fatigue mechanism.
This could be a hot, warm or cold start, it could be the
shutdown for any of these, and it could be a forced cool, or
a trip or any other operating space. It is vital that an organ-
ization recognizes the full extent of the operating spaces
through which a unit has operated.
In the case of HRSG, the approach is parallel to that used
at conventional plants. The focus here should be on the
operating space and the thermal transient which is respon-
sible for protective oxide layer breakdown.
Water Chemistry
It is a matter of common knowledge that boilers that have
had boiler water purity problems suffer more often from
corrosion fatigue failures than those operated with correct
chemistry. Units operated on older or incorrect phosphate
treatments experiencing hideout and hideout return have
been at risk. Large swings in the boiler water pH and pH
depressions during shutdown and early startup are in par-
ticular harmful. However, they are detrimental only if they
occur at the same time that the strain is highest during
whichever operating space is applicable. This is an impor-
tant caveat because chemistry excursions can occur at
any time, but only if they coincide with the application of a
strain which is great enough to crack the oxide will they ini-
tiate and reinitiate corrosion fatigue.
Figure 7 demonstrates that a low boiler water pH de -
creases the number of cycles to initiation of corrosion
fatigue cracks.
Not only the pH depression but also a high level of oxygen
during inadequate boiler layup may contribute to aggrava-
tion of corrosion fatigue damage since oxygenated stag-
nant water promotes pitting and the formation of corrosion
fatigue initiation centers.
590 PowerPlant Chemistry 2009, 11(10)
PPChem PPChem 101 Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
Figure 7:
The influence of pH depression on the initiation of corrosion
fatigue cracks in boiler water with a very low level of dissolved
oxygen (< 5 g kg
1
oxygen).
Dooley, B. R., Paul, L., Proc., International Water Conference,
1995 (Pittsburgh. PA, U.S.A.). Engineers' Society of Western
Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh, PA, U.S.A., 56, 146-151 (Paper #95-17).
591 PowerPlant Chemistry 2009, 11(10)
PPChem PPChem 101 Boiler and HRSG Tube Failures
Chemical Cleaning
The use of inhibited hydrochloric acid as a chemical clean
solvent may aggravate corrosion fatigue in comparison
with other solvents such as ammoniated citric or ethylene-
diaminetetraacetic acids or hydroxyacetic-formic acid.
PROBABILITY OF CORROSION FATIGUE
FAILURES
For estimating the probability of corrosion fatigue failures,
the stress level, environmental conditions, and the influ-
ence of operation mode have to be evaluated.
Two of these factors of influence, the stress level and the
operation mode, are typically a standard part of any analy-
sis of root causes. Their influence on the probability of cor-
rosion fatigue failures is most important and should not be
disregarded in the root cause analysis. Corrosion fatigue,
however, occurs by the combined synergistic actions of
cyclic loading and an adverse environment. Note that the
environment or cycle chemistry is only of a minor influence
compared to the stress or strain. For this reason, it is hardly
possible to numerically express the probability of corrosion
fatigue as a function of improper environmental conditions.
However, some of the risk-aggravating factors are:
phosphate hideout under phosphate boiler water alka-
linity control
chemistry excursions resulting in hydrogen damage or
caustic gouging
boiler water pH < 8 (at 25 C) during startup at the point
of reaching operation pressure (sampling point: blow-
down or downcomer)
Any of these factors are detrimental only if they occur at
the same time that the strain is highest during whichever
operating space is applicable. For this reason, the
approach is to conduct a root cause analysis, which
involves monitoring typical locations across a range of
operating spaces as already discussed.
Chemical cleans with inhibited hydrochloric acid and
improper or no corrosion protection during boiler shut-
down promote pitting and in this way the formation of cor-
rosion fatigue initiation centers.
Figures 16 courtesy of Structural Integrity Associates, Inc.