CHAPTER 1 BASIC INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1Company profile

KRUNAL ENGG. 63, Mahadev Estate, CTM Ahmedabad-380015, Gujarat (India) KRUNAL ENGG. ESTATE established in 1995. it having 15 years of experience in manufacturing and they started aluminum casting for past few year .they become leading manufacturer of aluminum casting equipment in Gujarat .our ranger of product manufactured included five. it has following (1) bracket (2) Arlram bracket (petrol pump pipe fitting) (3) Elbow (petrol pump) (4) Motor body cover (5) Flange(gear box) With continuous research and development to update the product and technology .KRUNAL ENGG. Is confident to produce quality product with optimum performance . Our plant is spread over 3500 sq. feet area .it having latest foundry and equipment with lathe, CNC turning center, drilling m/c, vibrate m/c, VMC m/c. To meet customer need and satisfaction .

1.2 Alloy An alloy is a material that has metallic properties and is formed by combination of two or more chemical elements of which at least one is a metal. The metallic atoms must dominate in its chemical composition and the metallic bond in its crystal structure. Commonly, alloys have different properties from those of the component elements. An alloy of a metal is made by combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals that often enhances its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron which its primary element. The physical properties, such as density and conductivity, of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its component elements, but engineering properties such as tensile strength and shear strength may be considerably different from those of the constituent materials. 1.2.1 Aluminium Pure Al content of maximum 1wt. % of Fe and Si. Pure Al is very soft and ductile. Low density 2700 kg/m3 comparing to steel which has 7900 kg/m3, High thermal and electrical conductivity. Low melting point and good resistance to corrosion 1.2.2 Aluminium alloys In recent years aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive industries. This is particularly due to the real need to weight saving for more reduction of fuel consumption. The typical 2

alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc. Surfaces of aluminium alloys have a brilliant lustre in dry environment due to the formation of a shielding layer of aluminium oxide. Aluminium alloys of the 4xxx, 5xxx and 6xxx series, containing major elemental additives of Mg and Si, are now being used to replace steel panels if various automobile industries. Due to such reasons, these alloys were subject of several scientific studies in the past few years[1].

1.3 Designation of Aluminium alloys On the basis of the major alloying element, the aluminium alloys are designated according to the Aluminium Association Wrought Alloy Designation System which consists of four numerical digits.

Table 1.1 Al alloy and use [1]

Designation of Main alloying element Applications aluminium alloys and their applications Alloy 1xxx Mostly pure aluminium; no Electrical and major alloying additions industries 2xxx 3xxx 4xxx 5xxx 6xxx 7xxx 8xxx 9xxx Copper Manganese Silicon Magnesium Magnesium and silicon Zinc Aircraft components

chemical

Architectural applications Welding rods, automobile parts Boat hulls, marine industries Architectural extrusions Aircraft components Other elements (e.g., Fe, Ni or Ti) Unassigned

1.3.1 Properties of Aluminium alloys A wide range of physical and mechanical properties can be obtained from very pure aluminium. The different properties are: 1) Aluminium has a density of about 2.7g/cc which is one third (approximately) the value of steel. 2) Unlike steel, aluminium prevents progressive oxidation by formation of a protective oxide layer on its surface on exposure to air. 3) Aluminium alloys exhibit excellent electrical and thermal conductivities. The thermal conductivity of aluminium is twice that of copper (for the same weight of both materials used)

There are two major uses of the 4xxx series for forging and weld filler alloy. These both applications are due to the excellent flow characteristics provided by relatively high silicon content. Effects of silicon in the Al-Si alloys are as follows: Thermal expansion is reduced substantially by silicon Magnetic susceptibility is only slightly decreased by silicon The lattice parameter is decreased slightly by silicon Machinability is poor because of the hardness of the silicon Although many investigations exist in literature and based on the above discussion, it is evident that there is enough scope for further research of Al-Si(LM-6) alloys especially their mechanical properties. Therefore the objectives of this study are; Preparation of Al-Si (LM-6) alloys of eutectic compositions. To study of their microstructure. To study of their mechanical properties. To evaluate their wear behaviour. 1.3.2 Aluminium-Silicon alloy Aluminium-Silicon alloys are of greater importance to engineering industries as they exhibit high strength to weight ratio, high wear resistance, low density, low coefficient of thermal expansion etc. Silicon imparts high fluidity and low shrinkage, which result in good cast ability and weld ability. Al-Si alloys are designated 4xxx alloys according to the Aluminium Association Wrought Alloy Designation System. The major features of the 4xxx series are: Heat treatable Good flow characteristics, medium strength Easily joined, especially by brazing and soldering

1.4 Phase Diagram Aluminium-Silicon system is a simple binary eutectic with limited solubility of aluminium in silicon and limited solubility of silicon in aluminium. There is only one invariant reaction in this diagram, namely L + (eutectic) In above equation, L is the liquid phase, is predominantly aluminium, and is predominantly silicon. It is now widely accepted that the eutectic reaction takes place at 577C and at a silicon level of 12.6%. Aluminium-Silicon (Al-Si) casting alloys are the most useful of all common foundry cast alloys in the fabrication of pistons for automotive engines. Depending on the Si concentration in weight percentage [3], the Al-Si alloy systems are divided into three major categories: i. Hypoeutectic (<11 wt % Si) ii. Eutectic (11-13 wt % Si) iii. Hypereutectic (14-25 wt % Si)

FIG 1.1 PHASE DIAGRAM FOR AL - SI ALLOY [2]

1.4.1 Al-Si EUTECTIC COMPOSITION The microstructure of the Al-Si eutectic. In general, when there are approximately equal volume fractions of the two phases, Eutectics of binary alloys exhibit a lamellar structure. On the other hand, if one phase is present in a small volume fraction, this phase tends to be fibrous. As a rule of thumb, The eutectic microstructure obtained will tend to be fibrous when the volume fraction of the minor phase is less than 0.25, otherwise it will tend to be lamellar. If both phases in the eutectic are no faceted, the eutectic will exhibit a regular morphology. In this case, the microstructure is made up of either lamellae or fibers

having a high degree of regularity and periodicity. On the other hand, if one phase is faceted, the eutectic morphology is often irregular Even though the volume fraction of silicon in the Al-Si binary is less than 0.25, the typical Al-Si eutectic is closer to a lamellar structure than to a fibrous one. This is usually attributed to the strong anisotropy of growth of silicon and to the relatively low interfacial energy between Si and Al.

B. FIG 1.2 Eutectic structure (A) Al 12.9% Si, gravity die cast, Si Blue etch (B) Al 12.9% Si 0.04% Sr, gravity die cast, Si Blue et ch[6]

A.

1.4.2 Secondary dendrite arm spacing Depending of the rate of cooling a different result of the dendrite structure is achieved. SDAS is the distance between these dendrites. With a high solidifications rate the result will be a short SDAS which provides o fine eutectic structure

Fig1.3 SDAS [4]

1.4.3 Why copper in aluminium-silicon alloys Copper as an alloying element increase the strength, hardness, fatigue, creep resistance and machinability in an aluminium-silicon alloy. Strength and ductility are depending on how copper is distributed in the alloy. Cu is found dissolved in the dendrite matrix or as Al-Cu rich phases. Alloys with dissolved copper in the matrix shows the most increase of strength and retains ductility. Continues network of copper at the grain boundaries increases the 7

strength to appreciable levels but the ductility decreases. To increase the content of copper in the alloy a higher hardness is achieved and porosity formation increases. Al-Si alloys that contains 1.5 % copper has the optimal mechanical properties comparing to alloys having lower or higher content of copper. 1.4.4 Why magnesium in aluminium-silicon alloys The coefficient of thermal expansion and its electrical resistively increases a little. Al-Mg alloys have high strength, good ductility and excellent corrosion resistance. Al-Mg alloys respond well on heat treatment and a higher ultimate tensile strength and yield strength is achieved. The purpose of magnesium in aluminium-silicon alloys are to precipitate Mg2Si particles but a disadvantage is that big intermetallic compounds can appear; those phases reduce the ductility. In alloys that have an amount of magnesium between 0.05 % to 0.3 % seems to decrease the amount of porosity. 1.4.5 Why Strontium in Aluminium-silicon Alloys Strontium is added to refine the structure of the silicon eutectic and in an attempt to increase ductility it disturbs the planar growth of the silicon eutectic. The silicon eutectic becomes smaller and more compact. It is complicated to add strontium to aluminium alloys because of the powerful effects of the oxide film. It is also an expensive way to improve ductility. It is hard to add strontium without increase the porosity. One theory about strontium is that the enhanced rate of the strontium means that any moisture in the environment is fast converted to the surface oxide and hydrogen is released in the melt. If strontium is added to an open furnace an increase of hydrogen porosity is usually achieved. Addition of pure strontium is recommended because it has a faster dissolution rate with the melt; it has a lower content of iron than Al-Si master alloy. Mechanical properties are positively affected by this modification, the elongation is increased up to 85 % without changes in the tensile or yield strength 1.4.6Mechanical Properties of Al-Si Alloy Mechanical properties of AlSi casting alloys depend not only on their chemical composition but are also significantly dependent on micro-structural features such as the morphologies of the Al-rich -phase and of the eutectic Si particles. The effects of silicon on the mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys are well studied. The mechanical properties of the Al-Si alloy are dependent on the size, shape and distribution of eutectic and primary silicon particles. Small, spherical, uniformly distributed silicon particles enhance the strength properties of Al-Si alloys. The effect of composition on mechanical properties of Al-Si alloys is shown in following table 2.1. It may be observed that as the amount of silicon in the alloy increases, the strength properties of Al-Si alloys also increase up to the eutectic composition, after which they show a decline with further increase in the silicon content. However, the hardness increases and the elongation (%) decrease continuously with increasing silicon content. This may be largely attributed to the size, shape and distribution of silicon particles in the cast structures up to the eutectic composition. Silicon is present as fine particles and is uniformly distributed in the structure, and hence the strength properties increase. However, when the primary silicon appears as coarse polyhedral particles, the strength properties decrease with increasing silicon content, but the hardness goes on increasing because of the increase in the number of silicon particles.

Table 1.2 Mechanical Properties of Al-Si alloy [14]

Composition (wt %) Al-2%Si Al-4%Si Al-6%Si Al-8%Si Al-11.6%Si Al-12.5%Si Al-15%Si Al-17%Si Al-20%Si

Ultimate tensile strength (MN/ m2) 127.3 142.2 155.7 169.6 185.4 189.0 183.25 175.8 172.4

0.2% tensile Elongation proof stress (%) (MN /m2) 52.6 58.3 64.8 71.5 80.0 82.5 77.7 73.7 72.0 12.4 10.2 9.6 7.2 5.8 5.4 4.7 3.0 2.5

Hardness (VHN) 39.5 47.3 55.6 61.6 67.0 70.0 72.5 76.6 81.0

Density (kg/m3x103) 2.68 2.67 2.65 2.62 2.59 2.57 2.55 2.53 2.50

1.5 Al BASE GRADE ALLOY 1.5.1 LM-6 (EN 1706 AC-43100) - Aluminium Casting Alloy (Al-Si12CulMgl) Colour Code -YELLOW/BLACK This alloy conforms to BS 1490:1988 LM-6. Castings are standardized in the precipitation treated (TE) condition, solution treated, artificially aged and stabilized (TF7) condition and the fully heat treated (TF) condition 1.5.2 Chemical Composition of Material Chemical composition of the hyper eutectic Al-Si alloy which is used in the experiment is show in below Table 4.1
Table 1.3 Chemical composition of material

Material Al Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn

% As Balance 10-13 1.0 % max 0.7-1.5 max 0.5 % max 0.8-1.5 max 0.5 max

Ni Sn Pb Ti Cr

1.5 max 0.1 max 0.1 max 0.2 max 0.1 max

(a)

(b) (c) FIG 1.4 Microphotographs of LM-6 under a) as-cast, b) melt-treated, and c) heat treated. [21]

1.5.3 Characteristics Machinability In machining this alloy, there is less tendency to drag than with high Silicon alloys containing no other alloying elements, for example LM6. Ordinary steel tools tend to wear rather quickly and should not be used. Carbide tipped tools with large rake angles and relatively low cutting speeds give good results. A cutting lubricant and coolant should be employed. Diamond tools are commonly used for finish machining. Corrosion Resistance This alloy shows high resistance to corrosion under atmospheric conditions. Anodizing LM-6 may be anodized satisfactorily by the sulphuric acid process. The anodic coating is dark grey. Anodizing, which produces an oil absorbing surface, is sometimes used to give improved bearing qualities to pistons made of LM-6. Fluidity Good, this alloy can be cast into thin sections. PRESSURE TIGHTNESS - Fair, suitable for leak tight castings. HOT-TEARING - Excellent, resistance to hot tearing is high. TYPICAL POURING TEMPERATURE -700C The actual temperatures may range between 670-780C and will depend on the mould configuration. This alloy may form internal shrinkage pipes in heavy sections. Pattern makers Shrinkage - 1.3% or 1/75.

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1.5.4 Applications LM-6 alloy is used arlam bracket, arlam bracket (petrol pump) pipe fitting, elbow petrol pump, motor body cover, adjustable flange (gear box). It has the advantage of good resistance to wear, good bearing properties and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. 1.6 Degassing 1.6.1 What is Degassing ? Hydrogen is removed from the molten Al by bubbling an inert gas through the metal. Argon, hexa-chloro-ethane tablet and nitrogen are typically used, but argon is preferred for the best metal quality because of the tendency of nitrogen to form Al nitride inclusions and more dross. By adding a small amount of chlorine to the inert process gas in degassers, non-wetted inclusions and alkali metal impurities can also be removed more efficiently from the metal.

1.6.2 Degassing principal Hydrogen degassing of aluminum is based on the principle that the hydrogen gas will move from an area of high pressure (in the melt) to an area of low pressure (the inert gas). Hydrogen gas disperses in the molten metal as it would if it were released in any confined space. It will maintain a constant pressure throughout the melt. When you introduce the inert gas, the hydrogen throughout the melt will flow into the inert gas. As Hydrogen gas is removed, it will equalize its pressure throughout the melt. The ability of hydrogen gas to move through and equalize its pressure in liquid metal is almost as fast as it is in air. It is there for unnecessary to bring all of the metal in contact with the inert gas. How well and how fast a heat of aluminum can be degassed is determined by two factors, the transfer rate across the metal/gas interface and the surface area of gas exposed to the metal. Gas bubbling hydrogen degassing systems work on the principle of using speciality gasses (chlorine, Freon or SF6) to speed up the hydrogen transfer across the metal/gas interface to large bubbles of gas in the metal. There was a practical limit to the hydrogen removal on humid days because the large bubbles broke the surface and exposed metal to the humid atmosphere where more hydrogen was picked up. Chlorine was the original gas of choice but due to its hazardous nature most foundries switched to other gasses. What most foundries have not considered are the hazardous materials released by the breakdown of any speciality gas used. Rotary degassing works on the principle of increasing the surface area of an inert gas exposed to the metal. The greater the surface area the faster the degassing. For a given volume of gas the smaller the bubble size the greater the surface area and the faster the degassing. For example a 1" square bubble of gas has a surface area of 6 square inches. If you divide this bubble into 1/16" square bubbles, the total surface area increases to 96 square inches. In other words for the same volume of gas the surface area and transfer rate has been increased 16 times. In addition the small bubbles do not disturb the surface of the molten metal so there is very little hydrogen pickup from the atmosphere. 1.6.3 Why Degassing need? Because of hydrogen solubility in molten metal it produce porosity in casting. It reduce the life of casting product. so use of N2 gas to use degassing process remove hydrogen porosity. And improve the life of casting parts. 1.7 Sources of hydrogen in molten metal atmosphere humidity; 11

wet metallic charge; wet furnace lining (crucible, transfer ladles); wet foundry instruments; wet fluxes and other consumables; furnace fuel combustion products containing hydrogen.

1.8 Solubility of hydrogen

FIG 1.5 Solubility of hydrogen in solid/liquid aluminum

Amongst all gases only Hydrogen can be solved in Aluminium. Compared with the solubility of gases in iron alloys, however, the quantity is rather low. The solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminium depends on the content of alloys and on the temperature. The solved quantity furthermore depends on the availability of Hydrogen, which is usually given as the partial pressure and indicated in Millilitres of the solved gas per 100 Grams of metal. (1013 mbar and 0 Celsius; 1 ppm = 1,1124 ml/100g) As the solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminium suddenly decreases at a temperature of approx. 600 Celsius during cooling it often comes to porosity caused by frozen gas bubbles. With pure Aluminium the tendency to porosity is most serious, whereas it is lower with alloys. This is due to a smaller leap in the solubility of Hydrogen. These circumstances lead to the fact that the presence of porosity with MIG-welding of Aluminium is nearly unavoidable. Pores have negative implications on the static and dynamic strength of welded joints and can be disturbing anyway. Machining the surfaces opens pores which dont look nice and may reduce the adhesion of paint. Inspectors have trouble to determine the level of acceptable porosity and both fabricators and customers consider it as just poor work.

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The basic solution to this problem is to keep the level of available Hydrogen as low as possible. Generally a Hydrogen content of approx. 0,2 to 0,3 ml/100g is considered to be the maximum permitted level in order to get low porosity. This value is exceeded under practical conditions quite frequently. Sources of Hydrogen are base material, ller material, shielding gas and atmosphere. Clean storage- and fabrication conditions, preparation of the surfaces and prevention of all other sources of Hydrogen is the most important rule

1.9 Hydrogen in aluminium Liquid aluminum actively dissolves hydrogen, which forms as a result of chemical reaction with water vapor: 2Al + 3H2O = Al2O3 + 6H

Solubility of gaseous hydrogen in liquid aluminium at its melting point (1220.7F/660.4C) is (2.2 cm3 per 100 g). Solubility of gaseous hydrogen falls sharply when aluminium solidifies: solid aluminium at melting point contains only (0.05 cm3 per 100 g). aluminum alloys release excessive amount of hydrogen during Solidification. This results in porosity defects distributed throughout the solid metal. Size of the hydrogen pores and their quantity is determined by the initial content of hydrogen, the alloy composition and the solidification conditions. 1.10 Type of casting defect 1)Air blow hole 2)Hydrogen porosity

FIG 1.6 casting defect

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CHAPTER 2 EXPERIMENT PROCESS

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2. Company flow chart

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2.1 Basic Procedure of Casting processes Select a material for casting process and all experiment. Use induction furnace, pit furnace and electrotherm furnace for material melt, where material heated high melting temperature and change solid to liquid form. Permanent mold is preheating to 250 c for all casting to reduce a thermal shock it is require preheating in present experimental work when pouring a high temperature molten metal in mold cavity this time direct contact between metal and mould surface. Zircon water based coating is used for mould coating as proved effective and is known to give excellent surface finish and protect with easily remove cast in mould cavity After melt are degassing with 1 % hexa-chloro-ethane tablet for remove soluble hydrogen form in molten metal. After fluxing, proper degassing and cleaning by cover flux Added a grain refinement Al-5Ti-1B , Al-3Ti-1B, in molten metal to refine a structure and Improved feeding characteristics Increased tear resistance, Improved mechanical properties, Increased pressure tightness, Improved response to thermal treatment Use a grain modifier 100 ppm of Al-Sr, Na, Ca, Ba, and Eu added in molten metal to reduce Si particle size and become a small round shape. Gravity die ( permanent mould) casting and pressure die casting process use for making a cast by using LM-6 eutectic Al alloy material Prepare a sample the metallographic Sample size (1.5 1.51.5)cm are prepare by cutting, mounting, grinding, and polishing on no. of silicon carbide grain per square grade paper and final polishing with diamond paste in disc polishing machine and check in optical microscope Taking a T6 heat-treatment process for relief of internal stresses which is developing during different machining process where LM6-TF (fully heat treated) heat for 8 hours at 515-525C, quench in hot water, and heat for 4-16 hours at 160-180C. Prepare a different shape and size sample for no. of test to check a mechanical property, find hardness, Impact test

2.2 Casting processes Casting processes are divided into two major categories, expendable mould and Permanent moulds. Expendable moulds are sand casting, last wax method, vacuum molding and shell molding. Permanent moulds are high pressure die casting, gravity die casting, and centrifugal casting and squeeze casting. 2.2.1 Gravity die casting A gravity die , (permanent mold) casting makes use of a mold which is permanent ,this mold can be re-use many times before it is discarded or re-built Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only , No external pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mold cavity

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FIG 2.1 GRAVITY(PERMANENT MOULD) DIE CASTING

Usually alloys with a low melting point are used like aluminium and magnesium. This kind of casting method is used especially in large series manufacturing with an even thickness of the material. The dies are preheated or pre cooled to about 200 300 degrees Celsius. The metal is poured into the die and force to fill the hold mould is the gravity. Compared to sand casting gravity die castings provide higher strength and finer structure because of the faster cooling rate. The faster cooling rate depends on the good heat transfer in the metal die

2.2.2 Pressure die casting. Pressure die casting is a quick, reliable and cost-effective manufacturing process for production of high volume, metal components that are net-shaped have tight tolerances. Basically, the pressure die casting process consists of injecting under high pressure a molten metal alloy into a steel mold (or tool). This gets solidified rapidly (from milliseconds to a few seconds) to form a net shaped component. It is then automatically extracted.

FIG 2.2 Pressure die casting

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Depending upon the pressure used, there are two types of pressure die casting namely High Pressure Die Casting and Low Pressure Die Casting. While high pressure die casting has wider application encompassing nearly 50% of all light alloy casting production. Currently low pressure die casting accounts for about 20% of the total production but its use is increasing. High pressure castings are must for castings requiring tight tolerance and detailed geometry. As the extra pressure is able to push the metal into more detailed features in the mold. Low pressure die casting is commonly used for larger and non-critical parts. However, the machine and its dies are very costly, and for this reason pressure die casting is viable only for high-volume production

2.3 Grain Refinement and Modification 2.3.1Grain Structure A fine, equiaxed grain structure is normally desired in aluminum castings. The type and size of grains formed are determined by alloy composition, solidification rate, and the addition of master alloys (grain refiners) containing inter metallic phase particles, which provide sites for heterogeneous grain nucleation. 2.3.2 Grain Refinement Effects A finer grain size promotes improved casting soundness by minimizing shrinkage, hot cracking, and hydrogen porosity. The advantages of effective grain refinement are: Improved feeding characteristics Increased tear resistance Improved mechanical properties Increased pressure tightness Improved response to thermal treatment Improved appearance following chemical, electrochemical, and mechanical finishing.

Under normal solidification conditions spanning the full range of commercial casting processes, aluminum alloys without grain refiners exhibit coarse columnar and/or coarse equiaxed structures. The coarse columnar grain structure is less resistant to cracking during solidification and post solidification cooling than the well refined grain structure of the same alloy shown in Figure

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Fig2.3 As cast Al-7Si ingots showing the effects of grain refinement[10]

2.3.3 Grain Refinement All aluminum alloys can be made to solidify with a fully equiaxed, fine grain structure through the use of suitable grain refining additions. The most widely used grain refiners are master alloys of titanium, or of titanium and boron, in aluminum. Aluminum-titanium refiners generally contain from 3 to 10 % Ti. The same range of titanium concentrations is used in Al-Ti-B refiners with boron contents from 0.2 to 1 % and titanium-to-boron ratios ranging from about 5 to 50. Although grain refiners of these types can be considered conventional hardeners or master alloys, they differ from master alloys added to the melt for alloying purposes alone. To be effective, grain refiners must introduce controlled, predictable, and operative quantities of aluminides (and borides) in the correct form, size, and distribution for grain nucleation. Wrought refiner in rod form, developed for the continuous treatment of aluminum in primary operations, is available in sheared lengths for foundry use. The same grain refining compositions are furnished in waffle form. In addition to grain refining master alloys, salts (usually in compacted form) that react with molten aluminum to form combinations of TiAl3 and TiB2 are also available. 2.3.4 Grain Refinement Mechanisms Despite much progress in understanding the fundamentals of grain refinement, no universally accepted theory or mechanism exists to satisfy laboratory and industrial experience. It is known that TiAl3 is an active phase in the nucleation of aluminum crystals, ostensibly because of similarities in crystallographic lattice spacing. Nucleation may occur on TiAl 3 substrates that are un-dissolved or precipitate at sufficiently high titanium concentrations by peritectic reaction. Grain refinement can be achieved at much lower titanium concentrations than those predicted by the binary Al-Ti peritectic point of 0.15 %. For this reason, other theories, such as co nucleation of the aluminide by TiB2 or carbides and constitutional effects on the peritectic reaction, are presumed to be influential. Recent findings also suggest the active role of more complex borides of the Ti-Al-B type in grain nucleation. Additions of titanium in the form of master alloys to aluminum casting compositions normally result in significantly finer and equiaxed grain structure. The period of effectiveness following grain refiner addition and the potency of grain refining action are enhanced by the presence of TiB2. In the testing of some compositions, notably those of the aluminum silicon family, aluminum borides and titanium boride in the absence of excess titanium have been found to provide effective grain refinement. However, the requirement of an excess of 19

titanium compared to stoichiometric balance with boron in TiB2 is commonly accepted for optimum grain-refining results, and titanium or higher ratio titanium-boron master alloys are used almost exclusively for grain size control. The role of boride in enhancing grain refinement effectiveness and extending its useful duration is observed in both casting and wrought alloys, forming the basis for its use. However, when the boride is present in the form of large, agglomerated particles, it assumes the character of a highly objectionable inclusion with especially damaging effects in machining. Particle agglomeration is found in master alloys of poor quality, or it may occur as a result of long, quiescent holding periods. For the latter reason, it is essential that holding furnaces be routinely and thoroughly cleaned when boron containing master alloys are used. The objective in every case in which master alloys or other grain refiners are added to the melt is the release of constituent particles capable of nucleating grain formation to ensure uniform, fine, equiaxed grain structure. The selection of an appropriate grain refiner, practices for grain refiner addition, and practices covering holding and pouring of castings following grain refiner addition are usually developed by the foundry after considering casting and product requirements and after referral to the performance characteristics of commercial grain refiners furnished by the supplier. However, grain refiners of the 5Ti-1B and 5Ti-0.6B types, which are characterized by cleanliness and fine, uniform distribution of aluminide and boride phases when added to the melt at 0.01 to 0.03 % Ti, should be expected to provide acceptable grain refinement under most conditions.

2.3.5 Grain modifier When the alloys are made by direct electrolytic reduction, or when the normal alloys are treated after simple melting with an alkali fluoride or with sodium or potassium, so-called modified alloys result, and that In the case of the normal alloys, the silicon occurs as relatively large plates and needles, while in the modified ones the silicon is in a state of high dispersion. The preparation of both normal and modified alloys has been the subject of a number of patents by Pacz and by the Aluminium Company of America (ALCOA). In the patents by Pacz, the modified alloys are prepared by melting together aluminium and silicon, and adding to the melt an alkali fluoride, typically sodium fluoride. In the ALCOA patents, the liquid alloys are treated with small amounts of sodium or potassium, One way to improve mechanical properties is to add chemical modifiers which influence microstructure formation during solidification. Additions in the range of a few 100 ppm of Sr, Na, Ca, Ba or Eu modify the eutectic Si morphology from coarse plate-like into fine fibrous and have a beneficial effect on both strength and ductility Whereas in the previous studies it has been suggested that Sr alone is responsible for the modified growth of the eutectic Si phase, the present investigations demonstrate that the growth of modified eutectic Si phase requires SrAlSi co-segregation.

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Fig 2.4 Optical micrographs of Al10 wt. % Si0.1 wt. % Fe alloy showing a eutectic microstructure: (a and b) unmodified alloy, (c and d) alloy modified by 200 ppm Sr[12].

Addition grain refinement, modification combined action of both (Al3Ti1B + Al 10Sr) to eutectic alloy significantly refines coarse columnar -aluminium dendrites to fine equiaxed -aluminium dendrites. Grain refinement reduces inter-dendrite arm spacing of -aluminium dendrites. After modification, Eutectic silicon particles are spheroidized in the matrix of aluminium 2.4 Coating

After the mold surface have been heated to the required temperature , a refractory coating in the form of slurry is sprayed or brushed on to the mold cavity, riser, gate, and runner surfaces. French chalk, calcium carbonate suspended in sodium silicate binder and zircon water base coating is commonly used as a coating for aluminium and magnesium permanent mold castings. Coating is dried and then smoothed with steel wool.

Refractory coating: 21

Protects mold surfaces from erosion and checking. Exercises insulating effect and thus helps obtaining progressive and directional solidification. Is kept thin when chilling is needed and vice versa. May be repaired and normally replaced after every eight hours work.

Lubricating coatings if sprayed help removal of casting and cores form the mold. A coating of graphite water paint permits easy removal of a 60-40 brass casting. Permanent molds, besides refractory coating are given a carbon-aceous soot coating once every casting cycle. 2.5 Degassing Degassing is to remove dissolved hydrogen from the melt prior to and as close as practicable to the casting station. Hydrogen is the only gas that can dissolve significantly in molten Al. The major source of hydrogen is the combustion of natural gas or oil in holding furnaces. High ambient humidity is another source of hydrogen, especially during the hot summer months experienced in many localities. The problem is that hydrogen solubility decreases rapidly as the metal freezes during casting, and the hydrogen comes out of solution, causing such casting problems as twisting and flaking in thin section extrusions and blisters on cast product. Target dissolved hydrogen content depends on the final product application, and can range from 0.20 ml / 100g Al for general 6xxx extrusion billet down to 0.10 ml / 100g Al for rolling slab for aerospace applications Hydrogen is removed from the molten Al by bubbling an inert gas through the metal. Argon, hexa-chloro-ethane tablet and nitrogen are typically used, but argon is preferred for the best metal quality because of the tendency of nitrogen to form Al nitride inclusions and more dross. By adding a small amount of chlorine to the inert process gas in degassers, non-wetted inclusions and alkali metal impurities can also be removed more efficiently from the metal

FIG. 2.5 Cleaning, Degassing, and Covering process

Cleaning, degassing and covering Cleaning fluxes remove oxides and other non-metallic inclusions from the melt Drossing fluxes provide a dry dross with a low metal content Covering fluxes protect the melt against oxidation and hydrogen pick-up A low hydrogen content in the melt reduces gas porosity in the casting Removal of impurities improves mechanical properties and avoids distortions during heat-treatment and machining 22

Chapter 3 Experimental Work

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3.1 Introduction. 3.1.1 Problem indentification In first indenifaction of casing process for particular lm6 aluminium material .we first visited krunal engg.limited at ctm, Amdavad .first we see the actual process of company which material use in casting process how to makes different casting parts. But in this casting process some defect are occurring in casting parts. So we study and analysis whole casting process of company. After the analysis we find the reason of how to comes this types of defect. then after study whole process find that presence of hydrogen in atmosphere and not totally soluble in molten metal.this types of defect occurs. Different between actually company chart and our improvement chart as under 3.2 Material Selection Present work in which use a material in whole process LM-6 alloy, which is used for p arlam bracket, elbow petrol pump, motor body cover, adjustable flange (gear box). It has the advantage of good resistance to wear, good bearing properties and a low coefficient of thermal expansion. . Aluminium - Silicon alloys have inherent advantages of being lightweight, having high specific strength, low coefficient of thermal expansion, good mechanical properties, good corrosion resistance and good heat transfer ability, which make them suitable alternatives to replace components made of ferrous alloys

3.2.1 Chemical Composition of Material Chemical composition of the eutectic (LM-6) Al-Si alloy which is used in the experiment is show in below Table 4.1

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Table 3.1 Chemical composition of material

Material
Al Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Zn Ni Pb Ti Sn

%
84.95-87.95 11.900 0.610 0.1 0.489 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.2 0.05

3.3 Casting Procedure Select a material for casting process and all experiment. Use induction furnace for material melt, where material heated high melting temperature and change solid to liquid form. Permanent mold is preheating to 250 c for all casting to reduce a thermal shock it is require preheating in present experimental work when pouring a high temperature molten metal in mold cavity this time direct contact between metal and mould surface. Zircon water based coating is used for mould coating as proved effective and is known to give excellent surface finish and protect with easily remove cast in mould cavity After melt are degassing with 1 % Ar and N2 for remove soluble hydrogen form in molten metal. After fluxing, proper degassing and cleaning by cover flux Added a grain refinement Al-5Ti-1B , Al-3Ti-1B, in molten metal to refine a structure and Improved feeding characteristics Increased tear resistance, Improved mechanical properties, Increased pressure tightness, Improved response to thermal treatment Use a grain modifier 100 ppm of Al-Sr, Na, Ca, Ba, and Eu added in molten metal to reduce Si particle size and become a small round shape. Gravity die ( permanent mold) casting and pressure die casting process use for making a cast by using LM-6 eutectic Al alloy material

3.3.1 Add grain refiner and modifier The most widely used grain refiners are master alloys of titanium, or of titanium and boron, in aluminium. Aluminium-titanium refiners generally contain from 3 to 10 % Ti. The same range of titanium concentrations is used in Al-5Ti-1B, Al-3Ti-1B refiners with boron contents from 0.2 to 1 % and titanium-to-boron ratios ranging from about 5 to 50. 3.3.2 Preheating a mold 25

To reduce a thermal shock it is require preheating in present experimental work when pouring a high temperature molten metal in mold cavity this time direct contact between metal and mold surface. 3.3.3 Prepare a permanent die A gravity die , (permanent mold) casting makes use of a mold which is permanent ,this mold can be re-use many times before it is discarded or re-built Molten metal is poured into the mold under gravity only , No external pressure is applied to force the liquid metal into the mold cavity

FIG 3.1 PERMANENT MOLD DIE

3.3.4 Coating a mold A permanent mould casting must be metallurgic ally sound, have good finish and be easily and rapidly produced. To achieve this, the die must be coated. The die coating is design to protect the accurately machined die face, control solidification, lubricate all moving parts of the die, impart to the casting the best possible surface finish and aid release of the casting from the die. It should also be free from excessive fumes and prevent build-up of residues on die faces. In experimental work zircon water based solution was used and sprayed with pilot gun on mould surface as shown in Figure.
Table 3.2 Summary of casting Experimental Details

Casting Method

Pouring Temp (C)

Weight (kg) 200 200

Time (hr) 5-6 5-6

Furnace Induction furnace Induction furnace

Symbol H1 H2

Gravity Die 750 Casting Pressure die 750 Casting

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3.4 Flow process chart improvement

27

3.5 Product after degassing by N2 gas

FIG 3.2 component without defect

3.6 Comparison between Degassing by hexacloroethane and Degassing by N2 gas Reduction In rejection (%)

Product name

Degassing hexacloroethane

by Degassing by N2 Gas

Accepted (%)

Rejected (%)

Accepted (%)

Rejected (%)

(1) arlam bracket

40

60

80

20

40

(2) arlam bracket 30 (petrol pump) pipe fitting

70

80

20

50

28

(4)motor body 70 cover

30

90

10

20

(5) adjustable 60 flange (gear box).

40

90

10

30

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Chapter 4

REFERENCES

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REFERENCES 1. ASM International, Metal Handbook, Ninth Edition, Vol. 15 Casting. 2. Sufei Wei, The Centrifugal Casting Machine Company, and Steve Lampman, ASM International ASM Handbook, Volume 15: Casting p 667-673. 3. Principle of Foundry Technology. By P.L Jain. 4. ASM International, Aluminium-Silicon Casting Alloy: Atlas of Microfractografs, Page No. 1-9. 5. Influence of ageing process on the microstructure and mechanical properties of aluminium-silicon cast alloys - Al-9%Si-3%Cu and Al-9%Si-0.4%Mg M.Gwzdz K.Kwapisz Bachelor Thesis June 2008 Department of Mechanical Engineering Component Technology Castings Jnkping University Sweden 6. Engineering Tribology Prashanta Sahoo, Prentice Hall of India Private limited, 2005 ISBN-81-203-2724-1page No.1, 72, 81, 90. 7. Evolution of nickel-rich phases in AlSiCuNiMg piston alloys with different Cu additions Yang Yang a, Kuilong Yu a, Yunguo Li a, Degang Zhao b, Xiangfa Liu a Key Laboratory for LiquidSolid Structural Evolution and Processing of Materials, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250061, China 2012 8. John Lenny Jr, M.E Thesis on Replacing the Cast Iron Liners for Aluminum Engine Cylinder Blocks: A Comparative Assessment of Potential Candidates, April-2011. 9. Mark, Udochukwu, Thesis on The effect of solidification rate on the microstructure and mechanical properties of as-cast Al Si eutectic alloy Department of materials and metallurgical engineering, Federal University of Technology, Owerri (2006).

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