Environmental and socioeconomic impacts of surface mining operations: A review of the Greek experience

Francis F. Pavloudakis
Public Power Corporation SA
West Macedonia Lignite Centre, P.O.Box 21, Ptole ais !"2 "", #reece $el%&ax' ()" 2*+)" !2*,-, e. ail' /pa012ol.gr

ABS !A" Surface mining is a vital industrial activit# that sustained the economic growth of Greek energ#$ cement and industrial minerals sectors. %owever$ for numerous groups of interest ever# surface mine is a potential threat for the environment$ pu&lic health and socioeconomic activities. Although the legal and regulator# framework provides mining companies with the &asic directions regarding environmental protection and land reclamation$ the development of a new strateg#$ which should &e &ased on the sustaina&le development principles$ is expected to improve dramaticall# the effectiveness of environmental management actions and to minimi'e the arguments with local authorities and other interested groups. (. )* !+,-" )+* Surface mining operations usuall# are long.term pro/ects that re0uire extremel# high levels of investment. hus$ an# decision concerning the development of a new surface mine should &e &ased on a thorough techno.economical stud#$ which will take into account an# risks and uncertainties related to various geological$ technical$ technological$ geotechnical$ financial$ environmental and political factors. "onsidering in particular environmental risks$ these pla# a significant role in mine planning procedures. ,irect factors are the expenditures related to environmental management during the entire mine lifetime and the financial lia&ilities of the legislation$ while indirect factors are related to the reactions of local authorities. Environmental protection is nowada#s a significant priorit# for the societ#. he citi'ens expect from their governments$ local authorities and the industr# to protect the environment and to inform them a&out the impacts of ever# mining pro/ect on it. herefore$ the environmental management has &ecome a ma/or issue for all mining companies$ which tr# to assess the potential impacts of their operation$ to improve their environmental performance and to meet the standards specified &# the laws and regulations that are in force. 1. E*2)!+*3E* A4 )3PA" S )n Greece$ the legal framework that regulates all these issues was esta&lished relativel# late. he first Environmental Protection Act was voted in the Greek Parliament in (567. he implementation of Environmental )mpact Assessment 8E)A9 process$ which was mentioned in this Act$ was descri&ed in detail in the 3inisterial ,ecision 75175 four #ears later. At that time$ all mining companies faced a lot of difficulties tr#ing to compl# with the new legal status. he paradigm of :est 3acedonia 4ignite "entre$

deposit exploration land expropriation system boundaries

excavation (%ith ,&1)

excavation %ith conventional e0uipment

Modification of morphology Removal of topsoil Changes in land uses %ater pumping from %ells and pumping stations Particulate matter (fly ash) Air emissions (CxHy, COx, Ox, !Ox) !oise, vi"ration # other distur"ances sedimentation ponds Radiations $ischarges from pit protection %ells $ischarges of surface %ater collected in pit $ischarges from &&'P $ischarges from %ater(oil separators urface run)off

transport ("elt)conv) transport (truc/s) distri"ution

lignite waste lignite waste

or irrigation or dust depration

damping

"ac/filling

storage ( "lending %or/shops # other supporting activities transport ("elt)conv) transport (truc/s) mechanical #M electrical #M vehicles #M construction %or/s logistics management # administration

R1 'OR1$ AR1A

Municipal %aste *sed oils # lu"ricants *sed tires # conv+ "elts *sed "ateries PC,-s # other ha.ardous %aste Old machinery # spare parts Recycla"le materials (e+g+ metals)

agricultural, recreational, etc activities of the local communities

ash

to the Po%er Plant

electricity

Figure (: 3ain components of an open.pit lignite mine and waste outflows released to the environment

which received environmental permits ten #ears after the su&mission of the relevant E)A stud#$ is the most appropriate for testif#ing the situation. oda#$ significant dela#s still exist due to the &ureaucratic procedure for receiving the exploitation rights of a mineral deposit concession. *evertheless$ all mining and 0uarr#ing pro/ects are necessar# to su&mit an E)A stud# and to operate following the Environmental Permits that have &een approved &# the regulator# authorit#. )n the case of the open.pit mining complex of Ptolemais the entire 0uantit# of the produced lignite is fed to thermal power plants located at distances of a few kilometers. )n addition$ the mines and thermal power plants &elong to the same power utilit#. hus$ it was decided the &oundaries of the examined environmental s#stem to include all the mines and power plants. Figure ( presents schematicall# the components of the lignite and power production s#stem. he main waste outflows that are potential threats for the soil$ water and air of the surrounding area are listed to the right side of the s#stem &oundaries. )n general$ open.pit lignite mines are complex operations that can affect numerous environmental constituents in various wa#s ;Sengupta$ (55<$ "larke$ (55=>. )n the examined case$ the mechanisms that are considered to have greater potential of causing environmental damage are the following ;Pavloudakis ? !oumpos$ 1@@A>: 3odification of morpholog# changes in h#drological pattern ? loss of wild animal ha&itat ? degradation of landscape value reduction of propert# value

opsoil removal loss of agricultural land ? increased surface run.off loss of incomes ? water pollution Particulate matter 8fl# ash9 air pollution life 0ualit# degradation Air emissions 8"x%#$ "+x$ S+x$ *+x9 air pollution life 0ualit# degradation ? contri&ution to greenhouse effect ,istur&ances 8noise$ vi&rations$ etc9 life 0ualit# degradation ? reduction of propert# value !adiations danger for human health ,ischarges from pit protection wells drop of water ta&le ? increased flow in streams irrigation pro&lems ? floods ? degradation of potential water uses Surface run.off and discharges from surface water collected in pit suspended solids in streams a0uatic life distur&ance ? floods ? degradation of potential water uses ,ischarges from waste water treatment plants and water B oil separators pollution and contamination of a0uatic receivers a0uatic life distur&ance ? degradation of potential water uses )mproper management of municipal and specialBha'ardous waste increased concentration of toxic su&stances in soils B waters ? aesthetic pro&lems degradation of the potential land and water uses life 0ualit# degradation ? danger for human health.

<. P!E2E* )2E A*, !E3E,)A4 E*2)!+*3E* A4 3A*AGE3E* A" )+*S )* S-!FA"E 3)*)*G S) ES First priorit# of ever# land reclamation programme is the rapid re.integration of the distur&ed areas into the landscape. 4and reclamation implies waste.rock dumping$ surface contouring$ topsoil spreading and revegetation. :aste.rock surfaces must &e sampled and anal#sed for identif#ing the acidification grade$ the total sulphur content and total alkalinit# content. For deep samples 8A@.=@cm9 the contents of P1+=$ potassium$ calcium and magnesium accessi&le to plants must also &e determined. he use of four sampling points per hectare is suggested. Based on the results of those anal#ses$ decisions relevant to the need of topsoil spreading$ the t#pe of trees that must &e planted$ the t#pe and 0uantities of fertili'ers and soil amendments that must &e spread$ etc. can &e more effective. As far as the formation of a topsoil cover is concerned$ the &est practice is the direct transport of topsoil from an active mining area to the reclaimed surface. )f this is impossi&le$ temporar# stockpiling of topsoil is suggested. he usuall# applied thickness of topsoil cover is a&out =@cm. %owever$ there are cases where there is no need of topsoil$ while in other cases a ( m thick la#er is inade0uate to support 0uick and lasting vegetation. Finall#$ revegetation is carried out using plant material taken from tree nurseries. rees are planted with a narrow spacing. he# usuall# &elong to native species in order to ensure that a high percentage of the planted material will finall# grow. Periodic irrigation$ topsoil &lending with ash or selected over&urden seams and use of fertilisers are some techni0ues that can accelerate revegetation. Furthermore$ the rational environmental management of mine sites is closel# related to the protection of water &odies degraded &# mining. Ever# mining compan# should have developed a water protection strateg# that should &e integrated with the programme of

the local or regional watershed management authorit#. 3ining activities must not interfere with existing plans that tr# to maintain ade0uate suppl# of freshwater of suita&le 0ualit# for human use and to support a0uatic and other ecos#stems ;Pavloudakis ? !oumpos$ 1@@A>. A. S+")+E"+*+3)" )3PA" S A ma/or issue that is alwa#s investigated during decision.making procedures regarding the development of surface mines is pu&lic protest. For numerous groups of interest$ including local authorities$ cham&ers$ ecological organi'ations$ etc$ a mine is a potential threat for the environment$ pu&lic health and socioeconomic activities that interfere with it. For this reason$ an# proposal for further development of mining sites is either re/ected or it is accepted after setting a series of terms and conditions. )n general$ the development of a surface mine affects the socioeconomic activities of local communities &# the following wa#s: !educed access to pu&lic utilities 8e.g. transportation9 Econom# o Emplo#ment o 3one# inflow to local econom# "hange of land uses o Farmland o Gra'ing o ourism . !ecreation o !esidential 8relocation of villages9 "ulture o 4ifest#le o Population densit# o Archaeological sites ? monuments %ealth and safet# )n the case of the Greek lignite surface mines the socioeconomic issues that &rought the mining enterprise into conflict with local authorities was: resettlement of villages and land expropriation ;Pavloudakis et al$ 1@@7:1>. -p to now$ the resettlement of villages is considered as an alternative for surface mines development onl# if lignite deposits are located under inha&ited areas. )n these cases the mining compan# is o&liged to pa# compensations for ever# private propert# and for pu&lic &uildings and infrastructures. 3oreover$ the compan# must cooperate with local authorities for the selection of the site$ where the communit# will &e resettled$ and for the development of new infrastructures that will allow earl# move of people to the new village. %owever$ during the last #ears there is a continuousl# growing pressure from communities that claim for resettlement due to the violation of their life standards caused &# the various impacts of surface mining. he expropriation of the land re0uired for the development of a new surface mine is a time.consuming procedure that is normall# come to an end in the "ourt$ which determines the unit prices for the different components of private properties 8land$ trees$ fences$ irrigation wells$ etc9 that will &e destructed due to excavations or waste dumping. According to recent "ourt /udgements$ the compensation of the

land owners is calculated &ased on the propert# items that are found in each piece of land$ no matter when and how these items were placed in it. he a&ove.mentioned conflicts can &e overcome if local authorities are involved in decision.making processes. Pu&lic participation ena&les productive use of inputs and perceptions from local authorities$ pu&lic interest groups and private citi'ens. )deall#$ pu&lic involvement is a continuous communication process that keeps the pu&lic informed a&out the potential impacts of a pro/ect and$ at the same time$ allows a feed&ack from citi'ens to pu&lic officials and to people$ who are involved in the mine planning and exploitation processes. )n practise$ the level of pu&lic involvement can range from awareness to active participation in pro/ect planning activities ;3anoliadis$ 1@@1>. %owever$ according to the regulations of the Greek legislative framework$ pu&lic involvement is possi&le onl# during the discussion of the E)A stud# in the Prefecture "ouncil. here$ all pu&lic interest groups and private citi'ens can express their opposition and stop the environmental permits approval. he use of this legal right &# local authorities is a routine in cases of site.selection studies for landfills and other waste management facilities &ut also in cases of mining activities. +&viousl#$ this procedure does not favour the active participation of pu&lic interest groups in the ela&oration of E)A studies. +n the contrar#$ these pu&lic groups often attend the meeting of the Prefecture "ouncil and su&mit studies that reach to the opposite conclusion$ leading the entire process to failure and causing significant dela#s to the mine development pro/ect ;Pavloudakis et al$ 1@@7:(>. =. %E "+*"EP +F S-S A)*AB4E 3)*E ECP4+) A )+* According to the information presented a&ove$ the efficienc# of a mine.land management programme is closel# related to the efficienc# of certain measures that must &e applied during the active mining period. herefore$ the development of a procedure that allows periodical review of the applied measures is necessar#. his procedure can &e &ased on a series of economic$ environmental$ and social indicators$ which are representative of the monitored s#stem$ have a scientific &asis$ are 0uantifia&le$ without social &ias$ and represent managea&le processes ;van D#l et al$ 1@@<>. )n 3a# 1@@<$ the mem&ers of )nternational "ouncil on 3ining ? 3etals 8)"339 committed themselves to implement and measure their performance against (@ sustaina&le development principles. he (@ principles were developed &# &enchmarking against other leading glo&al standards including: the (551 !io ,eclaration$ the Glo&al !eporting )nitiative$ the +E", Guidelines for 3ultinational Enterprises$ the :orld Bank +perational Policies$ etc. hese principles$ which provide to the mining and metal companies a process framework for moving things towards sustaina&ilit#$ are the following ;)"33$ 1@@E:($ 1>: )mplement and maintain ethical &usiness practices and sound s#stems of corporate governance )ntegrate sustaina&le development considerations within the corporate decision. making process -phold fundamental human rights and respect cultures$ customs and values in dealings with emplo#ees and others who are affected &# mining activities )mplement risk management strategies &ased on valid data and sound science Seek continual improvement of health and safet# performance

 Seek continual improvement of environmental performance "ontri&ute to conservation of &iodiversit# and integrated approaches to land use planning Facilitate and encourage responsi&le product design$ use$ re.use$ rec#cling and disposal of mining and metal products "ontri&ute to the social$ economic and institutional development of the local communities )mplement effective and transparent engagement$ communication and independentl# verified reporting arrangements with stakeholders. Furthermore$ Sustaina&le 3ining !oundta&le 8S3!9$ an open colla&oration scheme sponsored &# -S Forest Services and -S Geological Surve#$ has proposed a series of indicators that cover a &road range of attri&utes of energ# and minerals s#stems. he indicators are organised &ased on four criteria and (6 su&.criteria ;van D#l et al$ 1@@<>: "apacit# to produce commodities 8(< indicators9 o !esources o Exploration capacit#. o Production 8extractive9 capacit#. o Processing capacit# 8smelting$ refining$ and transportation9. o -se of energ# and minerals. Environmental 0ualit# 8E indicators9 o Am&ient environment. o 3anagement of extraction and processing. o !eclamationBremediationBrestoration of extraction sites. o Environmental releases. Economic$ cultural and social &enefits 8(@ indicators9 o 4ocal. o *ational. o !ecreation and tourism. o "ultural$ social$ and spiritual needs. o E0uit# 8povert# levels9 4egal and institutional framework 86 indicators9 o 4egal o )nstitutional o Economic framework Sustaina&ilit# indicators are useful as anal#tical$ explanator#$ communication$ planning$ and performance assessment tools that turn vast amounts of anal#'ed data into meaningful and relevant information. hese indicators allow a holistic comparative anal#sis$ which takes into account numerous economic$ environmental$ social and political aspects of surface mines development$ operation and closure. )n this wa#$ sustaina&ilit# criteria and indicators ma# contri&ute to a via&le future of mining industr#$ recognising the essential role of metals and minerals for modern living. 7. "+*"4-S)+*S Environmental protection and land reclamation are widel# recognised as ke#.elements for the development of ever# surface mining activit#. Although the legal framework that is currentl# in force regulates effectivel# most of the relevant issues$ some pro&lems

still exist. he implementation of techni0ues that make possi&le the guided pu&lic involvement in the impact assessment procedure is an option that can reduce dramaticall# the protests against plans for the development of new mines. 3oreover$ the development of an environmental management strateg#$ which will &e &ased on &oth remedial and preventive actions$ starting from the earl# stages of mine development$ is possi&le to improve the overall environmental performance of a mine. he use of a methodolog# that incorporates the main principles of sustaina&ilit# allows further the assessment of all environmental threats associated with the mine operation throughout its life c#cle. Also$ it allows the development of processes that support the monitoring and periodic evaluation of the environmental management strateg# and the decision making as far as the optimal mine development strateg# is concerned. !EFE!E*"ES
"larke$ 4.B.$ 8(55=9. "oal 3ining and water 0ualit#$ )EA 8)nternational Energ# Agenc#9 . "oal !esearch$ 4ondon$ -F. )"33$ 81@@E:(9. Annual !eview 1@@7: Setting the standards to meet the challenge of sustaina&le development$ )ntl. "ouncil on 3ining ? 3etals . )"33$ 4ondon$ p.16. )"33$ 81@@E:19. Sustaina&le ,evelopment Framework: :orking together to improve industr# performance$ )ntl. "ouncil on 3ining ? 3etals . )"33$ 4ondon$ p.1@. 3anoliadis$ +. 81@@19. Environmental Planning: Stud# ? Assessment of Environmental )mpacts. )on Pu&lications 8in Greek9. Pavloudakis$ F.$ !oumpos ". 81@@A9. Evaluation of land reclamation and environmental protection strategies in open.pit lignite mines. )ntl. "onf. on Advances in 3ineral !esources 3anagement and Environmental Geotechnolog#$ %ania$ Greece$ 5.(( Gune 1@@A$ pp. AE<.A6@ Pavloudakis$ F.$ !oumpos ".$ Sachanidis ".$ Galetakis 3. 81@@7:(9. Environmental impacts assessment of surface mining operations: A review of the Greek experience. (=th )ntl. S#mposium of 3ine Planning ? E0uipment Selection$ orino$ )tal#$ 1@.11 Sept. 1@@7. Pavloudakis$ F.$ !oumpos ".$ Galetakis 3. 81@@7:19. "ritical environmental and social parameters affecting the development of new surface mines. 1nd )ntl. "onf. on Advances in 3ineral !esources 3anagement and Environmental Geotechnolog#$ %ania$ Greece$ 1=.1E Sept. 1@@7$ pp.(EE.(61. Sengupta$ 3. 8(55<9. Environmental )mpacts of 3ining: 3onitoring$ !estoration and "ontrol$ "!" Press$ p. =(1. 2an D#l ,.$ Shields ,.$ :agner 4.$ 81@@<9. -.S. Sustaina&le 3inerals !oundta&le. www.unr.eduB minesBsmr.