Signal Acquisition Sensor & Tranducer

Chapter 6 in Introduction to Biomedical Equipment Technology By Joseph Carr and John Brown

Medical Instrumentation typically entails monitoring a signal off the body which is analog, converting it to an electrical signal digitizing it to be analyzed by computer. Types of Sensors:
Electrodes: acquire an electrical signal Transducers: acquire a nonelectrical signal (force, pressure, temp etc) and converts it to an electrical signal

Active vs Passive Sensors:

Active Sensor: required an external AC or DC electrical source to power the device (ex strain gauge, blood pressure sensor Passive Sensor: provides it own energy or derives energy from phenomenon being studied ex thermocouple

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Sensor Error Sources

Error: difference between measured value and true value 5 categories of error:
1. Insertion Error: Error occurring when inserting a sensor 2. Application Error: Errors caused by Operator 3. Characteristic Error: Errors inherent to Device 4. Dynamic Error: Most instruments are calibrated in static conditions if you are reading a thermistor it takes time to change its value. If you read this value to quickly an error will result 5. Environmental Error: Errors caused by environment ex (heat, humidity)
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Sensor Terminology
1. Sensitivity: slope of output characteristic curve y/ x; Minimum input of physical parameter will create a detectable output change Output
Ex blood pressure transducer may have a sensitivity of 10 uV/V/mmHg so you will see a 10 uV change for every V or mmHg applied to the system

Output

Input

Input

Which is more sensitive? The left side one because youll have a larger change in y for a given change in x

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Sensor Terminology
1. Sensitivity Error = Departure from ideal slope of a characteristic curve
Output Ideal Curve

Sensor Terminology
Dynamic Range: total range of sensor for minimum to maximum. Ie if your instrument can measure from -10V to +10 V your dynamic range is 20V Precision = Degree of reproducibility denoted as the range of one standard deviation Resolution = smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be detected
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Input Sensitivity Error

2. Range = Maximum and Minimum values of applied

parameter that can be measured. Ex: if an instrument can read up to 200 mmHg and the actual reading is 250 mmHg then you have exceeded the range of the 5 instrument ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis

Accuracy and Offset Error

Accuracy = maximum difference that will exist between the actual value and the indicated value of the sensor

Linearity
Linearity = Extent to which actual measure curved or calibration curve departs from ideal curve. Nonlinearity (%) = (Din(Max) / INfs) * 100
Nonlinearity is percentage of nonlinear Din(max) = maximum input deviation INfs = maximum full-scale input

Xi

Xo

Offset error = output that will exist when it should be zero ex. The characteristic curve had the same sensitive slope but had a y intercept
Output
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Full Scale Input eal Id Output Din(Max)

re asu Me

Output Input Input

7 Offset Error

Zero offset error

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Input

Response Time

Hysteresis
Hysteresis = measurement of how sensor changes with input parameter based on direction of change
Output = F(x)
F2 F1

F(t)
100% 70%

Response Time: Time required for a sensor output to change from previous state to final settle value within a tolerance band of correct new value denoted in red can be different in rising and decaying directions
Tresponse

Tolerance Band Rising Response Time

P Input = x B

Time Constant: Depending on the source is defined as the amount of time to reach 0% to 70% of final value. Typically denoted for capacitors as T = R C (Resistance * Capacitance) denoted in Blue

Ton

Time

F(t)

Tdecay

The value B can be represented by 2 values of F(x), F1 and F2. If you are at point P then you reach B by the value F2. If you are at point Q then Biomedis 9 you reach BARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi by value of F1.

Decaying Response Time

Toff

Example Convergence Eye Movement the inward turning of the eyes have a different response Biomedis 10 time than divergence eye ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi movements the outward turning of the eyes which would be the decay response time

Time

Dynamic Linearity
Measure of a sensors ability to follow rapid changes in the input parameters. Difference between solid and dashed curves is the non linearity as depicted by the higher order x terms
F(x)* = ax + bx2+cx4+ . . . +K F(x)* = ax + bx3+cx5+ . . . +K

Frequency Response of Ideal and Practical System

When you look at the frequency response of an instrument ex (sensor) ideally you want a wideband flat frequency response.

Output F(x) K

x) F(

x+ =m

Output F(x) K

x) F(

x+ =m

Av
1.0

Av = Vo/Vi

Frequency () radians per second Input X Av

1.0 Practically you have attenuation of lower and higher frequencies

Input X

Av = Vo/Vi

Asymmetric = F(x) != |F(-x)| where F(x)* is asymmetric around linear curve F(x) then F(x) = ax + bx2+cx4+ . . . +K offsetting for K or you could assume K = 0 Symmetrical = F(x) = |F(-x)| where F(x) * is symmetric around linear curve F(x) then F(x) = ax +bx3 + cx5 +. . . + K offsetting for K or you could assume K =0
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0.707

FL FH Frequency () radians per second

FL and FH are known as the 6 dB points in voltage systems ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis
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Examples of Filters
Ideal Filter has sharp cutoffs and a flat pass band Most filters attenuate upper and lower frequencies Other filters attenuate upper and lower frequencies and are not flat in the pass band

Electrodes for Biophysical Sensing

Bioelectricity: naturally occurring current that exists because living organisms have ions in various quantities Ionic Conduction: Migration of ions-positively and negatively charge molecules throughout a region. Extremely nonlinear but if you limit the region can be considered linear Electronic Conduction: Flow of electrons under the influence of an electrical field

Why is are nonideal filters problematic?

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Bioelectrodes
Bioelectrodes: class of sensors that transduce ionic conduction to electronic conduction so can process by electric circuits (used to acquire ECG, EEG, EMG etc) 3 Types of electrodes:
Surface (in vivo) outside body Indwelling Macroelectrodes (in vivo) Microelectrodes (in vitro) inside body

Electrodes in Solution
Metal Electrode
Electrolytic Solution where Skin is electrolytic and can be modeled as saline

Have metallic electrode immersed in electrolytic solution once metal probe is in electrolytic solution it:
1. 2. 3. Discharges metallic ions into solution Some ions in solution combine with metallic electrodes Charge gradient builds creating a potential difference or you have an electrode potential or cell potential

Electrode Potentials:
Skin is electrolytic and can be modeled as electrolytic solutions

Metal Electrode
Electrolytic Solution where Skin is electrolytic and can be modeled as saline
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A ++

B +++

2 cells A and B, A has 2 positive ions And B has 3 positive ions thus have a Potential difference of 3 2 = 1 where B Is more positive than A ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 16

Electrodes
Two reactions take place at electrode/electrolyte interface:
Oxidizing Reaction: Metal -> electrons + metal ions Reduction Reaction : Electrons + metal ions -> Metal

Electrodes
2 general categories of material combinations:
Perfectly polarized or perfectly nonreversible electrode: no net transfer of charge across metal/electrolyte interface Perfectly Nonpolarized or perfectly reversible electrode: unhindered transfer of charge between metal electrode and the electrode

Electrode Double Layer: formed by 2 parallel layers of ions of opposite charge caused by ions migrating from 1 side of region or another; ionic differences are the source of the electrode potential or half-cell potential (Ve). Vae Vbe Metal A Metal B
Electrolytic Solution

If metals are different you will have differential potential sometimes called an electrode offset potential. I.E. Metal A = gold Vae = 1.50V and Metal B = silver Vbe ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 17 = 0.8V then Vab = 1.5V 0.8 V = 0.7V(Table 6-1 in book page 96)

Generally select a reversible electrode such as AgAgCl (silver-silver chloride)

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Electrode Model Electrical Circuit

Electrode A

C1a Vea + R1a Vd + C1b Veb + Vo

Cellular Resistance

Rsa Rc
Mass Tissue Resistance

Cellular Potentials

R
Electrode B

cell potential ~ 1.5 V while biopotentials are usually 1000 times less (ECG = 1-2 mV and EEG is 50 uV) thus have a tremendous difference between DC cell potential and biopotential Strategies to overcome DC component
Differential DC amplifier to acquire signal thus the DC component will cancel out Counter Offset-Voltage to cancel half-cell potential AC couple input of amplifier (DC will not pass through) ie capacitively couple the signal into the circuit
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Electrode Potentials cause recording Problems

Rsb

R1b Electronic Conduction

Ionic Conduction

R= internal resistance of body which is low R1A and R1B = resistance of electrodes Vd = Differential voltage Vd ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 19 C1A and C1B = capacitance of electrodes Rsa and Rsb = skin resistance at electrode A and B

Problems with Surface Electrodes

Medical Surface Electrodes

Typical Medical Surface Electrode: Use conductive gel to reduce impedance between electrode and skin Schematic:
Pin-Tip Connector

1. 2. 3. 4.

Adhesive does not stick for a long time on sweaty skin Can not put electrode on bony prominences Movement or motion artifact significant problem with long term monitoring results in a gross change in potential Electrode slippage if electrode slips then thickness of jelly changes abruptly which is reflected as a change in electrode impedance and electrode offset potential (slight change in potential)

Binding Spot

Shielded Wire Electrode Surface

Potential Solutions for Surface Electrodes Problems

1. 2. Additional Tape Rough surface electrode that digs past scaly outer layer of skin typically not comfortable for patients.

Have an Ag-AgCl contact button at top of hollow column filled with gel Gel filled column holds actual metallic electrode off surface of skin and decreases movement artifact Typical ECG arrangement is to have 3 ECG electrodes (2 differentials ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 21 signals and a reference electrode)

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Other Types of Electrodes

Needle Electrodes: inserted into tissue immediately beneath skin by puncturing skin on an angle note infection is a problem. Indwelling Electrodes: Inserted into layers beneath skin -> typically tiny exposed metallic contact at end of catheter usually threaded through patients vein to measure intracardiac ECG to measure high frequency characteristics such as signal at the bundle of His EEG Electrodes: can be a needle electrode but usually a 1 cm diameter concave disc of gold or silver and is held in place by a thick paste that is highly conductive sometimes secured by a headband
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Microelectrode
RS V1 Microelectrode: measure biopotential at cellular level where microelectrode penetrates cell that immersed in an infinite fluid ie saline. Two typical types:
1. 2. Metallic Contact Fluid Filled

Microelectrode Equivalent Circuit R1 RS = Spreading Resistance of C1 C2 Vo

the electrode and is a function of tip diameter R1 and C1 are result of the effects of electrode/cell interface C2 = Electrode Capacitance
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Calculation for Resistance Rs

Rs in metallic microelectrodes without glass coating:

Capacitance of C2 has units pF/cm

Capacitance of Microelectrode
C2

Rs =
Rs =

P 4r

P 70cm = = 111.4 K 4r (4 )(3.14 ) 0.5 *10 4 cm

where Rs = resistance ohms () P = Resistivity of the infinite solution outside electrode = 70 cm for physiological saline r = tip radius ( ~0.5 um for 1 um electrode) = 0.5 x10-4 cm

(0.55)(e ) =
R ln r

Where e = dielectric constant which for glass = 4 R = outside tip radius r = inside tip radius

Rs of glass coated metallic microelectrode is 1-2 order of magnitude higher:

Rs =

2P

(2)(3.7cm) 2P = Rs = r ( ) 3 . 14 0 . 1*10 4Biomedis cm 3.14 ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi

where Rs = resistance ohms () P = Resistivity of the infintie solution outside electrode) = 3.7 cm for 3 M KCl r = tip radius typically 0.1 u m = 0.1 x 10-4 cm = taper angle (~ pie/ 180)

Ex: Find C of glass microelectrode if the outer radius is 0.2 um and the inner radius = 0.15 um

C2 =

(0.55)(e ) =
R ln r

)(

= 13.5M ) 180

(0.55)(4) pF = 7.7 cm 0.2m ln 0.15m

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Transducers and other Sensors

Transducers: sensors and are defined as a device that converts energy from some one form (temp., pressure, lights etc) into electrical energy where as electrodes directly measure electrical information
R1 Es

Wheatstone Bridge
Es A R3 R1 R3 EC R2 R2 B R4

+ -

EC

+ Eo

+ Eo

ED

ED

R4

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Basic Wheatstone Bridge uses one resistor in each of four arms where battery excites the bridge connected across 2 opposite resistor junctions (A and B). The bridge output Eo appears across C and D ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 28 junction.

Finding output voltage to a Wheatstone Bridge

Ex: A wheatstone bridge is excited by a 12V dc source and has the following resistances R1 = 1.2K R2 = 3 K R3 = 2.2 K ; and R4 = 5 K ; find Eo
Eo = EC ED R2 EC = Es R1 + R 2 R4 E D = Es R3 + R 4 R 2 R 4 Eo = Es (R1 + R 2 ) (R3 + R 4 ) 3 *103 Eo = 12V 1.2 *103 + 3 *103

Null Condition of Wheatstone Bridge

Null Condition is met when Eo = 0 can happen in 2 ways:
Battery = 0 (not desirable) R1 / R2 = R3/ R4 Ex when R1 = 2K; R2 = 1K ; R3 = 10K ; R4 = 5K

) (2.2 *10 + 5 *10 )

3 3

5 *103

Key with null condition is if you change one of the resistances to be a transducer that changes based on input stimulus then Eo will also change according to input stimulus
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R2 R4 = R1 + R 2 R3 + R 4 R 2(R3 + R 4 ) = R 4(R1 + R 2) R 2 * R3 + R 2 * R 4 = R 4 * R1 + R 4 * R 2 R 2 * R3 = R 4 * R1 R1 R3 = R2 R4 2 K 10 K = =2 1K 5 K

5 3 Eo = 12V ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi = 0.24V Biomedis 4.2 7.2

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Strain Gauges
Definition = resistive element that changes resistance proportional to an applied mechanical strain L = length Rest Condition L - L = length Compression

Resistance of a metallic bar is given in length and area

pL R= A
Where R = Resistance units = ohms ()
= resistivity constant unique to type of material used in bar units = ohm meter (m) L = length in meters (m) A = Cross sectional area in meters2 (m2 )

L + L = length

Example: find the resistance of a copper bar that has a cross sectional area of
Tension
0.5 mm2 and a length = 250 mm note the resistivity of copper is 1.7 x 10-8m
1m (250mm ) 1000mm L 8 = 0.0085 R = = 1.7 *10 m 2 A 1m 0.5mm 2 1000mm

Compression = decrease in length by L and an increase in cross sectional area. Tension = increase in length by L and a decrease in cross ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 31 section area.

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Piezoresistivity
Piezoresistivity = change in resistance for a given change in size and shape denoted as h

Example of Piezoresistivity
Thin wire has a length of 30 mm and a cross sectional area of 0.01 mm2 and a resistance of 1.5. A force is applied to the wire that increases the length by 10 mm and decreases cross sectional area by 0.0027 mm2 Find the change in resistance h. Note: = resistivity = 5 x 10-7 m

L + L Resistance in tension = R + h = A A Resistance increases in tension

L L Resistance in compression = R h = A + A Resistance decreases in compression
L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity A = Area; A = change in A
ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi Biomedis 33 Note: Textbook forgot the in equations 6-28 and 6-29 on page 110

L + L R + h = A A 1m (30 + 10) mm * 1000 mm R + h = 5 *10 m 2 1m (0.01 0.0027) mm 2 * 1000mm 1.5 + h = 2.74

7

L = length; L = change in L; = resistivity A = Area; A = change in A

h = 1.24
Note: Change in Resistance will be approximately linear for small changes in L as long as L <<L. If a force is appliedARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi where the modulus Biomedis of elasticity is exceeded then the34 Wire can become permanently damaged and then it is no longer a transducer.

Gauge Factor
Gauge Factor (GF) = means of comparing one transducer to a similar transducer Where GF = Gauge Factor unitless
R = change in resistance ohms () R = unstrained resistance ohms () L = change in length meters (m) L = unstrained length meters (m)

GF gives relative sensitivity of a strain gauge where the greater the change in resistance per unit length the greater the sensitivity of element and the greater the gauge factor Where strain which is unitless

R R GF = L L R R GF = = L L

Example of Gauge Factor

Have a 20 mm length of wire used as a string gauge and has a resistance of 150 . When a force is applied in tension the resistance changes by 2 and the length changes by 0.07 mm. Find the gauge factor:

R 2 150 = 3.71 R= GF = L 0.07 mm L 20mm

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Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and Bonded

Unbonded Strain Gauge : resistance element is a thin wire of special alloy stretch taut between two flexible supports which is mounted on flexible diaphram or drum head When a Force F1 is applied to diaphram it will flex in a manner that spreads support apart causing an increase in tension and resistance that is proportional to the force applied. When a Force F2 is applied to diaphram the support ends will more close and then decrease the tension in taut wire (compression force) and decrease resistance will decrease in amount proportional to applied force
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Types of Strain Gauges: Unbonded and Bonded

Bonded Strain Gauge: made by cementing a thin wire or foil to a diaphragm therefore flexing diaphragm deforms the element causing changes in electrical resistance in same manner as unbonded strain gauge

When a Force F1 is applied to diaphram it will flex in a manner that causes an increase in tension of wire then the increase in resistance is proportional to the force applied. When a Force F2 is applied to diaphram that cause a decrease the tension in taut wire (compression force) then the decrease in resistance will decrease in amount proportional to applied force

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Comparison of Bonded vs. Unbonded Strain Gauges

1. Unbonded strain gauge can be built where its linear over a wide range of applied force but they are delicate 2. Bonded strain gauge are linear over a smaller range but are more rugged Biomedical Engineers typically use bonded strain gauges because designers prefer ruggedness why?

Typical Configurations
4 strain gauges (SG) in Wheatstone Bridge:
A R1 = SG1 ES + Vo R3 = SG3

R2 = SG2

R4 = SG4

Electrical Circuit
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Mechanical Configuration
40

Strain Gauge Example

Using the configuration in the previous slide where 4 strain gauges are placed in a wheatstone bridge where the bridge is balanced when no force is applied, assume a force is applied so that R1 and R4 are in tension and R2 and R3 are in compression. Derive the equation to depict the change in voltage across the bridge and find the output voltage when each resistor is 200 , the change of resistance is 10 and the source voltage is 10 V

Transducer Sensitivity
Transducer Sensitivity = rating that allows us to predict the output voltage from knowledge of the excitation voltage and the value of the applied stimulus units = V/V*unit of applied stimulus Example if you have a force transducer calibrated in grams (unit of mass) which allows calibration of force transducer then sensitivity denoted as = V/V*g (another ex = V/V*mmHg) To calculate Output Potential use the following equations:
Eo = * E * F where Eo = output potential in Volts (V) E = excitation voltage = sensitivity V/V*g F = applied force in grams (g)

Circuit
A R1 = R +h R3= R-h Eo

Derivation:

R2 R4 Eo = Es R1 + R2 R3 + R4 ( R h) ( R + h) Eo = Es (R + h) + (R h) (R h) + (R + h)

s + C + R2 = R - h

h (R h) (R + h) 2h Eo = Es = Es = Es R 2R 2R 2R R4 = R +h 10 Eo = 10V = 0.5V 200

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Example: Transducer has a sensitivity of 10 V/V*g, predict the output voltage for an applied force of 15 g and 5 V of excitation.
10V Eo = EF = Vg (5V )(15 g ) = 750V

Note: Text book has wrongly stated that tension decreases R and compression increases R on page 112

note book has typo where writes Biomedis V/V/g for sensitivity ARL-EL4703-Instrumentasi

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Inductance Transducers
Inductance Transducers: inductance L can be varied easily by physical movement of a permeable core within an inductor 3 basic forms:
Single Coil Reactive Wheatstone Bridge Linear Voltage Differential Transformer LVDT: Diaphragm

Quartz Pressure Sensors: capacitively based where sensor is made of fused quartz Capacitive Transducers: Capacitance C varies with stimulus Three examples:
Solid Metal disc parallel to flexible metal diaphragm separated by air or vacuum (similar to capacitor microphone) when force is applied they will move closer or further away. Stationary metal plate and rotating moveable plate: as you rotate capacitance will increase or decrease
Black is stationary piece And striped is rotating plate Striped plate in most capacitance position Black is stationary piece And striped is rotating plate Striped plate in lease capacitance position

Capacitance Transducers

L2

Core

AC Excitation

L1

L3

External Load

F
Axis of Motion
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Diaphragm

Differential Capacitance: 1 Moveable metal Plate placed between 2 stationary Places where you have 2 capacitors: C1 between P1 and P3 and C2 between P2 and P3 where when a force is applied to diaphragm P3 moves closer to one plate or vice versa Diaphragm P3 P1 P2

F
P3

P1 P2
44

C2 >C1

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C1 >C2