Imperial College London

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Digital Image Processing
PART I
IMAGE TRANSFORMS
Academic responsile
Dr! Tania STAT"A#I
Room 811b
Ext. 46229
Email: t!stat$a%i&ic!ac!'%
http://www.commsp.ee.ic.ac.uk/~tania/
Abstract
Transform theory plays a fundamental role in image processing, as working with the
transform of an image instead of the image itself may give us more insight into the
properties of the image. Two dimensional transforms are applied to image enhancement,
restoration, encoding and description.
(! )NITAR* TRANSFORMS
(!( One dimensional signals
Fo a one !imensional se"uence
# 1 $ %& ' ( N x x f
epesente! as a )ecto
[ ]
T
N f f f f % 1 ' % 1 ' % $ '
o* si+e N & a tans*omation ma, be witten as
1 $ & % ' % & ' % '
1
$

N u x f x u T u g f T g
N
x
whee
% 'u g
is the tans*om 'o tans*omation% o*
% 'x f
& an!
% & ' x u T
is the so calle! for+ard
transformation %ernel. -imilal,& the in)ese tans*om is the elation

1
$
1 $ %& ' % & ' % '
N
u
N x u g u x I x f
o witten in a matix *om
g T g I f
1
whee
% & ' u x I
is the so calle! in,erse transformation %ernel.
.*
T
T T I


1
the matix
T
is calle! 'nitar-& an! the tans*omation is calle! unita, as well. .t can be po)en
'$o+.% that the columns 'o ows% o* an N N unita, matix ae othonomal an! thee*oe& *om a
complete set o* asis ,ectors in the N !imensional )ecto space.
.n that case

1
$
% ' % & ' % '
N
u
T
u g x u T x f g T f
/he columns o*
T
T

& that is& the )ectos

[ ]
T
u
N u T u T u T T % 1 & ' % 1 & ' % $ & '

ae calle! the
asis ,ectors o*
T
.
(!/ T+o dimensional signals 0images1
0s a one !imensional si1nal can be epesente! b, an othonomal set o* asis ,ectors& an ima1e can
also be expan!e! in tems o* a !iscete set o* asis arra-s calle! basis ima1es thou1h a t+o
dimensional 0image1 transform.
Fo an N N ima1e
f x y ' & %
the *owa! an! in)ese tans*oms ae 1i)en below

1
$
1
$
% & ' % & & & ' % & '
N
x
N
y
y x f y x v u T v u g

1
$
1
$
% & ' % & & & ' % & '
N
u
N
v
v u g v u y x I y x f
whee& a1ain&
% & & & ' y x v u T
an!
% & & & ' v u y x I
ae calle! the for+ard and in,erse
transformation %ernels& especti)el,.
/he *owa! kenel is sai! to be separale i*
% & ' % & ' % & & & '
2 1
y v T x u T y x v u T
.t is sai! to be s-mmetric i*
1
T is *unctionall, e"ual to
2
T such that
% & ' % & ' % & & & '
1 1
y v T x u T y x v u T
2
/he same comments ae )ali! *o the in)ese kenel.
.* the kenel
% & & & ' y x v u T
o* an ima1e tans*om is sepaable an! s,mmetic& then the tans*om

1
$
1
1
$
1
1
$
1
$
% & ' % & ' % & ' % & ' % & & & ' % & '
N
x
N
y
N
x
N
y
y x f y v T x u T y x f y x v u T v u g
can be witten
in matix *om as *ollows
T
T f T g
1 1

whee
f
is the oi1inal ima1e o* si+e N N & an!
1
T is an N N tans*omation matix with
elements
% & '
1
j i T t
ij

. .*& in a!!ition&
1
T is a unita, matix then the tans*om is calle! separale
'nitar- an! the oi1inal ima1e is eco)ee! thou1h the elationship


1 1
T g T f
T
(!2 F'ndamental properties of 'nitar- transforms
(!2!( T$e propert- of energ- preser,ation
.n the unita, tans*omation
f T g
it is easil, po)en 't, the poo* b, usin1 the elation
T T
T

1
% that
2 2
f g
/hus& a unita, tans*omation pese)es the si1nal ene1,. /his popet, is calle! ene1, pese)ation
popet,.
/his means that e)e, unita, tans*omation is simpl, a otation o* the )ecto
f
in the N 2
!imensional )ecto space.
Fo the 223 case the ene1, pese)ation popet, is witten as
f x y g u v
y
N
x
N
v
N
u
N
' & % ' & %
2
$
1
$
1
2
$
1
$
1

(!2!/ T$e propert- of energ- compaction

4ost unita, tans*oms pack a la1e *action o* the ene1, o* the ima1e into elati)el, *ew o* the
tans*om coe**icients. /his means that elati)el, *ew o* the tans*om coe**icients ha)e si1ni*icant
)alues an! these ae the coe**icients that ae close to the oi1in 'small in!ex coe**icients%.
/his popet, is )e, use*ul *o compession puposes. '3$-.%
/! T"E T3O DIMENSIONAL FO)RIER TRANSFORM
/!( Contin'o's space and contin'o's fre4'enc-
/he Fouie tans*om is exten!e! to a *unction
f x y ' & %
o* two )aiables. .*
f x y ' & %
is
continuous an! inte1able an!
F u v ' & %
is inte1able& the *ollowin1 Fouie tans*om pai exists:

+
dxdy e y x f v u F
vy ux j % ' 2
% & ' % & '

+
dudv e v u F y x f
vy ux j % ' 2
2
% & '
% 2 '
1
% & '

.n 1eneal
F u v ' & %
is a complex2)alue! *unction o* two eal *e"uenc, )aiables
u v &
an! hence& it
can be witten as:
% & ' % & ' % & ' v u jI v u R v u F +
/he amplitu!e spectum& phase spectum an! powe spectum& especti)el,& ae !e*ine! as *ollows.
5
F u v R u v I u v ' & % ' & % ' & % +
2 2
1
]
1

% & '
% & '
tan % & '
1
v u R
v u I
v u
P u v F u v R u v I u v ' & % ' & % ' & % ' & % +
2
2 2
/!/ Discrete space and contin'o's fre4'enc-
Fo the case o* a !iscete se"uence
% & ' y x f
o* in*inite !uation we can !e*ine the 223 !iscete space
Fouie tans*om pai as *ollows

x y
vy xu j
e y x f v u F
% '
% & ' % & '
dudv e v u F y x f
vy xu j
u v
% '
2
% & '
% 2 '
1
% & '
+

F u v ' & %
is a1ain a complex2)alue! *unction o* two eal *e"uenc, )aiables
u v &
an! it is peio!ic
with a peio! 2 2 & that is to sa,
F u v F u v F u v ' & % ' & % ' & % + + 2 2
/he Fouie tans*om o*
f x y ' & %
is sai! to con)e1e uni*oml, when
F u v ' & %
is *inite an!
% & ' % & ' lim lim
1
1
2
2
2 1
% '
v u F e y x f
N
N x
N
N y
vy xu j
N N



+

*o all
u v &
.
6hen the Fouie tans*om o*
f x y ' & %
con)e1es uni*oml,&
F u v ' & %
is an anal,tic *unction an!
is in*initel, !i**eentiable with espect to u an! v .
/!2 Discrete space and discrete fre4'enc-5 T$e t+o dimensional Discrete Fo'rier
Transform 0/6D DFT1
.*
f x y ' & %
is an N M aa,& such as that obtaine! b, samplin1 a continuous *unction o* two
!imensions at !imensions N M an! on a ectan1ula 1i!& then its two !imensional 3iscete Fouie
tans*om '3F/% is the aa, 1i)en b,

1
$
1
$
% / / ' 2
% & '
1
% & '
M
x
N
y
N vy M ux j
e y x f
MN
v u F

1 & & $ M u & 1 & & $ N v
an! the in)ese 3F/ '.3F/% is
f x y F u v e
j ux M vy N
v
N
u
M
' & % ' & %
' / / %

2
$
1
$
1

6hen ima1es ae sample! in a s"uae aa,& M N an!

F u v
N
f x y e
j ux vy N
y
N
x
N
' & % ' & %
' %/

1
2
$
1
$
1

f x y
N
F u v e
j ux vy N
v
N
u
N
' & % ' & %
' %/

1
2
$
1
$
1

.t is stai1ht*owa! to po)e that the two !imensional 3iscete Fouie /ans*om is sepaable&
s,mmetic an! unita,.
/!2!( Properties of t$e /6D DFT
4ost o* them ae stai1ht*owa! extensions o* the popeties o* the 123 Fouie /ans*om. 0!)ise
an, into!ucto, book on .ma1e 7ocessin1.
4
/!2!/ T$e importance of t$e p$ase in /6D DFT! Image reconstr'ction from amplit'de or p$ase
onl-!
/he Fouie tans*om o* a se"uence is& in 1eneal& complex2)alue!& an! the uni"ue epesentation o* a
se"uence in the Fouie tans*om !omain e"uies both the phase an! the ma1nitu!e o* the Fouie
tans*om. .n )aious contexts it is o*ten !esiable to econstuct a si1nal *om onl, patial !omain
in*omation. 8onsi!e a 223 se"uence
% & ' y x f
with Fouie tans*om { } % & ' % & ' y x f v u F so
that
% & '
% & ' # & ' ( % & '
v u j
f
e v u F y x f v u F


.t has been obse)e! that a stai1ht*owa! si1nal s,nthesis *om the Fouie tans*om phase
% & ' v u
f

alone& o*ten captues most o* the intelli1ibilit, o* the oi1inal ima1e

% & ' y x f
'+$-.%. 0
stai1ht*owa! s,nthesis *om the Fouie tans*om ma1nitu!e
% & ' v u F
alone& howe)e& !oes not
1eneall, captue the oi1inal si1nal9s intelli1ibilit,. /he abo)e obse)ation is )ali! *o a la1e numbe
o* si1nals 'o ima1es%. /o illustate this& we can s,nthesise the phase2onl, si1nal
% & ' y x f
p an! the
ma1nitu!e2onl, si1nal % & ' y x f
m
b,
[ ]
% & '
1
1 % & '
v u j
p
f
e y x f

[ ]
$ 1
% & ' % & '
j
m
e v u F y x f


an! obse)e the two esults 'Tr- t$is e7ercise in MATLA8%.
0n expeiment which moe !amaticall, illustates the obse)ation that phase2onl, si1nal s,nthesis
captues moe o* the si1nal intelli1ibilit, than ma1nitu!e2onl, s,nthesis& can be pe*ome! as *ollows.
8onsi!e two ima1es
% & ' y x f
an!
% & ' y x g
. Fom these two ima1es& we s,nthesise two othe
ima1es
% & '
1
y x f
an! % & '
1
y x g b, mixin1 the amplitu!es an! phases o* the oi1inal ima1es as
*ollows:
[ ]
% & '
1
1
% & ' % & '
v u j
f
e v u G y x f

[ ]
% & '
1
1
% & ' % & '
v u j
g
e v u F y x g

.n this expeiment
% & '
1
y x f
captues the intelli1ibilit, o*
% & ' y x f
& while % & '
1
y x g captues the
intelli1ibilit, o*
% & ' y x g
'Tr- t$is e7ercise in MATLA8%.
2! T"E DISCRETE COSINE TRANSFORM 0DCT1
2!( One dimensional signals
/his is a tans*om that is simila to the Fouie tans*om in the sense that the new in!epen!ent
)aiable epesents a1ain *e"uenc,. /he 38/ is !e*ine! below.

1
]
1

1
$ 2
% 1 2 '
cos % ' % ' % '
N
x N
u x
x f u a u C

& 1 & & 1 & $ N u
with
% 'u a
a paamete that is !e*ine! below.

'

1 & & 1 / 2
$ / 1
% '
N u N
u N
u a

/he in)ese 38/ '.38/% is !e*ine! below.

1
]
1

1
$ 2
% 1 2 '
cos % ' % ' % '
N
u N
u x
u C u a x f

2!/ T+o dimensional signals 0images1
Fo 223 si1nals it is !e*ine! as
:
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

N
v y
N
u x
y x f v a u a v u C
N
x
N
y 2
% 1 2 '
cos
2
% 1 2 '
cos % & ' % ' % ' % & '
1
$
1
$

1
]
1

+
1
]
1

N
v y
N
u x
v u C v a u a y x f
N
u
N
v 2
% 1 2 '
cos
2
% 1 2 '
cos % & ' % ' % ' % & '
1
$
1
$

% 'u a
is !e*ine! as abo)e an! 1 & & 1 & $ & N v u
2!2 Properties of t$e DCT transform
/he 38/ is a eal tans*om. /his popet, makes it attacti)e in compaison to the Fouie
tans*om.
/he 38/ has excellent ene1, compaction popeties. Fo that eason it is wi!el, use! in ima1e
compession stan!a!s 'as *o example ;7E< stan!a!s%.
/hee ae *ast al1oithms to compute the 38/& simila to the FF/ *o computin1 the 3F/.
9! 3ALS" TRANSFORM 03T1
9!( One dimensional signals
/his tans*om is sli1htl, !i**eent *om the tans*oms ,ou ha)e met so *a. -uppose we ha)e a
*unction
1 & & $ %& ' N x x f
whee
n
N 2
an! its 6alsh tans*om
% 'u W
.
.* we use bina, epesentation *o the )alues o* the in!epen!ent )aiables
x
an!
u
we nee!
n
bits
to epesent them. =ence& *o the bina, epesentation o*
x
an!
u
we can wite:
( )
2 $ 2 1 1$
% ' % ' % ' % ' x b x b x b x
n n

&
( )
2 $ 2 1 1$
% ' % ' % ' % ' u b u b u b u
n n

with 1 o $ % 'x b
i
*o 1 & & $ n i .
E7ample
.*
samples% 8 ' & > & & $ %& ' x x f
then 5 n an! *o 6 x &
$ % 6 ' & 1 % 6 ' & 1 % 6 ' '11$% ? 6
$ 1 2 2
b b b
6e !e*ine now the 123 6alsh tans*om as

1
]
1

1
$
1
$
% ' % '
1
% 1 ' % '
1
% '
N
x
n
i
u b x b
i n i
x f
N
u W o

1
$
% ' % '
1
1
$
% 1 %' '
1
% '
N
x
u b x b
i n
n
i
i
x f
N
u W
/he aa, *ome! b, the 6alsh kenels is a1ain a s,mmetic matix ha)in1 otho1onal ows an!
columns. /hee*oe& the 6alsh tans*om is an! its elements ae o* the *om

1
$
% ' % '
1
% 1 ' % & '
n
i
u b x b
i n i
x u T
. @ou can imme!iatel, obse)e that
$ % & ' x u T
o 1 !epen!in1
on the )alues o* % 'x b
i
an! % '
1
u b
i n
. .* the 6alsh tans*om is witten in a matix *om
f T W
the ows o* the matix T which ae the )ectos [ ] % 1 & ' % 1 & ' % $ & ' N u T u T u T ha)e the *om o*
s"uae wa)es. 0s the )aiable
u
'which epesents the in!ex o* the tans*om% inceases& the
coespon!in1 s"uae wa)e9s A*e"uenc,B inceases as well. Fo example *o $ u we see that
( ) ( )
2 2 $ 2 1 1$
$ $$ % ' % ' % ' % '

u b u b u b u
n n
an! hence& $ % '
1


u b
i n
& *o an, i . /hus&
1 % & $ ' x T
an!

1
$
% '
1
% $ '
N
x
x f
N
W . 6e see that the *ist element o* the 6alsh tans*om in the
mean o* the oi1inal *unction
% 'x f
'the 38 )alue% as it is the case with the Fouie tans*om.
6
/he in)ese 6alsh tans*om is !e*ine! as *ollows.

1
]
1

1
$
1
$
% ' % '
1
% 1 ' % ' % '
N
u
n
i
u b x b
i n i
u W x f o

1
$
% ' % '
1
1
$
% 1 %' ' % '
N
u
u b x b
i n
n
i
i
u W x f
9!/ T+o dimensional signals
/he 6alsh tans*om is !e*ine! as *ollows *o two !imensional si1nals.

1
]
1

1
$
1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
1 1
% 1 ' % & '
1
% & '
N
x
n
i
v b y b u b x b
N
y
i n i i n i
y x f
N
v u W o

1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
1 1
1
$
% 1 %' & '
1
% & '
N
x
v b y b u b x b
N
y
i n i i n i
n
i
y x f
N
v u W
/he in)ese 6alsh tans*om is !e*ine! as *ollows *o two !imensional si1nals.

1
]
1

1
$
1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
1 1
% 1 ' % & '
1
% & '
N
u
n
i
v b y b u b x b
N
v
i n i i n i
v u W
N
y x f o

1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
1 1
1
$
% 1 ' % & '
1
% & '
N
u
v b y b u b x b
N
v
i n i i n i
n
i
v u W
N
y x f
9!2 Properties of t$e 3als$ Transform
Cnlike the Fouie tans*om& which is base! on ti1onometic tems& the 6alsh tans*om consists
o* a seies expansion o* basis *unctions whose )alues ae onl, 1 o 1 an! the, ha)e the *om
o* s"uae wa)es. /hese *unctions can be implemente! moe e**icientl, in a !i1ital en)ionment than
the exponential basis *unctions o* the Fouie tans*om.
/he *owa! an! in)ese 6alsh kenels ae i!entical except *o a constant multiplicati)e *acto o*
N
1
*o 123 si1nals.
/he *owa! an! in)ese 6alsh kenels ae i!entical *o 223 si1nals. /his is because the aa,
*ome! b, the kenels is a s,mmetic matix ha)in1 otho1onal ows an! columns& so its in)ese
aa, is the same as the aa, itsel*.
/he concept o* *e"uenc, exists also in 6alsh tans*om basis *unctions. 6e can think o*
*e"uenc, as the numbe o* +eo cossin1s o the numbe o* tansitions in a basis )ecto an! we call
this numbe se4'enc-. /he 6alsh tans*om exhibits the popet, o* ene1, compaction as all the
tans*oms that we ae cuentl, stu!,in1. '+$-D%
Fo the *ast computation o* the 6alsh tans*om thee exists an al1oithm calle! Fast 3als$
Transform 0F3T1! /his is a stai1ht*owa! mo!i*ication o* the FF/. 0!)ise an, into!ucto,
book *o ,ou own inteest.
:! "ADAMARD TRANSFORM 0"T1
:!( Definition
.n a simila *om as the 6alsh tans*om& the 223 =a!ama! tans*om is !e*ine! as *ollows.
For+ard
>

1
]
1

1
$
1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
% 1 ' % & '
1
% & '
N
x
n
i
v b y b u b x b
N
y
i i i i
y x f
N
v u H &
n
N 2
o

1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
1
$
% 1 %' & '
1
% & '
N
x
v b y b u b x b
N
y
i i i i
n
i
y x f
N
v u H
In,erse

1
]
1

1
$
1
$
%% ' % ' % ' % ' '
1
$
% 1 ' % & '
1
% & '
N
u
n
i
v b y b u b x b
N
v
i i i i
v u H
N
y x f etc.
:!/ Properties of t$e "adamard Transform
Most of t$e comments made for 3als$ transform are ,alid $ere!
/he =a!ama! tans*om !i**es *om the 6alsh tans*om onl, in the o!e o* basis *unctions.
/he o!e o* basis *unctions o* the =a!ama! tans*om does not allow the *ast computation o* it
b, usin1 a stai1ht*owa! mo!i*ication o* the FF/. 0n exten!e! )esion o* the =a!ama!
tans*om is the Ordered "adamard Transform *o which a *ast al1oithm calle! Fast
"adamard Transform 0F"T1 can be applie!.
0n impotant popet, o* =a!ama! tans*om is that& lettin1
N
H epesent the matix o* o!e
N & the ecusi)e elationship is 1i)en b, the expession
1
]
1

N N
N N
N
H H
H H
H
2
;! #AR")NEN6LOE<E 0#LT1 or "OTELLING TRANSFORM
/he Eahunen2Foe)e /ans*om o EF/ was oi1inall, into!uce! as a seies expansion *o continuous
an!om pocesses b, Eahunen an! Foe)e. Fo !iscete si1nals =otellin1 *ist stu!ie! what was calle!
a metho! o* pincipal components& which is the !iscete e"ui)alent o* the EF seies expansion.
8onse"uentl,& the EF tans*om is also calle! the =otellin1 tans*om o the metho! o* pincipal
components. T$e term #LT is t$e most +idel- 'sed.
;!( T$e case of man- realisations of a signal or image 0Gon=ale=>3oods1
/he concepts o* eigen,al'e an! eige,ector ae necessa, to un!estan! the EF tans*om.
.*
C
is a matix o* !imension n n & then a scala is calle! an ei1en)alue o*
C
i* thee is a
non+eo )ecto
e
in
n
R
such that
e e C
/he )ecto
e
is calle! an ei1en)ecto o* the matix
C
coespon!in1 to the ei1en)alue .
0If -o' $a,e diffic'lties +it$ t$e ao,e concepts cons'lt an- elementar- linear algera oo%!1
8onsi!e a population o* an!om )ectos o* the *om
1
1
1
1
]
1

n
x
x
x
x

2
1
/he mean ,ector o* the population is !e*ine! as
{ } x E m
x

8
/he opeato E e*es to the expecte! )alue o* the population calculate! theoeticall, usin1 the
pobabilit, !ensit, *unctions 'p!*% o* the elements
i
x an! the Goint pobabilit, !ensit, *unctions
between the elements
i
x an! j
x
.
/he co)aiance matix o* the population is !e*ine! as
{ }
T
x x x
m x m x E C % %' '
Hecause
x
is
n
2!imensional&
x
C an!
T
x x
m x m x % %' ' ae matices o* o!e n n . /he
element
ii
c o*
x
C is the )aiance o*
i
x & an! the element ij
c
o*
x
C is the co)aiance between the
elements
i
x an! j
x
. .* the elements
i
x an! j
x
ae uncoelate!& thei co)aiance is +eo an!&
thee*oe&
$
ji ij
c c
.
Fo M )ectos *om a an!om population& whee M is la1e enou1h& the mean )ecto an!
co)aiance matix can be appoximatel, calculate! *om the )ectos b, usin1 the *ollowin1
elationships whee all the expecte! )alues ae appoximate! b, summations

M
k
k x
x
M
m
1
1
T
x x
T
k
M
k
k x
m m x x
M
C

1
1
Ie, easil, it can be seen that
x
C is eal an! s,mmetic. .n that case a set o*
n
othonomal 'at t$is
point -o' are familiar +it$ t$at term% ei1en)ectos alwa,s exists. Fet
i
e an!
i
& n i & & 2 & 1 & be
this set o* ei1en)ectos an! coespon!in1 ei1en)alues o*
x
C & aan1e! in !escen!in1 o!e so that
1 +

i i
*o 1 & & 2 & 1 n i . Fet A be a matix whose ows ae *ome! *om the ei1en)ectos o*
x
C & o!ee! so that the *ist ow o* A is the ei1en)ecto coespon!in1 to the la1est ei1en)alue& an!
the last ow the ei1en)ecto coespon!in1 to the smallest ei1en)alue.
-uppose that A is a tans*omation matix that maps the )ectos
xJ
into )ectos
yJ
b, usin1 the
*ollowin1 tans*omation
% '
x
m x A y
/he abo)e tans*om is calle! the #ar$'nen6Loe,e o "otelling tans*om. /he mean o* the
y

)ectos esultin1 *om the abo)e tans*omation is +eo 'tr- to pro,e t$at%
$
y
m
the co)aiance matix is 'tr- to pro,e t$at%
T
x y
A C A C
an! y
C
is a !ia1onal matix whose elements alon1 the main !ia1onal ae the ei1en)alues o*
x
C 'tr-
to pro,e t$at%
1
1
1
1
]
1

n
y
C

$
$
2
1

/he o**2!ia1onal elements o* the co)aiance matix ae $ & so the elements o* the
y
)ectos ae
uncoelate!.
Fets t, to econstuct an, o* the oi1inal )ectos
x
*om its coespon!in1
y
. Hecause the ows o*
A
ae othonomal )ectos '+$-.%& then
T
A A
1
& an! an, )ecto
x
can b, eco)ee! *om its
coespon!in1 )ecto
y
b, usin1 the elation
x
T
m y A x +
-uppose that instea! o* usin1 all the ei1en)ectos o*
x
C we *om matix
!
A *om the !
ei1en)ectos coespon!in1 to the ! la1est ei1en)alues& ,iel!in1 a tans*omation matix o* o!e
9
n ! . /he
y
)ectos woul! then be ! !imensional& an! the econstuction o* an, o* the oi1inal
)ectos woul! be appoximate! b, the *ollowin1 elationship
x
T
!
m y A x + K
/he mean s"uae eo between the pe*ect econstuction
x
an! the appoximate econstuction
xK
is
1i)en b, the expession

+

n
! j
j
!
j
j
n
j
j m
e
1 1 1

.
H, usin1
!
A instea! o*
A
*o the EF tans*om we achie)e compession o* the a)ailable !ata.
;!/ T$e case of one realisation of a signal or image
/he !ei)ation o* the EF/ *o the case o* one ima1e ealisation assumes that the two !imensional
si1nal 'ima1e% is ergodic. /his assumption allows us to calculate the statistics o* the ima1e usin1 onl,
one ealisation. Csuall, we !i)i!e the ima1e into blocks an! we appl, the EF/ in each block. /his is
easonable because the 223 *iel! is likel, to be e1o!ic within a small block since the natue o* the
si1nal chan1es within the whole ima1e. Fet9s suppose that
f
is a )ecto obtaine! b, lexico1aphic
o!ein1 o* the pixels
% & ' y x f
within a block o* si+e M M 'placin1 the ows o* the block
se"uentiall,%.
/he mean )ecto o* the an!om *iel! insi!e the block is a scala that is estimate! b, the appoximate
elationship

2
1
2
% '
1
M
k
f
k f
M
m
an! the co)aiance matix o* the 223 an!om *iel! insi!e the block is
f
C
whee
2
1
2
% ' % '
1
2
f
M
k
ii
m k f k f
M
c

an!
2
1
2
% ' % '
1
2
f
M
k
j i ij
m j i k f k f
M
c c +

0*te knowin1 how to calculate the matix

f
C
& the EF/ *o the case o* a sin1le ealisation is the
same as !escibe! abo)e.
;!2 Properties of t$e #ar$'nen6Loe,e transform
3espite its *a)ouable theoetical popeties& the EF/ is not use! in pactice *o the *ollowin1 easons.
.ts basis *unctions !epen! on the co)aiance matix o* the ima1e& an! hence the, ha)e to
ecompute! an! tansmitte! *o e)e, ima1e.
7e*ect !ecoelation is not possible& since ima1es can ael, be mo!elle! as ealisations o* e1o!ic
*iel!s.
/hee ae no *ast computational al1oithms *o its implementation.
REFERENCES
L1M Digital Image Processing b, R. 8. <on+ales an! R. E. 6oo!s& 0!!ison26esle, 7ublishin1
8ompan,& 1992.
L2M Two-Dimensional ignal and Image Processing b, ;. -. Fim& 7entice =all& 199$.
1$