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Tectonic inversion in a segmented foreland basin from extensional to piggy back settings: The Tucumn basin in NW Argentina
Diego Nicolas Iaffa a, *, F. Sbat a, D. Bello b, O. Ferrer a, R. Mon c, A.A. Gutierrez c
a
GEOMODELS Research Institute, Department de Geodinmica i Geofsica, Facultat de Geologia, Universitat de Barcelona, C/Mart i Franqus s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain Ecopetrol, D.C. Edicio Principal Cr 13 No. 36 e 24, Bogot, Colombia c Dept. de Geologa, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales e Instituto Miguel Lillo, Universidad Nacional de Tucumn, Miguel Lillo 205 4000 Tucumn, Argentina
b
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history: Received 20 July 2010 Accepted 14 February 2011 Keywords: Central Andes Argentina Cretaceous rift Foreland basin Tectonic inversion Growth strata
a b s t r a c t
The Tucumn foreland basin is bounded by: 1) basement cored ranges with elevations over 6000 m in the west; 2) inverted extensional grabens to the north; 3) basement thrust blocks in the south and 4) basement cored small ranges in the east. This foreland basin is located between two geological provinces: the Sierras Pampeanas and the Santa Brbara system. Cretaceous Salta rifting extended southwards covering the entire eastern part of the province of Tucumn in NW Argentina. Syn-rift and post-rift deposits can be recognized in accordance with their architectural geometries. Foreland basin sediments progressively covered the rift deposits as the Andean orogen propagated towards the east. Despite some early studies, the Tucumn basin is poorly documented. For the present study, 44 sections of 2D seismic surveys amounting to more than 730 km were used to describe the structure and the depositional evolution of the basin. The present structure is the result of a long sequence of events that includes a compressional deformation during the Paleozoic, a rifting stage during the Cretaceous and a foreland stage during the late Cenozoic. Although tectonic inversion, which has played a role during the foreland stage since the Miocene, can be observed in many sectors of the basin, it is more prominent along the margins. Reactivation of old basement discontinuities and inversion of Cretaceous normal faults produced the compartmentalization of the foreland, giving rise to the present shape of the Tucumn basin. This evolution is recorded in the Neogene deposits. 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction The Tucumn Basin is located at the foot of the Andean Chain, between 26 and 28 south and 65 e66 west (Fig. 1), and straddles the border of different geological provinces (Ramos, 1999). The basin is bounded by the Sierra de Aconquija and the Cumbres Calchaques to the west (Fig. 2). These are the northern ranges of the Sierras Pampeanas, which are characterized by basement uplifted blocks that cut the Pampean at (Allmendinger et al., 1983; Costa et al., 1999; Gonzlez Bonorino, 1950; Jordan et al., 1983). The basin is bounded by the Sierra de San Javier, Sierra de Medina and the Sierra de Ramada to the north. These ranges form the southern units of the Santa Brbara system due to tectonic inversion of Cretaceous extensional faults and to thrusting of syn-rift deposits over neogene layers (Abascal, 2005; Kley and Monaldi, 2002; Kley
* Corresponding author. Tel.: 34 934 035 914; fax: 34 934 021 340. E-mail address: iaffadiego@ub.edu (D.N. Iaffa). 0895-9811/$ e see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2011.02.009
et al., 2005; Ramos, 1999). In the proximity of the Tucuman basin towards NNW is the southern tip of the Eastern Cordillera (Carrera et al., 2006) (Fig. 1). To the east of the Tucumn basin lies the Chacoparanaense plain (Fig. 2), which has an average elevation of 200 m above sea level and is separated from the Tucumn Basin by the Sierra de Guasayn. This NeS striking range attains a maximum elevation of 700 m (Fig. 2), constitutes the eastern limit of the Tucuman basin and acted as a structural high during Paleozoic orogenies (Cristallini et al., 2004). The Sierra de Aconquija and the Cumbres Calchaques, to the west of the Tucuman basin, form an orographic barrier with peaks over 6000 m (Fig. 2). The step between the Sierra de Aconquija and the Tucumn plain reaches about 5000 m. Further to the west of the Sierra de Aconquija and the Quilmes Range is the southern part of the AltiplanoePuna with a median altitude of 4000 m. This is the highest plateau in the world in an active subduction margin (Allmendinger et al., 1997; Hindle et al., 2005; Isacks, 1988). Further to the south of the Sierra de Aconquija is the Sierra de Ambato, which constitutes the southwestern limit of the Tucumn Basin
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Fig. 1. Location of the study area in the central Andes in Argentina, Chile and Bolivia with the political borders; the Tucumn province borders are in bold. Main geological provinces are displayed, modied from Ramos (1999) and Hilley and Coutand (2010).
(Fig. 2). The NNW trending Ambato range is formed by a set of basement thrust blocks dipping to the east (Cristallini et al., 2004; Gutirrez and Mon, 2008; Roy et al., 2006). The structure of the Tucumn Basin has been studied by a number of authors. Cristallini et al. (2004) reprocessed and interpreted several seismic sections from different surveys focusing on deep faults and detachments. Pacheco et al. (2000) presented a sketch-map of the basin in time domains based on the interpretation of seismic sections. Other authors used different geophysical methods such as gravimetry (Pomposiello et al., 1993) and magnetotellury (Favetto et al., 2007) to describe the shape and the depth of the basin. The aim of the present paper is twofold: 1) to describe the Tucumn basin structures, including those resulting from tectonic inversion due to Cretaceous extension and Andean shortening, and 2) to elucidate the role played by reactivation and inversion of earlier faults in the basin evolution.
2. Geological setting 2.1. Stratigraphy In this sector of the Andean chain, the basement is composed of Puncoviscana and Medina formations (Bossi, 1969; Turner, 1959) and granitoids of Precambrian to early Cambrian age (Aceolaza et al., 2002) (Fig. 3). The two previous formations are made up of grayish colored metasediments, low to medium grade, banded schists, which preserved the original lamination. Basement rocks are strongly foliated as a result of the dynamic metamorphism produced during the accretion of terranes in the Early Paleozoic and subsequent orogenies (Ramos, 1988). Basement was subsequently intruded by Cambrian to Ordovician granitoids (Battaglia, 1982; Gonzlez Bonorino, 1950; Mon and Hongn, 1991). Eastwards of the Rosario Fault (Fig. 2), thick series of Paleozoic layers, belonging to the Chacoparanaense basin, have been
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Fig. 2. Geological map of the study area with location of the seismic sections used in this study. Names of ranges and basins are abbreviated (from south to north): P.V. (Pipanaco Valley), A.B. (Ambato Block), S.Ac. (Sierra de Aconquija), C.A. (Campo Arenal), S.Q. (Sierra de Quilmes), S.M.B. (Santa Mara Basin), C.C. (Cumbres Calchaques), S.S.J. (Sierra de San Javier), S.L.R. (Sierra de La Ramada), S.M. (Sierra de Medina), S.d.C. (Sierra del Campo), Ch. B. (Choromoro Basin), S.L.C. (Sierra de La Candelaria), S.B. (Sierra del Brete) and An.B. (Angastaco Basin).
described (Fernndez Garrasino et al., 2005). They are made up of Silurian to Devonian clastic rocks (Padula et al., 1967), deposited initially in an extensional basin and then in a foreland setting (Ramos, 1988). Although these layers have not been identied in the Tucumn basin (Cristallini et al., 2004) (Fig. 3) or to the west of the study area, small outcrops are present in the east of the Sierra de la Candelaria (Fig. 2) (Mngano and Buatois, 2004). Cretaceous to Paleogene sedimentary rocks unconformably overlie basement rocks and have interstratied alkaline volcanics (Galliski and Viramonte, 1988; Turner, 1959). These layers form the Salta Group (Fig. 3), which is attributed to the Salta rifting that occurred in an extensional back arc environment (Kley and Monaldi, 2002; Turner, 1959). The basal unit of the Salta Group is the Pirga subgroup, which consists of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and red beds of continental environments such as alluvial fans, uvial plains and debris ows (Gmez Omil et al., 1989; Moreno, 1970; Reyes and Salty, 1973; Salty and Marquillas, 1981). The Pirga subgroup has been interpreted as
Cretaceous syn-rift deposits associated with extensional faults (Turner, 1959). The syn-tectonic character is evidenced by a fan geometry of layers onlapping the basement (Carrera and Muoz, 2008; Comnguez and Ramos, 1995; Cristallini et al., 1997). Starved growing trenches began to be lled with breccias and conglomerates of basement clasts at the base of the sequence. Basaltic lavas and pyroclastic ows attributed to the extensional stage are intercalated with the basal units (Galliski and Viramonte, 1988). Subsequently, these trenches were covered by decreasing grain sequences of sandstones and shales (Salty and Marquillas, 1994). When the rifting episode ceased, syn-rift deposits were covered by post-rift layers (Salty and Marquillas, 1981; Turner, 1959). These new sequences overlap the Pirga subgroup and the basement (Boll et al., 1989; Carrera et al., 2006; Cristallini et al., 1997). The Balbuena and Santa Brbara subgroups are made up of sandstones, limestones, evaporites and shales deposited in lacustrine, shallow marine and continental settings (Bonaparte et al., 1977; Marquillas et al., 2003; Moreno, 1970). The Yacoraite
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formation, which is the upper part of the Balbuena subgroup, is formed by limestones and shales (Marquillas and Salty, 1994). This unit is the main oil source in other sub basins of the Salta Rift basin such as the Lomas de Olmedo sub-basin (Boll et al., 1989; Turic et al., 1987). The Balbuena and Santa Barbara subgroups lled a sag basin resulting from thermal subsidence after the extension of the rifting episode (Bianucci et al., 1981; Comnguez and Ramos, 1995; Salty and Marquillas, 1994). The normal faults of the Salta rifting stage continued to be poorly active in the early stages of the deposition of the Balbuena subgroup (Bianucci et al., 1982; Kley et al., 2005). The Balbuena subgroup is equivalent to the Rio Loro formation in the Choromoro Basin (Abascal, 2005). Foreland sediments were progressively covered by post-rift deposits. The transition from post-rift to foreland settings occurred as the Andean deformation started to propagate towards the east (Carrera et al., 2006; Jordan and Alonso, 1987; Russo and Serraiotto, 1979). The foreland basin stage can be recognized by the presence of an angular unconformity and a stratigraphic gap of the middle Eocene (Del Papa et al., 2010; Reynolds et al., 2000). Paleogene sandstones and shales of the Aconquija formation crop out along the eastern margin of the Sierra de Aconquija (Gonzlez Bonorino, 1950) (Figs. 2 and 3). Paleogene sandstones are overlain by Ro Sal sandstones and evaporites that are known as the Guasayn formation further to the east (Battaglia, 1982). These layers are a key level for correlation and are associated with the middle Miocene Paran Atlantic marine transgression (Ramos and Alonso, 1995; Uliana and Biddle, 1988). The transgressive event was evidenced by gypsum rich sandstones between continental facies (Battaglia, 1982; Gavriloff and Bossi, 1992). These formations crop out along the periphery of the Tucumn basin in the southern part of the Sierra de Medina, on the western slope of the Sierra de Guasayn and on the eastern slope of the Sierra de Aconquija (Fig. 2). They are also present on the western side of the Sierra de Aconquija and in the El Cajn and Santa Mara valleys (Bossi et al., 2001; Gavriloff and Bossi, 1992; Kleinert and Strecker, 2001; Mortimer et al., 2007; Strecker et al., 1989). The stratigraphic column of the Tucumn basin culminates in Pliocene to Quaternary clastic continental synorogenic sequences (Ramos, 1999) that consist of the following formations: the India Muerta, Acequiones and Ticucho. The India Muerta formation is composed of gray sandstones and shales of a uvial origin (Bossi and Gavriloff, 1998). Overlying the India Muerta formation are the Acequiones and Ticucho formations that consist of coarser conglomerates, reecting the diachronic uplifting of the surrounding ranges (Gonzlez, 2000). These units are grouped in the Las Caas formation in the Sierra de Gusayn and further to the east of the Sierra (Battaglia, 1982) (Fig. 2). 2.2. Regional structure Tectonic inversion of previous extensional faults plays a key role in the formation of the Eastern Cordillera (Carrera et al., 2006; Coutand et al., 2001; Grier et al.,1991; Hongn et al., 2007; Kley et al., 2005) and the Santa Brbara System (Bianucci et al., 1982; Cristallini et al., 1997; Kley and Monaldi, 2002,) (Fig. 1). However, the Sierras Pampeanas, which are composed of basement blocks bounded by high angle thrust faults (Jordan et al., 1983), have a deep detachment that resulted from reactivation of old crustal discontinuities (Allmendiger et al., 1983; Gonzlez Bonorino, 1950; Jordan et al., 1983). In the southern sector of the Sierras Pampeanas, inverted extensional Cretaceous structures have been documented (Schmidt et al., 1995). The geological province of the Santa Brbara system is formed by basement cored ranges, with syn-rift and post-rift sedimentary layers cropping out on their anks (Fig. 1) (Cristallini et al., 1997;
Grier et al., 1991; Kley and Monaldi, 2002). In the study area, the Sierra de Medina, Sierra de la Candelaria, Sierra de la Ramada and the Sierra del Campo form part of this geological province (Fig. 2). These ranges were uplifted by high angle thrust faults due to reactivation of upper crustal discontinuities that originated in earlier tectonic cycles and to inversion of Cretaceous extensional faults (Kley et al., 1999; Monaldi and Kley, 1997). The Sierra de Medina is bounded along its southern margin by a thrust fault with a concave shape to the north, which is very typical of a listric normal fault. This range shows syn-rift deposits of the Pirga subgroup thrusted over postrift and foreland layers (Abascal, 2005; Bossi, 1969; Iaffa et al., 2008). The Sierra de la Ramada is an NNE trending anticline with basement rocks in the core, and is bounded by syn-rift deposits along both margins (Fig. 2). This anticline was brought about by compression, inversion and folding of a Cretaceous extensional depocenter (Mngano and Buatois, 2004). In the study area, the geological province of the Sierras Pampeanas consists of the Cumbres Calchaques and the Sierra de Quilmes, Sierra de San Javier, Sierra de Aconquija, Sierra de Ambato and the Sierra de Guasayn (Fig. 2). These basement upthrust ranges are the northernmost units of this large geological province (Allmendinger et al., 1983; Gonzlez Bonorino, 1950; Jordan et al., 1983). The Sierras Pampeanas cut the foreland plain and are extensive and have high altitudes (Ramos, 1999). The Sierra de San Javier is a small NNE trending range, mainly formed by basement rocks (Mon and Suayter, 1973). This range was uplifted by a thrust fault along the eastern margin and shows a normal series of the Salta group as far as the Neogene deposits in its western limb (Gonzlez, 2000). The Sierra de Aconquija and the Cumbres Calchaques are uplifted by an active double vergent system formed by high angle thrust faults (Cristallini et al., 2004; Drozdzewski and Mon, 1999). This type of structure has not reused pre-existing extensional faults, but has reactivated major crustal discontinuities, generating pop-up structures (Sobel and Strecker, 2003). The two ranges show basement and a thin cover thrusted over the Cenozoic sedimentary layers (Fig. 2). The Sierra de Aconquija and the Cumbres Calchaques are separated by the Amaicha northwest trending lineament, which is probably due to a thrust fault that uplifted the Cumbres Calchaques over the Sierra de Aconquija (Allmendinger et al., 1983; De Urreiztieta et al., 1996). To the west of Sierra de Aconquija is the Santa Mara basin, which is lled by Neogene sedimentary rocks (Bossi et al., 1997). The uplift of the Sierra de Aconquija, Cumbres Calchaques and the Sierra de Quilmes has played a major role in the inlling of the basin (Strecker et al., 1989). The uplifting of these ranges has been attributed to the early Pliocene given the coarsening up in the sequence sediments and the presence of gravel size deposits (Bossi et al., 2001; Kleinert and Strecker, 2001). Using the apatite ssion-track methodology, Sobel and Strecker (2003) proposed that the uplifting of the Sierra de Aconquija and the Cumbres Calchaques started at 6 Ma and continues to be active. Neotectonic activity occurred on both sides of the range, the western ank being the more active one (Cristallini et al., 2004; Strecker et al., 1989). On this slope, Pleistocene rock avalanche deposits have been triggered by seismicity near Campo Arenal (Fauqu and Strecker, 1987) (Fig. 2). The southeast orogenic front of the Sierra de Aconquija describes a regional rectilinear feature known as the Tucuman Lineament (Mon, 1976) or the Tucumn Transfer Zone (De Urreiztieta et al., 1996). This feature has been interpreted as a dextral strike-slip fault by some authors (De Urreiztieta et al., 1996; Roy et al., 2006). Further south of the Sierra de Aconquija, the southwestern limit of the Tucumn basin is bounded by the Sierra de Ambato (Fig. 2), a northwest trending range formed by a series of basement thrust blocks dipping to the east (Cristallini et al., 2004; Roy et al., 2006; Toselli et al., 1999).
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The eastern limit of the Tucuman basin is the Sierra de Guasayn (Fig. 2), which is a small NeS range, with elevations lower than 700 m and is uplifted by high angle thrust faults (Cristallini et al., 2004). The Guasayn thrust fault places basement rocks over Neogene layers. According to Cristallini et al. (2004), the Mujer Muerta or the Tacanas high is the prolongation of the structure of the Sierra de Guasayn to the north (Fig. 2). As the Sierra de Guasayn started to uplift probably in Pleistocene times, the Tucumn basin evolved into a piggy back basin on top of the active Guasayn thrust fault (Cristallini et al., 2004; Drozdzewski and Mon, 1999; Pacheco et al., 2000). 3. Basin description 3.1. Methodology Forty-four 2D seismic sections amounting to more than 730 km were interpreted and their main reectors were correlated. These seismic sections were originally acquired by the Argentine national oil company YPF between 1989 and 1991, then processed as stack but not migrated. The geological interpretation of the sections was performed using Kingdom Suite software. These seismic sections were correlated in a 2D environment and the horizons were
matched. Eight horizons were correlated to reconstruct the geometry of the Tucumn basin. The vertical scale of the seismic sections is presented in time domains in two-way time travel (seconds units). The main horizons and structures are outlined in the seismic sections with the prominent seismostratigraphic units (Figs. 3e12). Subsequently, the seismic interpretations were converted from time to depth domains. To this end, the velocity values obtained by Cristallini et al. (2004) were used. These authors obtained seismic velocities from a well drilled in the margin of the basin, Isca Yacu x1. The fact that there were no other wells in the basin obliged us to use data from other regions to compare and adjust the velocity values. The Metn sub-basin wells (Cristallini et al., 1997) and the Lomas de Olmedo sub-basin structural maps in depth domains were used as constraints (Disalvo et al., 2002; Masaferro et al., 2003). Thereafter, the basement horizon in depth domains was used to construct a structural map. 3.2. Seismostratigraphic units The lateral and vertical variations of the reection patterns throughout the seismic sections of the Tucumn basin enabled us to identify four superimposed reective packages. The lowermost package one corresponds to the acoustic basement. It is composed
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of low intensity reections with poor lateral continuity giving rise to a homogeneous and chaotic seismic fcies. Associated strong and dipping reections have been interpreted by Cristallini et al. (2004) as basement fabric discontinuities (Fig. 4). Overlying the basement, syn-rift deposits forming part of the Pirgua subgroup can be identied by marked lateral thickness variations and fan geometries (Fig. 5). The contact between this package and the acoustic basement top occurs through an onlap relation. The syn-rift deposits are located in half-graben structures, increasing layer thickness towards the faults (Fig. 5). After the cessation of extension, the geometry of the rift basin changed as the subsidence and the depositional rate diminished. Post-rift layers were set during thermal subsidence, when the activity of normal faults became less intense and the post-rift basin acquired a sag geometry. The post-rift sequence shows good lateral continuity and intensity in their seismic reectiveness despite the
existence of some intercalated low amplitude reectors. An initial post-rift package onlaps the syn-rift sediments and the basement, and constitutes the Balbuena subgroup (Fig. 3). An upper post-rift package, which corresponds to the Santa Brbara subgroup, is concordantly located above the initial post-rift package in the center of the Tucumn basin but onlaps the basin borders (Fig. 3). Foreland deposits show more extensive and lateral continuous horizons with high amplitudes. The lower contact is approximately paraconcordant over the post-rift facies. Three episodes may be distinguished during this stage: Foreland basin I, Foreland basin II and Foreland basin III. Foreland basin I is constituted by large, continuous reective seams of different intensities associated with the Andean uplifting that occurred at a considerable distance to the west. This sequence coarsened up as the source area approached the depositional area. Intercalated in Foreland basin I are strong reective horizons, which are interpreted as marine deposits of the
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Atlantic transgressive event that covered the whole basin. Foreland basin II is related to the start of the tectonic inversion of earlier extensional faults in the area and layers of this package were folded and thrusted. Finally, Foreland basin III results from the main uplifting of the surrounding ranges. During this stage, tectonic inversion controlled the depositional space and produces erosional unconformities and growth strata.
3.3. Interpretation of seismic sections Nine of the forty-four seismic sections of the different sectors of the Tucumn Basin will be discussed below in an attempt to characterize the shape, structure and evolution of the basin (Fig. 2). The most suitable section that illustrates the characteristics of the seismostratigraphic units of the basin is seismic section 2542
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(Fig. 4). This NeS cross-section, which ends close to the town of Simoca, is parallel to the longest axis of the basin and shows the thickest package of syn-rift, post-rift and foreland deposits. Syn-rift deposits were controlled by a large graben structure with a high angle normal fault and antithetic faults. Syn-rift layers grow in thickness against the southern fault and thin out to the north. Postrift layers onlap syn-rift deposits and have lensoidal geometries, which enabled us to interpret a more subsident area in the center of the basin during the deposition. At the base of the post-rift sequence are transparent bands that correspond to mud and salt. These transparent bands are covered by strong reective seams in
the middle and upper parts of the top post-rift sequence. Foreland stage tabular packages were deposited over post-rift units and have a different reectiveness with respect to the lower units. Foreland basin I is represented by thick, mainly parallel and tabular units. Lateral continuity is less clear with respect to the post-rift stage except for a clear reective seam located at 1.4 s. This seam could be interpreted as marine deposits of the Paran transgressive event. Foreland basin II shows an increase in thickness of up to 0.8 s to the south. This could be due to growing accommodational space caused by folding of the older units in a gentle anticline located in the northern part of the section. This folding is attributed to gentle
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inversion of the northernmost extensional faults. The upper units, which cover the previous foreland stages, constitute Foreland basin III. The geometry of these units suggests a break in the local uplifting. The eastern margin of the Tucumn basin is exemplied by seismic section 2523 (Fig. 5), located northeast of Simoca (Fig. 2). In this sector the basement shows strong reective seams dipping to the east. The contact between the basement top and the base of the sedimentary ll is located at 2 s in the east and 2.6 in the west. Synrift deposits can be recognized by their strong lateral thickness variations controlled by normal faults dipping to the west. At least 3 half-graben structures are prominent, conditioned by high angle normal faults. Hangingwall syn-rift layers increase in thickness against the fault. The post-rift deposits are characterized by reective seams of good lateral continuity and a more intense
reectiveness at the top. Post-rift deposits can be identied by their onlapping relation over the syn-rift deposits towards the east (Cristallini et al., 2004). The Santa Brbara layers increase in thickness westwards. The foreland deposits gently dip to the west in a paraconcordant relation over the post-rift deposits. The recent most deposits of Foreland basin III can be recognized by their onlap to the east that is related to the tectonic uplifting of the east margin of the basin and by a greater thickness in the center of the basin to the west. Further north of seismic section 2523 and to the east of the town of Tucumn (Fig. 2) is seismic section 1559 (Fig. 6). In this sector, the basement top is closer to the surface and the entire sedimentary sequence is thinner. The basement is homogeneous without strong reections, but chaotic and without continuous reective seams. The thickness of the syn-rift and post-rift deposits decreases with
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respect to that of the center of the basin. The Pirga deposits are difcult to be recognized in this section. Basal post-rift layers of the Balbuena subgroup are thinner but with a strong reectiveness. The Santa Brbara layers have a constant thickness. Nearly the whole sequence is folded in an anticline due to the inversion of the main fault that controlled the syn-rift deposits and the formation of a footwall short cut. Small and gentle anticlines and synclines affect the Balbuena deposits in the hangingwall of the main fault and are probably due to the inversion of the antithetic faults. The deposits of Foreland basin III were sedimented synchronously with tectonic inversion as evidenced by growth strata. Seismic section 1567 (Fig. 7), which is in the northeast of the study area, has an EeW orientation and is located at the foot of the Sierra de la Ramada (Fig. 2). This seismic section shows a hangingwall anticline that is associated with a high angle fault. A shortcut thrust is recognized in the footwall. An antithetic extensional fault dipping to the west was also inverted with minor displacements as demonstrated by the gentle anticline present in the middle of a synclinorium. Tectonic inversion along this section was stronger than in the previous sections. Inversion affected the sequence up to the layers of Foreland basin I. These layers were folded and truncated by erosion before toplap sedimentation of the layers of Foreland basin II. The geometry of uppermost Pliocene to Quaternary layers (Foreland basin II and III) reveal that tectonic inversion was slightly reactivated during these periods. The inverted fault is a blind thrust that does not reach the surface. The structure of the western margin of the Tucumn basin is strongly inuenced by the uplifting of the Sierra de Aconquija and
the Sierra de Ambato. Seismic section 2503 (Fig. 8) is oriented WeE in the western half and NWeSE on its eastern side. This section is located in the foothills of the Sierra de Aconquija and to the south of the town of Concepcin (Fig. 2). This seismic section shows tilted layers dipping to the southeast, with an anticline syncline pair. In the northwest, three high angle faults can be identied. They were extensional faults during rifting as evidenced by the greater syn-rift sediment thickness in the hangingwall than in the footwall. Two of these faults (between shot points 1100 and 900) have been inverted as shown by repetition and folding of the syn-rift, post-rift and Foreland basin I layers. The fault located further west has not been inverted and shows the original extensional geometry. To the east, an antithetic fault dipping to the northwest has not undergone inversion. Pliocene to Holocene layers (Foreland basins II and III) show growth strata, indicating that the sedimentation of these layers occurred during inversion and folding. Seismic section 2501(Fig. 9) is located further south, close to the town of Villa Alberdi. The main feature in this section is a half-graben structure controlled by an extensional fault with a thick syn-rift package in the hanging wall. The extensional fault continued to be slightly active during the sedimentation of the lowest post-rift unit (the Balbuena subgroup). This fault, at its highest point, branches into two thrust faults that have an associated anticline involving the sequence up to the layers of Foreland basin II. The kinematic connection of the thrust faults and the extensional fault suggest that the latter has been slightly inverted. Towards the east, the layers of Foreland basin III onlap the limb of the anticline that was generated by the tectonic inversion of the main fault.
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In the southern sector of the Tucumn basin, seismic sections are more spaced. Seismic section 2570 (Fig. 10) is located in the southern part of the basin, with an NNWeSSE orientation. This long seismic section describes a series of half-graben structures controlled by extensional faults dipping to the south. Syn-rift deposits increase in thickness towards the southern extensional depocenters. The post-rift and foreland layers are tilted and grow in thickness to the north, i.e. towards the center of the Tucumn basin. Foreland sequences are thinner than in the previous seismic sections. Folding affected the whole stratigraphic sequence. Small asymmetric anticlines with a southern limb with a greater dip are
located over the main extensional faults in the southern part (Fig. 10). Their origin will be discussed below. To the east and south, close to the Sierra de Guasayn and to the south of the Ro Hondo dam is seismic section 2491 (Fig. 11). This seismic section is located in the southeastern margin of the basin. The basement shows a series of strong reective seams dipping to the east. Almost no syn-rift and few post-rift layers were identied in this section. The upper post-rift units (Santa Brbara subgroup) thicken to the west as do the foreland layers. An anticline can be observed in the middle of the section associated with a high angle blind thrust. This basement thrust fault constitutes a backthrust of
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the Sierra de Guasayn (Fig. 2) and does not control the thickness of the syn-rift layers. The anticline involves the whole sedimentary sequence as far as the layers of Foreland basin II. Moreover, its west limb is onlapped by the layers of Foreland basin III. The eastern border of the Tucumn basin is bounded by a high angle thrust fault that is controlled by a deep detachment. Seismic section 2467 (Fig. 12) crosses an area that underwent no extensional activity during the Cretaceous as evidenced by the uniform thickness of the syn-rift deposits. These deposits are much thinner than in other sections and represent distal positions with respect to the extensional depocenter. The layers of Foreland basin I increase slightly in thickness towards the east. Between shot points 700 and 500 is a pop-up that corresponds to the Mujer Muerta high. The western thrust fault of this structure produced a fault propagation fold, which folded the stratigraphic sequence as far as the layers of Foreland basin II. The layers of Foreland basin III onlap the aforementioned fault propagation fold. This structure is similar to the one described to the south in seismic section 2491 (Fig. 11). The eastern thrust fault of the pop-up produces a small displacement in
the whole stratigraphic sequence and reaches the surface. The two thrust faults that bound the Mujer Muerta High are active. Close to the eastern end of the section are two conjugate normal faults with a small displacement and associated folds. 4. Structural analysis of the Tucumn basin The basin has a triangular shape in plan view, the eastern limit is NeS, the northwestern limit is NEeSW and the southwestern limit is NNWeSSE (Fig. 13). The basin is asymmetric with a steeper western margin and a gentler eastern slope (Porto et al., 1982). The northern sector of the basin is shallower and narrower than the southern sector. The geometry of the basin was controlled by extensional faulting and was subsequently shaped by tectonic inversion and thrusting. The main depocenter of the basin was termed the Leales depocenter by Pacheco et al. (2000) and coincides with a Cretaceous graben (Fig. 4) striking NEeSW (Fig. 13). To the north, and separated by a small structural high is another small depocenter with syn-rift deposits (Fig. 13), which may be termed
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Fig. 13. Structural map of the basement top in depth domains and of interpreted subsurface structures. Gray lines correspond to seismic proles. Basement and Cretaceous syn-rift (Pirgua subgroup) outcrops, and regional faults visible in the surface are also represented.
the Famaill depocenter because of its proximity to this town (Fig. 2). Cretaceous extensional structures were also described in other parts of the Tucumn basin. The Villa AlberdieConcepcin graben (Pomposiello et al., 1993) (Figs. 2, 8 and 9 and 13) was controlled by a northeast dipping fault in the north and a southwest dipping fault in the south. Another large accumulation of syn-rift deposits is located to the northeast of the basin (Figs. 2, 6, 7 and 13) in a graben that could be the subsurface continuation of the inverted graben that crops out in the Sierra de La Ramada or in the Sierra de Medina. To the south, a number of half-grabens were identied (Figs. 2 and 10).
The grabens and their normal faults must be oriented EeW since they are not recognized in the orthogonal seismic sections to the east (Fig. 11) and to the west. Folding of the sedimentary cover occurred as a result of different mechanisms. Some folds have roll-over geometries and are located in the hangingwall of Cretaceous extensional faults (Figs. 5 and 9). Other hangingwall anticlines are fault propagation folds produced by inversion of Cretaceous extensional faults (Figs. 6, 7 and 8) or by high angle thrust faults (Figs. 11 and 12). By contrast, some anticlines are located over the extensional faults (Fig. 10) and may be due to one of three mechanisms: a) tectonic inversion,
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b) extensional reactivation or c) differential subsidence due to lateral change in thickness of the syn-rift layers and to their uneven compactation below the load of the sedimentary column (Cristallini et al., 2006). The last mechanism is the most probable owing to the position of the syncline trough over the maximun syn-rift thickness. Differential subsidence is responsible for folding the post-rift and the foreland layers over the syn-rift deposits and the rigid basement (Cristallini et al., 2006). 5. Discussion The study area has undergone a number of stages of deformation within different tectonic settings. The absence of Paleozoic rocks in the basin suggests that the area was a structural high during this period. In Cretaceous times, the Salta rifting produced half grabens and a sedimentary inll related sequence (Porto et al., 1982; Salty and Marquillas, 1981). The syn-rift Pirga subgroup increases in thickness towards the Cretaceous extensional faults and thins out from these faults. The layers of the Pirga subgroup onlap the structural highs but become progressively thinner towards the margins of the basin, petering out to the southeast (Fig. 11). The post-rift sag phase, which is due to the cooling of the thermal anomaly associated with the Salta rifting, created accommodational space by slow subsidence. Post-rift deposits of the Salta group are thinner towards the basin margins where the basement top is closer to the surface. The maximum thickness of the post-rift deposits coincides with the syn-rift depocenters in the center of the basin (Fig. 4).The onlap of the post-rift deposits on the syn-rift deposits provides evidence of the arenal growth of the post-rift basin and of the location of areas of greater subsidence (Figs. 4, 5 and 10). A foreland basin developed over the post-rift basin in a paraconcordant stratigraphic relationship. A hiatus in the stratigraphic sequence has been reported (Reynolds et al., 2000; Del Papa et al., 2010). The subsidence mechanisms changed in the foreland basin stage. Sedimentation space increased owing to the tectonic load as the orogen grew in the west (Carrapa et al., 2006; Carrapa and DeCelles, 2008; Jordan et al., 1983; Jordan and Alonso, 1987). The foreland basin associated with the Andean orogeny started as a regional single unit and then compartmentalized into sub-basins coeval with the uplifting of the Pampean Ranges and the Santa Brbara system (Carrapa et al., 2005; Coughlin et al., 1998). The deposits of Foreland basin I are tabular layers covering the post-rift units (Fig. 4). This sequence, which is termed Foreland basin I, was identied by the onlap of these layers on the basin margins. Foreland basin I started to develop during the early uplifting of the eastern margin of the Puna plateau in the middle Eocene (Carrapa et al., 2005; Isacks, 1988; Jordan and Alonso, 1987). Foreland basin II resulted from the uplifting of the surrounding ranges, and is associated with growth strata geometries (Figs. 7 and 8). During this stage, the foreland basin started to be fragmented into different sub-basins. Subsidence became local with ranges uplifting and controlling the sedimentary supply. Shortening produced tectonic inversion of the Cretaceous extensional faults, folding the sedimentary cover. As pointed out by Cristallini et al. (2004), during sedimentation of the layers of Foreland basin III, the Tucumn basin was separated from the rest of the foreland basin by uplifting of the Sierra de Guasayn and the India Muerta High, which has caused the Tucumn basin to evolve into a piggy back basin. The western margin uplift generates more subsidence through tectonic load (Fig. 8). According to the age of growth strata, some structures can be considered as active or potentially active whereas others cannot. Neotectonic activity has been recorded along both margins of the Sierra de Aconquija (Cristallini et al., 2004; Drozdzewski and Mon, 1999). Active seismicity has been documented together with surface
evidence of earthquakes and rock avalanches on the western slope (Fauqu and Strecker,1987). In seismic section 2503 (Fig. 8), the whole sequence is involved in a thrust fault related fold. Growth strata provide evidence of folding during sedimentation of the layers of Foreland basins II and III. Given that the Sierra de Aconquija started to uplift 6 Ma ago (Sobel and Strecker, 2003), this age could be assigned to the basal layers of Foreland basin II. Seismic section 2501 (Fig. 9) also shows growth strata in the layers of Foreland basin III but, in this case, onlap is in the opposite sense in seismic section 2503 (Fig. 8). The Sierra de Guasayn and the Mujer Muerta High are a pop-up uplifted by a double vergent high angle thrust fault system (Figs. 11 and 12), which is similar to the Sierra de Aconquija and the Cumbres Calchaques (Drozdzewski and Mon, 1999). The double vergent structure visible in seismic section 2467 (Fig. 12) folded the whole stratigraphic sequence with topographic and subsurface evidence of recent uplifting. The Sierra de Medina provides surface evidence of recent inversion of a Cretaceous extensional fault as a thrust fault that elevates the range in its southern margin (Fig. 2). Nearby, seismic sections show different geometries such as in seismic section 1567 (Fig. 7), which has an erosion surface that affects the layers of Foreland basin I. This inversion structure ceased to uplift before the sedimentation of Foreland basin II. A slight increase in layer thickness in the west and folding of the layers of Foreland basins II and III suggest that the inverted fault could have been reactivated recently. Moreover, in seismic section 1559 (Fig. 6), growth strata furnish evidence that the inverted fault continues to be active. In the center of the Tucumn Basin, tectonic inversion is not as clear as along the margins. In seismic section 2542 (Fig. 4), the layers of Foreland basin III cover the whole sequence and present no folding nor growth strata. This indicates that these faults have ceased to be active. Strike-slip effects are not easy to identify using 2D seismic sections. De Urreiztieta et al. (1996) described a dextral fault slip of the Tucumn transfer zone, but strike-slip structures such as transgressive or transtensive structures have not been documented (Cristallini et al., 2004). The depth of the Tucumn basin cannot be constrained because of the lack of wells across the entire column. The maximum depth of the basement top is located in the middle of seismic section 2542 (Fig. 4) and is about 3.4 s in TWT. The velocity values of Cristallini et al. (2004) were used to perform a time to depth conversion. Our results reveal that the basin should be about 7000 m deep. These values are comparatively higher than other estimations. Pomposiello et al. (2002) using gravimetry and Favetto et al. (2007) using magnetothelluric obtained depths of 4000e5000 m in the central part of the basin. The results from neighbouring basins of the Salta rift such as the Choromoro Basin gave a depth of 3000 m (Abascal, 2005). 6. Conclusions Basement, syn-rift, post-rift and foreland strata may be interpreted and differentiated in the seismic sections in accordance with the geometry of their horizons. The basement discontinuities conditioned the structural style and exerted a strong inuence on the selective orientation of Cretaceous extensional faults and on that of blocks uplifted in Neogene times. Inversion of the Cretaceous extensional faults occurred along the northern and western margins of the Tucumn basin. In the eastern margin it is not easy to detect tectonic inversion despite the fact that it could be interpreted that small extensional steps are slightly inverted. The southern part of the basin preserved the Cretaceous extensional geometries without being inverted. Inversion is clear along the southwestern and northwestern margins of the Tucumn basin. Moreover, inversion
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structures are clearly observed at the surface to the north of the Tucuman basin, i.e. in the Medina Range syn-rift deposits are thrust over post-rift and foreland layers. Folding was produced by reactivation of basement discontinuities by means of high angle thrust faults, inversion of earlier extensional faults and by differential subsidence owing to the stratigraphic column load on syn-rift sediments that varied laterally in thickness. Double vergent high angle thrust faults in the eastern margin of the basin continued to uplift the Guasayn Range and the Mujer Muerta High, evolving into a pop-up and initiating the transformation of the Tucuman basin into a piggy back basin. The growth of pop-ups in the foreland is a long term process that produces the compartmentalization of an early continuous foreland basin. Growth strata associated with uplifting of the nearby ranges and with blind thrusts were identied in many sectors of the basin. These features were crucial in identifying the evolution of the basin sedimentary inll and the age and mechanisms of range uplift. Acknowledgements This research is supported by the following projects: 200500397SGR from the Generalitat de Catalunya and Consolider-Ingenio 2010 program (CSD2006-004 Topo-Iberia) and CGL2007-66431C02-01/BTE (Modelizacin Estructural 4D) from the Ministerio de Educacin y Ciencia of the Spanish government. The rst author was funded by the AlBan scholarships program. We would like to thank Yanina Basile and Tomas Zapata from Repsol-YPF as well as Ernesto Cristallini of Universidad de Buenos Aires for facilitating the seismic information, Mireia Butille and Joana Mencos from the University of Barcelona for their help in software applications and George von Knorring for reviewing the English of this paper. We are indebted to Fernando Hong and to an anonymous reviewer for their helpful comments on an earlier version that greatly improved this manuscript. The seismic interpretation used The Kingdom Company software, which was generously provided by Seismic Micro-Technology via the University Gift Program. References
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