62 .

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

To many people, the most obvious rvay of reducing some of the power of the language barrier (556) is to
promote the teaching and learning of foreign languages in avariery ofchild and adult educational scttings. This widely practised approach is undoubtedlyvety successful, as can be judged by the millions who succeed in mastering a foreign language, even to levels that are comparable ro those achieved by 'natural' bilinguals

individual differences among lcarners, especialiy in

personaliry and morivation, that can directly iniluence the reaching outcome. In this view, people are seen to be largeli' responsible for their own progress. Research is therefore now direcred not only at the way teachers teach, buc also ar the way learners learn. The rerm 'acquisirion (Part vrr) is sometimes used to replace 'learning' in this context, when the emphasis is on the narural, unconscious way in which a learner can assinilate a foreign language (as in bilingual contexts, or. when using one of tl.re 'naiural' approaches to FI.T, p. 377). In several approaches, horvevet 'acquisition' and 'learning' are carefully distinguished: the former is tl.ren resrricted to what rakes place in 'natural' lealning situations; the larter to what rakes place in classr-ooms l'hen following a structured course with a teacher

LANGUAGE AND
CU LTU RE Today, learning a

{or?,:

guage js likely to mea_ ing a great deal abo-::

{oreign civilization e1:

tureatthesametim
and materia
s increas

(\60).

English+peaking monoglots often

express

-( incorporate informe: :l aboutsuch rnattersas:

physica geography, E-:

anazement at the linguistic ploficiency displayed by foreigners - not least, the standards routinely achieved in English - and conclude that forcigners must have a 'gift' lor langr-rage learning, which they lack, or that English must be a particularly easy langtage to learn. There is no basis for these suggestions. A lew gifted language learnerc do exist (p. 364), but most people arrive at their fluenry only as a result ofhard work, expended over a considerable period of time. On the other hand, there is also a great deal ofeducational failure and lack of achievement in the languagelearning lield, which also requires explanatibn. Many people, from a variery of linguistic backgrounds, are

orry, history politics, = so.ial instltutions, eiJ:

tiona system, literai!music, science, techna,':

medla, and sport, as n

about daily life sty

e, ?:

FOREIGN AND SECOND

Several terminologiciLl distincrions are drawn

within this

actually embarrassed by cheir linguistic inadequacy when travelling abroad, and wish to ovelcome it. Many have tried to lealn a foreign language, but have made little progress in it. 'I was never very good at languages in school' is a widely heard complaint. It is therefore important to study rhe factors that governsuccess orfailure in this field such as the soundness of teaching methods, the attitudes and rirotivation ofthe learner', the availability of time and opportunities to learn, the adequary ofresources, and the chance to put the language to active use. It is evidently a complex situation rvhich, in view of the enormous amounts of time and money expended witbin the foleign language 'industr,f all over the world, warrants careful investigation. And in recent r largu.:ge r e.r. h ing - nd lca rnyea r.. rhe 'rrLrie. olloreign ing ha. in Lr,r develul'<d to be.onte rod-1 rh, l.rrge.r domain of enquiry within applied linguistics (S65).

fleld. Apersont'mother rongue'or'first language' (L1) is distinguished from any lurther languages that may be acquired (L2, L3, etc.). The term 'foreign language' is popularlyused to referto anylanguage thatis notanative language in a countw; and 'second language'is also cottmonly rced in this way, especially in the U.S. (a usage which is increa^-sing worldwide). But many linguists distinguish berween'foreign and 'second' language usei recognizing major differences in thelearning aims, teaching methods, and achievement levels involved. sense, is a non-native language taught in school that

belie{s, folk customr, :_ socia values. The m.:3 lnevitably very select'r= It helpsthe learnertc r rnore fuLly aware of c' ways of behaviour, a.: reduces the risks of c.:
shock,

foreignerster.

ing, and intolerance.

A cu turalframe of'a ence becomes increas _,

importantthe greate.:
'distance'between
16r

guages. To succeed ln

A foreign latguage (FL),

in this more

restricted

entallanguage, forex: a westerner needsth s porl ofseveralofthe a: studies. Buta cultural.' tlve is needed even wt 'nearby' languagee, l. : to graspthesocial sigr-

canceofa inguisticfe.
(e.9. s ang, accents,

no status as a routine medium of co rnrnunication in that counrry. A rrcozllanguage (SL) is a non-native language that is widely used lor purposes ofcom munihas

Lal:on. u.uJlly a. .r nediurn of e,Jucario r. gorerr.

ment, or business. In this usage, English, for e*rmple, has fbreign language status in Japan, but second lanBOU LANGERIE =

o{addresr, p.44)orto' the subject matrer o{ c: conversatlon, For exaff everycountry knowin:
names

or:

ofthe most fam men andwomen ofa c. whetherthey are po ii ures,folk heroes, or m: stars, isa majorfactor'.

TEACHINC ,CHING'..A.ND LEARNINC

use

BAKERY?
At a purely lnguistlc level,
French boularger"ietrans lates into English as bakery. However, there is no cul

understanding the me. ofa newspaper report,

debate on television, o

of rwolreadi,rgs fot this

an important development in the modsubjcct. FLI was at one time thought to be exclusi martcr ofteaching techniques; ir was felt that, ifteach r'.rs abovc a certain mioimum lcvcl

FLL\,

(FLT) and foreign language harning

section, foraign lan-

course ofconversation Atthe same time, th{

ern snrdv

of

tural equlvalence between the two notions: in many

French villaqes, the bakerV
acts as a social centre in

of

efficienry,

ng would automatically fbllow.

active skill; learnin], the passive one.

ways its English counter

Teaching was Today, rhe.ai

risks nadoptingacultL Perspective. Some earr wantto learn a langua( wlthout having totake board all its cultural 'be gage'. British textbookl examp e, are often edli

ro]e of the learner is an established

is recognized that there are impoltant

removefeatureswhlch perceivedto betray a B cultural bias, in viewof

sensitivity which some { trles display aboutthis

62 .FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING

_:::: fcoplc. thc nrost oll.ioLrs \\':u 01_ raahrcinq - : : :hi n{)\1rr o{-thc llngLnge b.rlLi.-r (\\i6) is rr ' ..rrrt.rching:rnrl le.rrninqoflotcign llrnqrIirgcs : ,: --. oichilcl ancl :rclult ecluilrionll scrrings. t his : .. :.:: 1,.
.-:r-ri.ecl apploaclr is unclorLbtedlvvcrvsLrcacs\lLrdgccl bv the rnillions tho succcccl in ::- .r lolciqn languegc, er.en ro lcr,cls rh:rt erc
iucliviclLurl diflircnccs

lnrons lcerncls. cspccirlll

cen

in

LANG UAG

_AND afor: :

pcrsonrlitl lnd niorilrriorr. rlur

bc

.: : 1r rhosc echicvrd br' nltural' bilingrLrrls . :-: i'h sp.'ekinu rnonoglors oficn cxprcss -:: .:: .rr rhc Jilquistic ploficienq'tlispl.rlecl br. ' - -: - . iror lrasr. rhe srend.rrds routinch rchicved '' '' 1. 'lr I , tr'r.rr t l t\' l. ..
::_

rl'. rr '. l. r'. . -.r rcrrl accluisirion (Pirrr vu) is somr-rinres Lrscd ro replacc lcxrn;ng'in rhis contcrr, lhcn rhc enrphasis is
r

r' l',,.. . .- r,, 'r,r.. r.. r 'i ecll responsiblc fi;r rhcir on n pr ogress. Rcs!-:l ch is thctclirre no\l dircctcd nor onh at rhe nar. rcrchcrs rl r .,.1 i
1er

dirccilr inlluencc

CULIURE
Today, earn nq

. . .l . r.rl'
I hc

guage s likely to me. _ ing n great dca abo, fore gn civi ization ._
ture at the same
and materials

lncre:t

t rr:

:
:

.:'r:Lrgr 1c:unin!!. ri'hich ..ri iL- .1 pall rirLlllr ly eils|

th,--1 1:rcl<,
L:rn{Ll,r-s1c

or

rhar

to lc:rnt.

:r

.:\i,

:irr rhcse sltggestions. A ferr giftecl lan-

\\+tich l lcarncr c:rn :rssitrilete l lbreign len-gLrlee (as irr bilinglLill conLcxrs, or whcu usin-el onc ofr]rc'natural applo.rches ro FLT. p. -ll7l. ltr s*errl ilpprolrrhcs, ho*cvcr. ecqLrisition end 'lerlninq are celefirllr clisringLrishcd: rhc firr.nrer.js drcn rcsr icrcd to $hrT r.1kcs pLlcc in iarulal leerninqsitLrrtions: thc laLter to u.hlr rrl<cs placc in classroonrslhcn iirllort ing ,r str ucturcd coLrr sc rvirh a rceclrer.

orl thc rrnLral. ullconsciotrs \\'av

it1

about such rnatters

naorporate nforn "

.:

physlcalgeographr

omy, history, po it .i socla inst tut ont, e: tiona systern, itera: mus (, 9c efce, tecl- _ . mdia, and sport, .i

about da ly I fe-slr
5(lc

belefs,folkcusto.-r:
d va ues. he -. jnev tably very se : it he psthe earne.
reduces the r
:

F'OREIGN AND

F-COND

. - : :-l.r -:
:

: . -.. ::r r. l uas ncvcr r,crv good at l:rngrragcs in :. .irlrh hcar.cl cornpleinr. It is thcrcfbrc : r : .ru.ir rlre lictors rhar govcrn success or t:rjl . : . i,'l.i -ilrch rs rhc soLrnclrrcss of teaching :. :::..riiriudtsrndnoriYltion ol_thclc'alner'.thc
the aclc ::.fllraas. rrn,:l rhc chlnce ro prlL thc l:Lngullie
,:

\.1ricr\ oflinguisric blck.erounils. arc :::i.,-r:.1is.Ll ll. their lin.quisLic inudecltreq' :: -'.-.:rg.:brorrrl, .rnd \f ish lo ovcrcome it. Nlenv .i,-r' 1.. ". .I r',.'. . il

'r

'rr ' ',.

Socr:rJ telrrinologic:rl distincrions:rrc clrlln lvithjrr rh is field. .{ pelson.s ir or}icr tongue or 'lirst langu.rgc' (L 1 ) is cllstingrrishccl fi om :rnr' liLr thel hngtng.-s thet mlr. bc .rcquired il-2. L.1, etc.). lhe tcrrr 'fijrrign lengLnqc is Popularly usccl to lelil ro rrr l:rngLra9.-rhatisnotanatilc hnquagc in e countrl : ind '\ccond lanqlr:rge' is also comnronh LLsed in rhis t:Lr, especialli in the L-I.S. (a usalc rvliich is irrcrel.sing *orldu,ide). Blt nr:lr'ljnguiscs disringrrish bcnveen lbrciqri ;rnc1'scconcl' lergrrir-lic usc, rer ognizing oraior clilterrnces in rhc lcarn ing ainrs. reachinq

morefu lyaware:' waysofbehavioL. .

sk5:

shock, foreigne. :.lng, and into er.-::

Acu tura frarr=

ence becomes n:_=.

irnpoftantthe
'd stance

o'.: ':

:
!

betwe:_
suc.-..:

guages

To

entai anguage,

a westeTner neea:

irnri:rrcl r)pl()rrunitias

Lo lcerrr.

: :

: ..r l:iicridcntlllcornplcrsitultiorrg'hich.in t .'_. .rlornroLrs ilmounts ()1r title lrn(l mone\' . . rl. . -r | :'..'- irr.lr. r .' ,'' -: ..rrr'.rnrs c.rrcliLl invcsriq:rrion. Anci irr rr-ccnt
-.r:L,t.iroilirleignllrogrrlqctcechingandlcani| '. ..1 , ...,'r i. r',1 \ r . ' .-.. :- : i:r. uir\ rrirhin.rppliccllirtuistics{:\(ri).

rcsrricred scllsc. is il non-llxrive llnguirgc tlughr in school thlt Itls rro strtus as r r()LLtinc mcdiLlm of mnrnluniciltion in thrrcountrr'. A rr,oa/l:Lnguegc (Sl ) is a rron-nurivc lrirgrrage th:rt is r,r.idell usccl fbr purposes o1-com mu Jri .. .',r. ..:tt rllr , ., r r..ri rr r ,,1 c,i

r,..1 ',.' 'l .lr.',r. r.r.lr rrr. l..r. .\ .firrlqr laneLre.qe (l-L). in rhis mor.

poftof5evera o'--. nud es. But a .! : : tive s needed e.:'nearby' langLr.:=:

toqraspthesoa: :
(anceofa llnc

! i:
:

(e.9. slang, acce_ : of address, p. ,r-:

the subject
converqat

m.: :
F_

on

;";,;. :,.;;;;;,.,;. il, :;,;,'il":'ilii:]i'ili'";tj]l,lii],

has lbrcign l:rngLtaqc sL.rtus in Jap.rn. ltur secoud Larr,

BOU LANG

rames oJthe n , rnen and \ ron-: _

whetherthe!:'= ure!, folk herc:: :

stars,
is

RIE =

: iCHI\(, ANI) I,EARNINC ,r : t\,.o lrr.t(linqs 1ot tltis secrion, fittigtt lal :,..,,:,,.< ifl l) a\d fifti.lt LutgttrtQt lt'ar;titt,q : . --:
- : :-

BAKERY?
At
a

purely ngLristic evel,

wgffiB.

m.jc.

understandlnc i : o+ a newspape' _.: debate on te E. : :

course o{ con,.
r sks n

'r

I I rl" r l,l .r' r'i, 'l'1r'' . irll. ,,irrc rubjcct. Flil lls et orc tinrc thoLrght

'

French bou/argerle trans ates into Eng sh as bdkery

Atthesam.:
adopi :

a-;:
:
-

: jrrallring n.as ilborc a ccr ririn minimLrnr lcvcl . : -:-r:,r. lc.rlninq loulrl urrromaticalll lirllon. - - : :::.... J5 thc .l.lir c sliillr lcr rn ing. rhc pessive onc. -: :rr .rcrivc rolc of rhc lerrncl is :rn esr.rblished 'r ..o r,i... rr..r .. '.rr '1,.r'..',.
1

.-\',cl\ ittrrarreroiteilchingrcchni,:1ucs:irt:rs

Howcvet there 5 no.u tural eqlrlvalenr betwcen the two not ons: n many

vi aqes, the b,rkery acts as a soc al,:entre n ways it5 Eng lsh coufter
Fren.:h

board a l ts., gage'. Br t si ::, : examp e, are:-:i remove feiti- -. .

.ultura bi.s
sensitiv ty r.

6].FOREICN I-,1\CU.\CE LE\R\]\C

\\D

TFACHING
WHICH LANG UAG
E?

.-:

:iarus in Nigeria. The latter term is also used Argumenrs of this lcind are rarely encounrered in - -.i;rence ro immigrants and indigenous gloups non-English-speaking countries, where there is a great .. L I is a minoriry language: ir.r the USA, lor demand for FL courses. In German secondary schools, -:.e. English is a second language for millions of for example, all pupils take a foreign language to an - ::ants ftom a wide range of language back- advanced level. In France the figure is around E590. In --:. (p. 363) as well as for speakers of Americrn Britain, the figures are much lower, bur rhe climate is slot'lv changin g. In the I 960s, only 20% ofschoolch il-_..anguages. dren took a foreign language; in rhe early 1980s, rvell

\THY LEARN FOREIGN

I,ANCIJACF,S?
:::srion requires an answer, in a world where we indifference or hostility expressed

.-.-rlv 6nd

--:s lbreign languages and foreign people, where ..--..g resources are limited, and where other sub:lamour for extra slots within the school ,l-:rle. The criticisms come ma;nlyflom within the FLI has olten been -.::-speaking rvorld, where :.::d on the grounds that the time would be better ' rn science, mathematics, or the mother tongue.

--

reople think that FLI is unnecessary in a world an increasing number of people understand

,: (\59).
'.!\'er. even in pla,e. where I I in'tru. rion i.;-o. -ire use oftraditional teachingmethods has meant -,rrv pupils find FL worh boring and dif{icult. In

.:

.itrration: ir.orr.lrrJ.drhrr \merrtrr :nromperencein ]iLL had rcached the stage where it thleatened national securiry and economic development (e.g. only 2% of American scientists could understand matelial published in Russian). Several recommendations have since becn made to implove the status and facilities for FL u,ork, at both schooland college levels. Exrra funding has been allocated, both fedelally and privately. Some states (c.g. Michigan) have already mandated an FL component as part ofhigh school celtification. In Europe, rhc Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe has recommended that FLT in schools should be increased and diversified. that children should lcarn more than one foreign language ifpossib1e, thar they shotld start as early as possible, and that
facilities should be made longer-term. There should be a single language policy for a school, in which all language work (Ll and L2) should be inregrated. In the
1980s, sevelal languages associations and conn-rittees have reitetated rhis plea, though limited funding has
Ied

over 8090 rvere taking one fbr up to three vears. In the USA, a Commission on Foreign Language and Interrational Studies was ser up in I978 to consider the FL

ln most non-Engl sh speaking countries, Eng lish is first choice (559).ln E ng lish speaking countries, this position is Lrsuallytaken by French, which has a high y prestigious literature and cul ture, and which has been used as an international ingua franca since the 18th century (e.9. the officia languages ofthe Councilof Europe are English and French). ln Erltain, the prox imity of France and numerous points of historical connection have led to the concentration on French in schools and, once a subject is established, the need to provide continuity o{ teaching makes it difficult to displace. After French, Spanish and German both have substan' tialfollowings in schools, the former especially in the U.5. because of the proximity of Spani5h-speaking countries and the high level of immi gration from these areas.
Each language has consider able international status. spanish is the world's third international anguage, being used jn over 20 coun-

r.:r secondary schools, for example, 600/o drop their ,:.. rhree years, and even thosewho pass theirexams -..n unable to use the language for everyday pur- Such facts fuel the arguments ofthosewho think :,T should become a minority subject or even be ':.d lrom the curriculum aftogether

tries- German is an imporiant

to Iimited implementation.

.\SWERING THE CRITICS

-'..-Tworld

has not been

:tr io rneet the challenge -:_ critics, An enormous

-=.uring of intellectual _::.acticaleffort has

,i=- devoted to overhaul-: retraditional machin:'language teaching. tame time, the ratio' --

r:

-='crFLLhascometo be

:- .nteanationalworld- lt . _<essity, ifa country is : .-rercise a role in world

-: cy defended. :- is no longer a luxury

changing society - not only abroad, butwithin their own community. lt can help overcometheir insecurity and deveiop their confi denceastheyface up to the demands of social and personal relationships not usuallyencountered in a mother-tonque context.
There is no doubt that language is prerequisite for f ull mutual understanding and cooperation between nations. FLL promoies understanding, tolerance, and respect for the cultural identity, rights, and values of others, whether abroad, orat home in minoaity qroups. People become less ethnocentric, as they come to seethemselves and their society in the eyes ofthe restoftheworld, and

thinking aboutth;ngs. Lan

guage learning, aswel as travel, broadens the mind-

. Success in the international world of commerce

and industry is becoming more and more dependent on FLL (556). Young peop e nowfind they have more career opportunltles when they know a foreign lan guage and are increasingly moving to localities where some degree oJ FL competence is required ofthem.
This mobility ls

ple's leisure tjme. Touri5t travel is a major motivation, but many have come to find FLL a satisfying leisure activity in its own riqht, enablinq them to have direct accesg to the world of foreign cin ema, radio and television, vocal music, literature, and the history of ideas.

lingua lranca throughout much of Eastern Europe. It is extremely difficultto predict which languages chil dren wi I need most in arlUlt life. Patterns of language cholce in the various settinqs oJ adult education are qulte dilferent from those found in rchool. A recent BBC TV lta ian series was watched by 1.8 mil ion people, and a Russian series by about 1 mi lion people, though neither language is much taLrght in British
schools. Japanese and Chinese are now being offered by several centres of {urther education in the l.J.K. Trade and tourism seem to be par-

FLL

provides

valuab

perspective for those whose

-=5 Especially in Europe, ' .;een as a criterion o'f

:.;nsible international

no onger

-:- cthercountries on ":i inguistic terms. :- has an essential roJe in

'

- : ableto meet people

--_-.'l5hip. lt

is a

strength

something that affects only xecutives but is found with all grades and categorjes of personnel, such as rnarket ing staff. legal specialists, secretaries, and technicians.
FLL is becoming increasingly lmportant as unempioyment and reduced workinq hours add to peo

interest is primarily in the mother tongue. Ultimately, the onlywayto appreciate the unique identity and power of a language is by contrasting it with others.

ticularly infiuential factors.

FLL is a

primary educa-

::;.ing :,

tional right, which should be nrade available to all people, whether they avai themselves of it or not,

children to cope :qe new per5pectives -rht about by a rapidly

encounterotherwaysof

P,\RI \.

l.\N(,t ,\(:t: tN tl|

\\'()RIl)

TH

Rccommendetion

COUNCIL OF EUROPI, rccornnrclcl:rtions ro do rvith l:ureua.qe lealning itr R (82) l8 of rhc Cornmittre of scirools alcl hi-rther educltion. lirn.qu:rte lealniog bv Minisrcrs of rhe (luncil of l.uropc. acloptccl in niglrnts aod theil lirmilies, inirial irnd l rrher rc.rch.r
F]

Seirtembcr l9ll2, is a cleer sraremenr of rhc issucs involr.ed in tlic tc:rchilt end lealning of nroclcrn languages. lhc sr:lrenrent recognizes rhrce qcncral prcnisscs, lbllou'irg these b1'a set ofgeneral and spccilic

tr:Iining, en(l

nrc:rsr.Lres

of intclnarion:rl coopctxrion.
t<r

1_he pt enr iscs, ancl thc

sreternent ofqencr.rl mcrrsures bc implcrncntccl. :rrc qiven belru,.

The Committee of Ministers...

Consiclcring thlt the rich heritegc ofclivcrse llnglrlges and culturcs in Luropc is a valu:lblc cofilrnon res()urce to be prorccrcd and do'clopccl. and thir a mrjor cdlrcarional cflbrt is nccdcd to convcrt rhlr divcrsin, fiorn , b.tricr Lo LollllllLtlliL-LL olr illL(r -L r(rurL- ,,t t,t--,.,.,1 enrichmcnt and undcrstanding; Considcring rhar ir is onlv through a bctrer l<norvlerlge of Europcal nioclcrn languegcs rhet it rvill bc possible ro ticilirarc communication irrrd ilrcrecti(xr among Euro perns ofdiffelent rrorher rongucs in ordcr ro prornorc Iiurcpeen mobilin-, mutual undcrsranding :rnd co-opcr-

ol thc !rngrr:lcs oforhel nrcnrbcr sr.rrcs (or of orhrr conrnunitics *'jthin rhcir own counrry) .rs *c!l .rs rhc rkills jn fic usc ol rhose l,rnqLraqcs rh.rr \\'i11 enrblc th,:m to srLisli thcircommunicarive needsxnd ln p.uricuLar: l.l. to rlcalrr ith rhe businers ofelervcl.n lil. in urorhcr
l<norvlcclgc

' ,

, r
'

'

r,

r r'., r.,.

,,,r'., r

1.2 ro cxchangc inlolnrrrion rnd ll1ces u irh voLrng pco plc ard rclults who spe.rl:r dillircrn lrrngurgl end ro communic.rtc rhcir thoushrs and ftclines ro thcrrt l .i ro achicvc a n irlcl anJ rleep--r unrlerst.urding ofthc w rv ol-lili rncl for ms ofrhoughr oiofhef pcopLcs al,:lolrhcir cultulxL hcriLr.qr. ). lir
plorrorc, cncoure.gr rncl srLppolr rhe eilorrs
o1_

.' i,'n..rlJ,'r-r. ,rrr. 1 ,. jr.lr.c ",rdi..rirrrir'.r.orr: (irnsiclering that membcr statcs. whcn ldopting or deve|rping national policics in thc ficlcl ol nrodcnl languagc lc,rrning and rclrching, milv il.hie\.e grearcr
convcrgcncc at thc Lrrropcan lcvcl, by melns ofeppr o priate arr-angemcnrs fbr ongoirrg co-opcrarion iurd cootdination of policies; llccomnends the governmenrs of rnenrber-statcs, irr the frarnes'ork of rhcir narion:rl cducetion:rl policics and svstcms, and narionill cultural clcvclopment policics, to implenent b1.a11 availlble meens end rvirhin

tcrchers :rncl lc.rrncrr er rll lo cls to rpph' in rheir ot rr sinLarion rhe principlrs oftlc consrrucrion o1-l:rngu.rgc lcrrring

slstcns (as thrse .rrc progrcssivcI dcvclopc,l xirhin thc (iorLncil olFiLrropc \lodrnrlanquaqcs progr.rmnrcl: 2.1 bl bisinq l.rnguegc rcaching enLl lcrlnins Lrn Lhcnrcds. norirrrions. urLcl characrtrisrics rnrl lcsoulces
ol_

rhcl:rr r.,'f r,il"l'1.,r,rr'.,.. h. r'r. r.rr, .e.,,rr

thc appendix to rhe fr escnt r ecommendrtion. XIaaurtt to be iuplentnt,:r/ tottnirg tLt /t,trttiry tcdthing of'matbn h ng,udgl
_lb

1.2 bv dtliring wolrhlhilc :nrl lerlisLic ob cctivcs es cxplicirlr us possiblc: 2.i bl tleveloping rpprrlllr iarc mcrhocls and maLerl:rlsr 2.4 bv rloclopinq suir,rble lolnrs encl instrumcnrs firr thc oaluetion of lerrrling proqrlnrnr.s. 3.
Tir plonroLc rest:rrcL end,:lo cloprncnt progremrnr:s lc.rdinq to rhc inrroducrior. er ell cduc.rtion.rl lc"cls. of mrrhods

aul

and matclials b.'sr sLrlrcd rr cnabling dillircnr clesses rncl wpes ofstutlent to ecquirc a communicrrivc prolicicncr xpplopri:rte to rhciLspccific nccds.

ensure, as lar es possible, thrr rll sections c,l thcir populetions b,rvc :rccrss to elJecLive nreens ol rcquiring .r

l.

The

Comm:i..

ofthe Cour: meetnq n; :

'..
LAN UAG E IEARN ING guage out of the classroonr, so that students see it5 use in a native community. Parenta support seernsto be a critical factor with younger ch ild ren. l\l ore over, mot vation applies to teacher as wel as student: t is d fficLrlt to teach enthusi a5tica ly if it ls known that most of the clasg are go ng to droptheir language at the earliest opportun ty, or ineffective as too rttle, readi y leading to fatigue and superficial assim lation ('qul(kly learned is quickly
as

.l,

r r.

\(
WHEN SHOU LD t2s
BE

: : :: , et no single the, 'i:::r acrount for ihe - :'FLL behaviour, . r:-!.'hysome : !ir.ceed ntheir : : , -:a ng resear.hers : :::d ned from the . :' relevant factors ::.9e -: ear howfarthere :: r I en ine apfitude : !en sufficleft : r1, inte ligence,
Lr

_:'eas others fai . A

forgotten').

_:.omplexity of

Exposure to native use15

sa

ofthe forelgn anguage

real benefit, through the

use of authentic materialt (e g. audio tdpe, video tape,

newspaper rbrary) and, in school, forelgn language

teach ng assirtants. A para le emphasis on output, as we as nput, s desirabiei 'practice makes perfect'. All

translation) (p. :78)? How far shou d L1 nput be used rn L2 teach, ing? . Teach in g nrethods need to be flexible to suit rhe needs of individual children {e.g their interests and cog nitive skllls) and to make best use of classroom design and resources (e.9. the ava I
abi ity of audio-vis!al a

(such as

TAUGHT?
Trad tioJla ly, L2s have been ntroduced at a relat vely tate stage of deve opment usu ally aro!nd the age of 10 or I 1. ln recent dec.des, the benefits of an early staft have been urged, given the natural way n which young chi dren periods, p 265), the po5jtive resu ts ofsome rnmers on programmes (p. 369), and the
I kelihood that they can devote moretime tothe task. Severa experirnental FL pro

learn anguage (cf. crit.a

dt.

that society plares lrtle

store by it

:! _e anguage;but , s ike yto be ess r ; i ce-tain genera -: qualities are pre -.ng these, it has :-rqested, are empa -: :daptability,
applicatjon Peo :-: to be capable of ' :: ng know edge in

:rr

rtLt n

ity, anyone

: : rf

:ress and indepen ,. th good drive and

Attitude toward5 the for eiqn language is important. lf a student perceives a country or culture to be unp easant, for whatever reason (e.9. its politics, reli g on, eating habits), the negative attitude ls ikely to influence language earning

importaft dimension s the

use oJ educationai visits

abroad but these need to

fol owed up in.
be properly prepared and dss, and the

: : -,ln
-

: _ave a good rnemr be good at finding

samples of data

:.onditions. They

achievement and con versely. . Students can benefit from belng taught to 'lea rn how
to learn' foreign languages usefu gtrategies, such as
silent rehearsal, techniques of memor zatioll, and a ter native ways of expressing what they want to say (paraphrase). They may alro benefit from training in ihe kind5 of basic ski ls nvolved
in FLL, such asthose denti

experience should enable ch ldren to be genuinely integrated within the FL environment. Out oJ school act vities shou d be encour
aqed, such as pen fr ends, private exchanges, and

There is no ringle'fornru a' for successful FLT (p. 378). There shou d be opportunl ties for tea.hers to interact w th children in groups, pairs, and indlv dua ly, and for pupils to interact with each other lJ clasges are too big, it w ll be imposrible to

obta n genuine participa

on and pra.tice. There should be an

opportunity to take more than one fore gn language ln school, to follow them to
an advanced leve , and to cont nue w th them after schoo . Specia arrange ments may need to be rnade, if volving interschoo

weekend culture

mu ation

Teachjng obje.tives need

luistrc as we I as lin Cf particular impor: : :n ab iity to detect ' i: : d fferences (e.g. o{ -3lody, vowe qual-

to be careful y se ected and graded, to perm t realistic progrest with underach ev ers, ar well as with the gi{ted. Different k nds of
objectives should be explored. Are ali Jour lin guist c modes to be introduced (5peak ng, lstening, reading, writing), and f so, in which order? M ght linr ited competen.e ln two lan guages be betrer thdn an excel ent command of one?
Should the earne15 be exposed to only ceTtain vari etles (51 1) of the foreign la ng uage? Should the focus
be on cornmunicative skil
s

and oca government cooperdtion. New comb nations ofsubjects, more suited to the needs of modern soci ety, shoLrld be introduced,
such as
FL +

grammes have been tried out in primary schoo , and their eff ectiveness evaluated. The results have been mixed. FLT with young ch I dren can work well, but only if earnlng cond t ons are opti ma . Theteach ng objectives needto be inr ted, graded, and clearly defined Spe.ia ist teacher! need to be avai ab e. Methods need to be devised that are appropriate to the interests and cogn tive evel of the.:hlldren. And the trans t on to seaondary school needs to be borne in m nd, becausea
ack

o{.ontinuity can negate

"lething whrch can ': i: itself in other : _! slch as drama or

:

fied above.

science,

FL +

Expos!re to (and practice

'

, at on i! a central ;iLrdents need to see

in) the fore gn language needs to be regular a

_.ign anguages are

!: riousiy by those

problem wh ch particularly
aJfecrs FLT in schools, where

tjmetable pressure, exarni

nations, and holidays may ead to discontinuities. Whenever possible, the aim should be to teach 'l ttle and oiten'. Too much expo sure at any one time can be

:rey respect, espe

_ rhe

: .rco!raqement from :rp oyers, civi( nter

' :.,,,rn twinning, etc.).
: calto take the lan-

community at

or on Jormal techniques

. Teachertra ning needsto continue at in service as well as initiai evels. Teachers need to be technically comPetent, that is they are able to teach in the foreign anguage, if required. They need to keep themselves up-to date with the latest research into their anguage ano socrery, as we I as n FLt techniques.

previous work. llnfortunate y, these conditions do not o{ten obtarn. and many early FLT projects have achieved disappointifg resu ts (the greatest succegs com ng n second lan guage situations, such as r A{rica). Children who sta11 at age l l, ttseems,9oon catch up on thelr I year-old peers However, even if formal FLT s not ntroduced, it is stillpossj bleto deve op young chi dren s genersl anguage awdrenes5 to sensitize them towardgthe xistence and variety ofthe Jall guages of others as well as

oftheirown ianguage and to

clo5eness of lan guagesto each other hds o{1en been thoLrght to be an

lnterlingual distance The struclural

important factor in
FLL.

th. . . rr s. ain ed. earr'ng croL ll

;pelling
.l

lfthe

L2 is

structurallv slmilarto
d bp

p",,er'-ra|n

foster the enjoyment that caf come from being n contact with fore gn anguages Childrencan earn FLgarreg, songs,
rhymes, say ngs, everyd.y

.r

(i

ll

t5
(l

-.
:]

Ir

tl

the L2 is very different. However, it is not pos sible to correlate linguistic difference and learning di#iculty in any straightforward way (p.376), and even the basic task of quantifying linguistic difference provesto be high y complex, because ofthe many variables involved. The diagram shows one ana yst,s inJorma estimateof the structural distance between English and severalother langLrages. Pronunciation, spel ing, choice of alphabet (ofthography), grammar, and vocabulary are each rared
separately, using a scale from 1 (least distance)to 5 (greatest distance). On this basis, Jtalian comes closestto English (scoring 6), fol owed by Spanish (7), German (t O), French (12), and Russian (15). German would score higher if Gothic script were taken into account (3 rather tha; 1 along the orthoqraphy scale). (After C. V. James, 1979.)

cases where

greetings, and many basic

not ons (e.9. coLrnting, parts of the body, tell ngthctlnre). n part cular, ifpupikfrom other
language backgrounds are present, the rnultilingual set ting can be l]ted to generate a mutual ingu stic and cultural interest. The experience can provide a valuable foundat on for the systernatic study of for eign ldnguages at later ages.

1(;)

li
Orthography

nthe 1990s, dn fcreasing nLrlTrber of countrles are intro

ducing
a

foreign language at

PART X.LANGUAGF- IN THE \/ORI,T) hungry). Ar'alyses of this kind have proved to be controversial (largely because of difficulties in validaring the error analysis see below), but their general conclrr.ion i' .. idely 'Lrpporred. Th( \).rcmrri! compar ison ofll and L2, in order to predict areas of greatest le;rning dilfi. ulrl - a procedure l<no,^ n a' ,oqtra'tiut analysis explains only a smalJ part ofwhat goes on in
THE MOI"
ln

-:;
:

'
i

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING

As

the 197:!

viewof

between
learning

tl'e':.-:a:--!:

:_ *_ -r "
"

with the study offirst language acquisition (p. 236), several theories of the nature of the FLL process have been propounded, with similar issues being addressed. Indeed, comparisons are frequenrly made with theway children learn their firsr language (Ll), as a means of
providing hypotheses to guide FL research.

theAmer

FLL.

THE COGNITIVE VIE'W

The main alternarive to the behaviourist approach sees as central the role of cognitive factors in language leaming (pp.236 7). In this view, learners are credited wirh using rheir.ogrritive abilirie. in a . re"rive way to work out hypotheses about the srructure of the FL. They construct rules, try them out, and alter them if they prove to be inadequate. Language learning, in this account, proceeds in a series of transitional stages, as learners acquire more knowledge of the L2. At each stage, they are in control of a language system thar is equivalent to ncither the Ll nor the L2 an interknguage (L. Sellnker, 1972) . Error analysis plays a central role in this approach. Errors ate likely ro emerge when learners make the wrong deductions about the nature of the L2, such as assuming that a pattern is general, when in fact there are exceptions. The errors provide positive evidence about the nature ofthe learning process, as the learner gradually works out what the FL system is. For exam-

-:, ': =Stephen K'5_-_ . account ra{:.-= :+ sclous, nei-': :- :* sition'), \..' - !:- | force beh _: :-' ,f 'Learning' : =+- l
scious

r',=:_:c :

THE BEHAVIOURIST VI EVi'

A great deal of language learning and teaching in the 1950s and 1960s was infuenced by the tenets of behaviourism (pp.236, 4121.In this view, FLL is seen as a process of imitation and reinforcement: learners attempt to copywhat theyhear, and by regular practice they establish a set of:rcceptable habits in the new language. Propelties of dre L1 are thought to exercise an influence on the coulse ofL2 learning: learners 'transfer' sounds, structures, and usages from one language to the other. Awidely used typology distinguishes two

oredits, tl_.

sition ano a- tr=r -", . mance of - =,=rr is or shoL : tr.used only'i: =,--a: speech ori: :: a

pro(:=:_- " :r: a-:r.

'

rP
r -:.r

more'pols.F-: dr!//l'
Theemg.es:
leads

kinds of transfer. Similarities between the two languages cause'positive transfer':

teachertoi,r:-, from motl3- r_: { chjld Geei.: -t 3r use the Ll ln facl rtr: . :- ,r that the subject goes before the verb satisfactorily vide5leam=,= ' = of consaiori {-,r" a ! transfers from English to French). Differences cause .:i guisticru16 . -:, lregative transfer', generally known as 'interference': maycome'ic = _: I the L1 habits cause errors in the L2 (e.g. the same this knowleol- ;: - i assumption about subject-verb order does notsatisfac- ple, learners rvho say uous disezinsreadof uous dites'yort allygetsin-.E _ rorily transfer into \(elsh). Typical interference errors saf have assumed, wrongly, that the -ez ending found abilityto co---- i.im' whoworry:aa -r: inclrrde: / zaait here since .3 hoars Grorn French) and afrer rozrin most other French verbs (z archez" dannez r making a r---: indiThe error in this case to /lrr'saf . Holr kngmust m! hand in plaster sta\? (from GeIman). etc.) also applies thusare r J-:- : (or analogy, p. 236) FLability,... --r ," Problems ofr-regative transfer are thought co provide a cates that a faulry generalization 'overusing :,:- made. has been major source of FLL difficulty. The main aim of Theories :':_ have to FLL approaches the 1970s, cognitive Since linbehaviourist teaching is thus to form new, correct inevitably c:--: r' guistic habirs through inrensive practice, eliminating been in the ascendant, and error analysis in particular given our - a:: has attracted a great deal of attention. However, the ofthepsyci::: , interference errors in the process. involved in.:+:analysis oferrors turns out to be a highly complex matThere are several problems presented by this account tion.There:.:_ Some of FLL. Imitation alone does not provide a means of ter, involving orher lactors than the cognitive. takeintoac::,- proves acceptable to habits in the L2 setting (e.g. the assumption

to repli(a:e _ :_ a the coadi a-]! - Ll acquisit :r -_* .:" drawn brr,?i_ __F

Krasi:_:: tr_: : 'input hypc:_!: *" gests thai:=3-e_ ri

"

it

,,

identifying the task facing learners, rvho are continu:Llly

errors are due ro the inlluence ofthe mother tongue, as

tion betwee_

1: _

conlronted with the need to creatc and recognize novel utterances that go bevond the Jimitations ofthe model sentences they may have practised Nor does imitation suffice as an explanation ofthe way learners behave: not many of the errors that ate theoretically predicted by the differences beween L1 and L2 in fact occur in rhe language oflearners; and conversely, other errols are found that seem unrelated to rhe L1. In a frequently-cited early study (H, C. Dulay & M. K. Burt, 1973), 145 Spanish-speaking children aged 5 to 8 were ob'ened rnhile learning fngli'h. \ir 'trL.rure. wete selected and the error patterns analysed. It emerged rhat interference errors (such as Thel haue hungerfrom Elks tienen hambre) accotnted for only 3olo of the errors made. The majority of the errors (85o/0, with a lurther 12% unclear) were thought to resemble rhose that appear in the course ofLl acquisition (e.g. Thcl

contr.rstive analysis claims. Some come from external infuences, such as inadequate teaching or materials.
Some arise out ofthe need to make oneselIunderstood

subcon5co-!, :,

by whatever means possible (e.g. replacing words by

TWO MODELS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING Behaviourist
L2 lnput obtained from controll-"d, f ormaL, instruction

language p':::,: between ic-. :settings, bLi _-:

in::-:: argued,lsr:'.:anything\',_-'variables

cognitive
Exposure to authentic use
L2

lnpartlcLra':_.'
of
attention

ha!:-=

in near naturalsituations

applying a pr, :- :

.t

J
nput processed using

perspectiv::

:-

rnitatlon and
reinforcement (cons.lout strategies
L

fatural(universal,
Lrnconscious) strategies

thevary ng c:-. rnation pro.-':: -:

are used as a-

:
:
,

=': variabilityo':-: - dentwho car i=

livesin Reao - -.:

habits established J
L2 L2

Transitionalstages of learnlng (interlanguage)

L2

output

J output

justwonthe.-. ' error becaue. :_ - involved n p.r-:ordinate c iL,i

Brawnwha,.. ''-

--

62 FOREIGN I,ANGUAC!, LEARNING AND'I'IACHlNG

,:.s). Moreover, not all errors
are equally systemTHE NATURAL ORDER HYPOTHESIS
During the I970s. several studies drew attention to the factthat different FL learners make similar errors, regardless of their anguage background. such

:isruptive, or unacceptable. Erlors of vocabulary,

-:mple, ale less general and predictable than errors :nmar, bur they arc usuaLly more disruptive of

::unication. Some errors, indeed, become so :::ble thar rhey do not disappear: they become
tolerated by learners (insofar as they are .]. ol ther bc.;u.e rhct d., not cau'e maior r. of .ommuni..rtior {e.g the pronun. iarion :.ar constitute a forcign accent). . a1l, elror analvsis is complicated by the fact . often unclear what the learner intended to say, ' :- how to identify the error that has been made. ::rple, does The ladl cat it display an error ofthe -,2i"r) or verb - and ifthe latter, should rhe cor::t be eats, is eating dte, or some other variant? :r iflve assume thar the speaker intended ro sav , : rre srill left with the question of{'hether the
:,ne

foreign language. Particular attention was focused on theway in which foreign Learners of
English used a 5et o{ gram-

there would be major impli cations for external syl labuses, whlch woLrld presumably be modified in

that direction. However,

criticisms have been made of this kind oJ approach.

:d'

efiorcaslgaing and this a

bookwere observed in
Spanish, Russian, lapanese, and several other earners of Engllsh. The conclusion
wa9 drawn that there must be a univer5alcreative Pro

work; iearners were said to be following a natu_ ral'internal 5yllabut {as opposed to the 'external'
cess at

sy labus of the classroom).

ofpronunciation (the speaker

l.Laving

di{fi-

Several o{ the errors closely resembled those made by chiLdren learning their

:h the ltsl cluster') or grammar and, within '.: heading, whether the difficulq' i.r "".. of morilack of arvareness of tl-re ending) or syntax -j :*areness ofnumber aireement benveen sub': .erb) (Sl6). : r'r< difficulrie., r(\e.r. h inro error. conti'l-

mother tongue. Analogies

weretherefore drawn with the'language acquisition

device' postulated by some child-language analysts (p. 234), and a parallelwas proposed between the natural order of Li acquisition and the way people acquired a

matical morphemes (S 16), such as irg, -ed, and plural -5, which L1 studies had already found to be acquired in a certain order (p.244). The errors learners made with each item were counted, and the rnor phemes were ranked on the basis of how accuratelVtheY were used. This ranklng was then assumed to reflect the order in which the Learners were acquiring these morphemes. similar orders were found in severaL dlfferent FLL contexts, in both spoken and written language, thus supporting the idea of a natural. unlversal sequence o{ acqulSition

Order of acquisition as based on a cross seclional study of 5peech samples may not correspond tothe order of acquisltion that

wou d emerge from a longitudinaL rtudy (p. 231). The findings are of limited generallty: only a very sma I number of grammatical
items have been analysed, and there have been verY few 5tLrdles (most oJ which to date have focused on English, so that it s unclear

thatwas independentof the influence of the

learner's
f lrst language. lf natural order exists,

' ::ovide a fruitful

how genuine the claimed universals are). And differences in acqulsltion order have already begun to emerge, castlng doubt on the universality of the natural order hypothesis.

way of investigating the pro-

-rderlying FL acquisition. However, as with , '.e analy.sis, the approach cannot Provide a : : ixplanation. Most FLL settings do nor co11r kird ol pure. nattrr'rl lingui'ric 'iruar:on ::esupposed by the cognitive approach, but
- ..e,nents of formaL teaching, in which learners .ratic:rlly introduced to fragments of the L2 : iense at a time). To understand the way lan, . ne to be learned in these 'mixed' settings, it is ' .rno- le.e\\.tr\ in de\;ie more .ophi'ricared . hih lo.u" on the le'rrion'\iP be'*een the .-- of natural acquisition and those of formal

CHILD VS ADULT ACQUISITION

The similarities between L1 and L2 acquisition errors are striking, but there are manY are less able to assimilate

differences between the two kinds of learning sitLla tion (over and above issues of neurological development, p. 265), which makes it difficult to see a parallel between adultforeign language learners and young children acquiring their

cultural differences. Adults meet a greater variety of L2 situations than do children learning their 11. Children's needs are also

('foreigner talk'). CertainlY, adult L1 speakers adaptto learners, and (often unconsciously)

very different (e.9. they need language for play and emotional expression). Accordingly, the range of

teaching objedives will dif-

-. :nd which pay adequate .

:

attention to the

aims ofthe students, and to the natu.re ofthe ,:-:ng in which FLL interaction takes place

1s somethanq ir the PoetrY of

Ntll

wnrch rd arwavs td rive.

tte

I ::J IN LANGUAGE LEARNING ' - -:' n this sentence, wriften by a Swedish student, + " ::-: ghtforward, but lt is not easy to 5ay exactly
.
:_E.rroris, why itwas made, and whetherthe
-49 made the best correction, ls the student con=: :E :o and rarl/? Or has he learned the past tense use ^ thls context (as in There was something in the , i ch was to I ive forever), and assumed that the

rnothertongue. . The adult has a tet of formed cognitive skilJs and strategies that should make the FLLtask easier (e.9. the abilityto mernorize, imitate, and use dictionaries). A major asset isthe ability of most adults to read and write, . Adults already have a lan' gua9e, andthis inevitablY reduces their motivation to
learn another beyond mini rnal levels. Migrants, for

fer in each case. . The adult has less time and opportunity than the child for FLL. Some estimates suggest that it takes well over a year to accumu_ late as much L2 experience as a young child gets {rom

tryto helP them bY speaking slower and louder, repeating words, simPlifying their grammar, and using stereotyPed exPres_ sions (of which pidgln 5a vvy is probablythe most famoud. They also ignore many errors. But tis un(lear how universal or how systematicthese inPut strategiet are. Similarly, it is unclear how lar teacher language dis-

theLl

in a month.

plays correspondences with motherese (p. 237); the differences, at present, are

Adults invariablyfind

themselves in a less natural

example, generally learn

onlyenoughtoenable
thern to survive in their new country, There are several emotional differences between adults and children when it aomesto learning, ln ParticuJar, adults are more selfconscious about FLL, and

' -,, a--::nsewouJdworkinthesameway?

learning environment than children.lt is rarely Possible to devise a teaching situa tion which closely re5em' blesthat encountered bY the L1 child, with its one-to one interaction and Stronq emotional (caregiver) suP' port.
There is an uncertain Parallel between the way in whiah mothers talk to their children and the way in wh jch people talk to adults using a foreign language

lf so' isthere

- :,:litional errorlnthepositionof
: _::
lorever be
a

: -

a/ways7And more idiomatic word? The corre' .; :onstructlon in Sw edish ts sam alltid skall leva' : .' il not explain all that is going on

more striking than the sim! larities. To facilitate learning, in the early stages, teachers need to keep their input relatively simple, interesting, comPrehensi ble, relevant to the Jearning task, suff icientlY rePetitive toenable patterns to be perceived, and capable of providing appropriate feedback, Generalization Proves difficult, given the great variation that exists among teaching methods (P. 378).

PART X

I,A\GL]A(;E IN I'HL, \\'OIIII)

TE,ACHING METHODS
ln rhe long search for rhe best rvav oftcaching a foreign l,rnguage, hundrcds ofdiflelent approaches,ot / etl)aA, tr,rr e been devised. llach rnerhod is bascd on a Pa[icular
. ie.. oflanguage learning, and usually recommends the usc ofa speciFc set oftechniques and materials, rvirich niat har-e to be in-rplenented in a fixcd seqLlence. Ambitious claims are often made for a neu'tcrlching method, bur none has vet bcen shown to be intrinsically supe-

The grammar translation method This method

derives fiom the traditional approach to the teaching of Latin ancl (}cek, which r.irs particul:rrly influential in thc 19th cenrury It is basecl on the meticulous anallsis ofthc s'rirren language, in rvhich rranslation exer'-

COMMUNICA]
TEACHING

.:

cises, reading comprehension,

and the

$'ritten

imitatior-r of tcxts play ir primarv role. Lcarning mainly involves thc mastcrv of grarnmatical rulcs and mernolization of long lists of Iiterary vocabulary', related to

rior. The conrcmporar)' attitude is llexible and urilitarit is recognized that thcre are several lvals of reaching the goal ofljL competcnce, :rnd that tcachers neecl to be arvare ofa ran!e ofnrethods, in order to lind rhe one rrrost eppropriate to the lcarner's needs :rtrd cir.unstances) and to the obiectives ofthc course. It is freqLlcnih-necessary to introduce al eclcctic approach, in u hich aspects ofdillerent methods are selected to mccr dcnrr nd. ol1'"r r', r,l" r rc.r, h. rrg .:rt t rr tnrrs. 'he Sei eral classilications oftcaching n-rethods have been mlde, in an attempt to imposc some dellree oforder on u hat is a highiy diverse and i.lioslncr-atic field. Sorne

r.'.r. *h.ch'r'eilrc,'e' r'ro|e rnr their p c\Ug:.,,...nrtcnr than for their interesr or level of linguistic diIficuln'. There is little emphasis laid on the activities of
lisrening or speahing. 'I his apploacl.r dorninared eally rvotk in modern languagc teaching. A ninority srill find its intellcctual dis cipline appealing; but the vast majoriry ofteachers norv recogr-rizc thar the apploach does little ro meet the spoLen language needs and interests of rodafs langu:rge
stLldcnts.

ian:

The direct method This approach, also knorvn :rs thc ara/ or ndhtal nlethod. is based on the active
involvemenr ofthe lealner in spcaking and listening to the lorcign language in lealistic cvervday situations. No use is made ofthe learner's n-rother tongue; learners :ire elcouraged to think in the foreign language, ancl nor ro translate into or out olit. A great deal ofenphasis is placed on gootl pronunci:rrion, often introclucittg students to phonctic transcription (\27) before thcl' see the standard orthosraph)'. Forrnal grammatic:rl
rules and terminolog,v are avoided. The direct method continLres to attracr ;nterest and enthlrsiasm, but it is not an easv approach to llsc in school. ln rhe artificial environmcnt ofthe classroom, it is difficult to generate natural learning situations and to providc evcrvone wlth sufficient pracrice. Sevetal

;nahsrs make use of the fundamental distinction benieen languagc structure (fotm) and language usc
ltunction) (513). Under the lirst hcading, thev includc rhose n-icrhods that focus on the te:rching of lorrnal rulcs and categolies, and rhar emphasizc rhe impclrrilncc of accurate wlittelr uanslation :rnd the undersranding ofliterature. Undcr the second heading, the,v include methods tl-r:rt lav stress on the reeching of
active participation in naturaland realistic spoken ian:. 3r;ge .err. rg.. a nd $ her( rh. cnt olta.i. on . on rrn u Manv on formal acclrracv. nicative success rather than

approaches are biased

thoush it

is also

in one or the othcr direcrion, common ro lird approaches that clain.r

rn inregrare

Certain methods are rvidely recognized because of theil inlluential role jn the historv ofidees surrounding
rhis subject.
Easy listening New FLT methods are invented every day. Many claim to provide remarkabLe progress - at a price. Thls dovon i\F-r enl, ral en'ro-n d SoLrl' A'ner r(or' 'rpw(oaper ir 1984, is typical of its genre. What makes it especially intr guing is lts proposed integration of behaviourist and mentalist linguistic theories (p. 41 2)l

lhe.r"clgrh' ofLor P".iri"r..

variants ofthc merhod have thus evolved. ln palticular, reachers ofien pertriit some degrec of mother-tongue explanation and granmatical staterncnt ro avoid learners developing inaccurate fluency ('school pidgin).

The audiolingual method Also known as the

aural oral method, this approach derives from the
inrensive training in spol(en langLlages given to Ameri-Wotld Var, c:rn milirary personrrel dr,rring the Second rvhich resufted in a high degree oflistening and speaking sl<ill being achieved in a relatively short timc-sprln. The enphasis is on cverydav spoken convrsation,

11'^'*
J;*\)$o;;#$[1gf uul^"'.i u t l|lill;';"'*
-t,*';;:'Hri{i,\'ii:lr,Y;,1ffi
.. .",' ""'
u\' '' '.+ .n rootc '::"\Ll::"1:".";t",.'-^^: Andro A.d,","e-",\:.I'J,]','f "-e ca\\

rvirh particulal arrention being paid to natural pronunciarion. Language is seen as a process ofhabit ftirmation (p.376):structLrral patrerns in dialogues rbout everyday siruations are imitated and drilled (Iirst in choral speech, rhen individualh) until the lcarner's responses become automatic. Therc is a special focus
areas of srructural contrast betu'ccn L1 and L2. There is litrle discussion of glammatical rules. Lan-

on

B",pp.*,,.;:::.1:k];;g;n'*",0, " ".

.."

guage u,ork is lirsr heard, rhen practiscd orall,v, before being sccn and used in rvritten forn-i.

oRIrcN

L.\NC

\cr

ri]llt\i\(;

ANt) TIIAall I N(l

ES

. -rpploach can instil considerablc convcrsational : in a lealner, and rlls rvideh used, cspcci:rllv in ;ils .rnd 1960s. lrs rcliance on drills and habit, ::Lrn makes ir lcss popul:u todar.. espccialll' rvith
or.r side-r.r'. cut lirr3ni.ric..l'-r .:rd u'ho feel rhc ncccl lbr nor-e crcari\' worl( in
..1'o rr : )roduction.

HUMAN]STIC APPROACH Suggestopedia (Georg

Lozanov) An approach based on suggestology, the

i.r

::relhods

rhc 1960s. sevcral lresh approaches to FLL

.. ised, airrl i[g tt) provicle a radica] altcrnltive tcr rrl rrcthods, rvhich thcir proponents belier-e : ed. _fhel drerv attention ro thc success \1ith r-'tlple ircqlrire morc thln one languagc all ovcr d (\60), and contrested this rvirh rhc linriLecl r:.lrrs ofthe classroom situ:rtion, ancl rhe par.nrs ol lc:rrnin.q presented bl the vtt ious Theo :-5). IfFLL coulcl be nade morc nrrurrl. and :rer macle more receptivc to rhc rnsh, it $'as : ::rorc efflcient learning would r esulr. i::.criveness of rhe tliffirent merhods .emains rrouqhh elaluatcd; but eech has irs rcportcd :i. .1od somc (especialll the first rhree in rhc list rrve conlc to be uJidelv practised. The follorv res (u'irb rhc origin:iror's namc in parenrl-re .-.lte the rhrust of eltch apptoach, bllr tlter.
:: r rh ing of dtc crnotion al :rtmosphcrc and sense

en.e of s!ggestion. Devi5ed by a Bu gar an psy chiatrist, lt was origina y u5ed as a genera teaching method in that country's pr maryschoo s;e sewhere, it has ma nly been applied in the fie d of adu t FLI The method is based on the vrew
sc

develop their own ways of using the languag ele ments ntroduced. ln the first lesson, the teacher introduces a small L2 vocab ulary to talk about a set of co oured rods, Lrsinq a few verbs (equivalent to 'lake', 'give','pick up', and'put ),
adlectives, pronoL.rns, etc., and gradual y extendrrlg

seekfromthete..".':, equiva ents for,..'.:: - want to say The:e;:_: provides the trans :: rand the 5tudents .?a::: :
Each sersion is

t; p.

recorded, and It

by a d scuss on !..

f. :..:l :. :':
.,.

teacherofwhat\'.:_::' Naturalappraaci D.

thatthebran(especa y
the r ght hemisphere, !45) has great unused potentia , which can be exp oited through the power of suq gestion. La ngLrage learning can be promoted by draw ing on the reserve capacities ofthe unconsclous ra ind. Blocks to learning are removed (u!ing'desugges t on'techniques), and a posItive attitude towards language earning devel' oped ('resuggest on'). ln the r openinq lesson
presented w th arge amounts of the {or 9n an

the /ength ofthe rentence (e.9. 'Take the green rod and g;ve itto Michae '). The aim s to help the learners to become qelf-re ant to !electthe r own sentences
and

controlofthem,

s.rei^:: emphasizes :he ro : :' -,: ura 'language ac:- , . _ and underscores a-. :._, e s between L2 ... -' stresses the mpoa.-:- : emotional rather :-:_ : : :
Terrell)Th

w th good intonation and rhythm. The teacher doer not repeatthe mater a or provide sentences {or stu dentsto imitate; and no Lrse
i5

nit ve factors in e;-_ _:

andofmaqternc..:::lary rather tha n

ca rules. There

!.; - -.i s"a':'-,

correction. The d -_ .

madeofthe earnerg'

11.

(or'concert ), earners are

guage Thetext istrann

' iq
:r

n r promotccl bi these ncrhods, n h ich ar-e rheir clairns ofsuccess. re 1980s, the enrph:1sis hirs nlovccl a\{a1- froni .rrq ofneu'methods ro ll concern over er:alua: lircus is more on der-ising principles and pro '. hich can bc appliecl ro demonsrrilte hou' well

.ne

t s read a oud dranrat c way a galngt a background of classica mus c. The aim s to prov de an atmosphere of total re axat on and enjoyment, in wh ch learning i5 inc den
ated,then
n a

Charts containing vocabu lary and colour coded guides to pronunciation are rnade avai ab eto enab -. the teacher to gL.rlde the stu dntl learning whi e ray ng as litt e as possible. As stu dents say rnoreto each other, so the teacher says iess hence the 's lent'way. Tatal physica I respanse (James i. Asher) Thls rn ethod !tresses the lmpor

estabishanab:r::, ri stand the bas c co_::_: : - : comrnun cat or"r l. _':_-: settings. Learne.! -;: : -: Ll wh leihe r 12..-. : hnsion is devr c. -,
Languagefran.. -_ : method enaoLrra!:: =,'_
(Bever y Ga jrean interests, va

.'

'

erstobeintrospe..=
and now' aci ! t ta k about these

tance of aura comprehen

gion as an exclusive a m in

merhod, technigue, resr. rexrbook, erc. ,rntemporarl FLf is less coriccrnecl rvith nerv
n ith polishin.q (and assessing) the old.

ta. Aftera serr on, there

should be a sense of eupho ria, reminiscent of the feel

the ear y months

of

earn-

ingsthatfo lowa

vis

tto

_ _3 by hypnosis An unorthodox method offore

;

: .arn ng '

qn
eays

am learning English

whi

es

eepinq,'

health rpa (the'spa effect'). By using a large amount of inguistlc mater a , the 5uggeet on s conveyed that language earning ls easy and natura . ln a later gession, students use the mater a n variou5 coanmun cative activitles. The enrphas s, then is whol y on in{ormal Commun cation; no attention is drawn to grarnmati calerrors. Learners, it is c ainred, assimilate far more

ng. The name derives from the emphasis on the actions that learners have to aaak, asthey are given s mple

commands (e.g 'stand" 'sit', 'stop'). Mor-. advanced language is introduced by

ues.:': -:-: e: -_::: e-: : _. resPonses io othe'r I rnaterla come5 fr3- :-gtudents, as ihei r::: _ = rrore geif awarE,.-: :- . up a close re atlors- a , : ea.h other The alr_ r:: enab e thc cognit ,,. ._= tive, and lnterecti! E : = ments ln learn n9 i. ' : together' l.en.e:": : ::
,

aboutthe r o\i'n -aa:i

building up cha

ns

of

actions, using either spoken or wrltten commands Community

native nime for th ! aPProach,'conf Lr. -: teaching.

Delayed oralprac:

/earnlng (CharesA.cur

language

from

an'irnmersion' than wou d traditional y be

gLrch

Ihe

sllertway

(Ca eb Gat-

tegno)Thsapproacham,
to prov de an environment

EN DORMANT

which keps the arnou nt of teaching to a minimum and

encourages learners

to

son'reationshipfoundin counsellingtherapy.Th main a m is to foster slrong per)ord lrlJbelwee^ -tre teacher/counsel or and the learners, and thus to im 1Jr.L\rae.Fri.toJ'lo threatnlng in the FLL situa' tion. There is no prepared mater al.The learnerstalk natura ly in their 11, and

ran)Th s approach bu lds on the k nd of 'who e per

(VaerianA Posto,.r<- -_

..

approach,oftenk-...-:: the'comprehens o.
approach',isbase.:-:-=
oer-1 e a.oS guage,whether nsa=-:_

prinLplethatitl5ia.::;: forlearnersto.,:h:.:::orwrtlng,than na.a:,g LAod.i. -.

..

-.-.: andthisisusedasa'.-_.: tonforworkinvo! -.

retrjva
skllLs.

competence sesrab

|,\IiI

L_.{\(iL.\(;1, l\

tHL \\'()Rtt)
A selection of kara cards . provid ng lapanese e;. -. pract ce n recoqn z n9 : : the kaiakara and hlr;i: . (p 20:). On one side, i-. : g ven w th three exan_: ! on the othcr 5ide, ther: i

].i\
.

I ERIALS
marerials colsisred j: .r {rilmmil L)ook and r dicrionrnr'lbrlav. thcre .:.r',.,.rierl ofprinrcd marcrials course bo,,ks, .:r.r,rki. rerders, progra[lmcd coutscs. collecriotis
a-:-L

_r

:Lrc lri ng

gotrc

hcn

FI

7
<tD

- :- - .. .rnJ nruch morc. These are supplerncltccl bv :::: rr: m.ttL'1i:1ls usilrg olher nteclia, such:rs (iDs, -:- -ii. -:-r.lio r:rpes. sliclcs. tnnspaldrcics, filnsrr iprs, :: :.:.-r.i. ro\\. q:rmes, rnd ptrppers. l_hc aclvcnt of r_:: :.: iaahnolog| introduces l fttrrheI potcr[ialh, . -:..iLL.lr cionrlin of :Lncillrn'equiprncor:rnd e :i :.':a oiDa\\'inrefuction rcchniclucs. lf nrocldll I : -:_ ..,-ngu:lga te:Lchin-q .rn11 leilrail)g, InalcriaLls r .:- ::rl inrPL.Dientxrion is r m;tjor.l]l.]plisc rhe ':. :--:: rh. principles of epplicd linqLListic rheo!r',
: -.::r.:rlli oicli\sr(xtm
-

t i.-.::ril. nlterial. sirlpliliccl litenture, cuc calcls, -:: :i. :r:\\\Lrlpers, m:1gilzincs. losters, picturc cards,

l.

'l
7

',

thesymbo,

roman

each word, a translar.and the equivalent other kana system.

a':
,

2 7' 4t

ihowing how to wrlte:-:

sy-:

,v
,)v7
)v

)v
,,,.rr .r.
r.,t.r, JL:.i:,s

;
Da
r\r drs prn

FR-\UE

L,\D ] \rrl

-.",

,., rrJr

r|-

7tv

pracricr', antl thc re:rliti.-s

of

42

:r-:.rl proclucrion lic une;rsil\-rogcthcr.

li rrr

4., !,.. lt:.

toc -E_r'rrl! '!:TITE

LETE

Rlght: A page from Book 1, Lesson l, of a popLr ar 1910s Germaf course, Deutiche5 Leber. The exerc se dril s questions and answers, and ntroduces the three forms of the def nite article, del, die, and da5.

I.T:ANiQUE
I

Il::
).,
Das jsl die

,"!;fft'd6t"d"
:)iGENIEUR

Li

MANS
ray oi prov dinq practice in present tense sentence pat trns - part of a unit from Sook I of Ihe Canbndge English Caurse (M. Swan & C. Wa ter, 1984).
Be
!

ow:An ngenious

Derte. ll.as jst dls

? D..

,?::;:i

i:::'-,

[.

...-,1'oi illtilrout
NOTES

-Bl
AND
VOCABULARY
Abbrevated words are given in full an their first a.turrenG

tn" ,*"n-"alter
to

universal Holiday Postcard

\r

I lfs ea)

rrrle hol,dal po:rrard!l \4nre

it
10

one now and send

{Ll.11:r't

petiie m6canique liqht enq

neer ng la la

formation tra ning rentabilit6 profltab lty

benef ts (rstaurant,

^ -;, @4 rq"-^"IM a ,rtu4 !G'^d\

i^;

\,,' ,d,1 .! $

c' o^ r!

D v.d..o).e
u

:.,.PTi

SOCIETE

avantages (m)sociaux frin ge

::'-i;oMM"*',ii;*'
AD]OINT
MARKT,TING i$...............i'iliitilffi

LrN *

Curriculum Vitae prtentions (4 sa ary Publicit6 (, advrti, ng transmettra forward

un adjoint assistani

At I r't 30 rd
.6rMArloN

'
r

FOST'AF! I]

O\AFY taoe)

Nlrane) | 'T 11(tawh. city.

;..r F aOMME:;Arr -"crilxcrttmun

orqanisation {t un fichier card index, record

Some authentic written anguage materia s. The mater a are accompan ed by exica g osss {or the less fami ar item5 - one of the iterns in a textbook antho ogy for advanced students of French

Maty

Manchesler

*li,firit'ri#i, &rlt
^\cLAlS

lP[/-J

tirl'

el

.^(?E

dAVENIR

'+','.'i"#'*LlUi* ,;,"ru,il'*#H}ilj;

(D.

E.

Ager 1970)

l:()lil

l(lN L\\(iL

l(ll:

I ll \li\l\(l

\\l)

I l: \(llll\(;

:
:

.ANGUAGE LABORATORY

: :boratory
: ronltored
::rey

:j1 knowntechno og ca aid nFLTi5undoubtedlythe an :an l5ten ndividua

lnto booths, where stu to tape record ngs of FL rnateria , and may re.ord and p ay back iheir own response5, whi e
a roonr, usually divided
y

by a teather '.r these laborator es were first lntroduced, they were hera ded ::. nique th at would vastly mprove the rate and quality of FLL rLr d take the burden of repetitive dri s away from the :' jrrovlde more opportun ties for learners to pract se lstenlng :r:3 king, and ena b le them to develop at their own rates and ' : ihelr own progress Many s.hoo E were quick to inst.ll : .e aboratoryequlpment. Howevctwith n afewyears, it

: apparent that there,Jvou d be no breakthroLrgh The rnprovements d d not emerge, and the popularity ofthe : iJe ab'sho\rd a marked dec ine. : : !rere several rea!ons for the fa urc to live up to expecta ^e taped nrater aLs were often poor y des gned, leadlng to : ' :rr,stration and boredom. The pub ished programmes fa ed : -: thc k nd of work the student was do ng ln.: ass Few mod

::l

:.:_ nstalled. : the !trengths and ni lations ofthe aboratory are better : and the vastly lncreased potent ai of modern e ectron c
r-.
.

-)e And it proved d fflcult to maint;

:!rage5staff hddrecevedtrainlnginrnateralsdeslgnorlabo n the equipment once it

hai led to a certain reviva . There is now conslderab e inter -guage learntng laborarories, which contaln rnuch more thd n . : :ional syttems - ln palt cLrlar, the ntroduct on of intcrdctive : :riicna aids and v deo rraterla s has proved to be extreme y provlde a - .'.'( ear that, when used proper y, aboratories can - :xtra d mension to FLT. For exarnp e, the taped materia can : . !ar ety of a!thent c and we recordcd rnodels for the

A language laboratory thit ri.orporates conputer assisted language lea rn ing (CALL) work statlon5. Mltlocomputers, used as word proces5ors, cornplement the aLrdio far ities, enablirrg ntera.tlveteach ng of wr tten lanquag sk Js Severa kinds of FLT exercise .an be computat ona ly control ed, guch as sentence restTuc_ turlng, ch-.ck ng oftranslation ord.tatlontasks, and clozetest ng Gee be ow) Lrsing text5 disp ayed on the srreen. These days, lncreasing y ingenlous and motlvat ng intera.tiv games are ava ab e, u5ing computationa techniques ln Storyboard, for examp e, !earnerg are q ven a passaqe of b anks;they have to 'buy' words and complete the pas5age beforc th eir supp y o{ money runs out

: rf sten ng comprehension. And aboratoris can be Lrsed as : .-.ntres, or braries, giving earners extra opportun t es to

NL

\\l\

,!

th r chosen leve . rame tlme, the limitat ons of iaborator es must be borne n -: TVa Lrew I a ways depend on the development of appro _:,:.h ng materials whlch reinforce what has been taught in : orov de opportun tles for.reat ve use; and here ther is an ':d for research into the eff cacy of the di{{erent r:_:s which have been d-"vised. Laboratory software, lt seems,

.i

lll.\\(

Ll,r,

r, ,

,:,,,:g

tapc

Atypica sequence of events on a anguagelaboratorytape lnthis l!stration,the is doub track, ena bl nq the forcign mode to be recorded on one track, and the
renten.e, and are q ven a ttirnulus to respond to (A). Theythen record their respor]5e (8), hear the correct versior (C), and have af opportunity to repeat 1(D)
a sample

learner'svoiceontheotherAnexampeofonekindofdrl lsgiven Learnersfirst hear

I
.
ta

:.rayto

go before it.ancompare insophisti.ation withthe

: _eed to test stu

mon y used at the end of

.:_ l.rnance, or enter ' exam na _::'orma resu ts are cr tlaal,

5.hoo terms . Dlaqr05ill: te5t5 d m to

::ciuse theY affect :.r: beca Lrse of the :- :'r ey exercrse on

'
_

.!ide

y apprecl

:':asts performavari

- ons. Four main : ,sual y recognized. ::..ytesir deter : . Tuch ofthe L2 a

:5 mastered, regard - :o!rse of studY fol

nd out urhat a student stil to earn ln a language The results prov de feedback for the teacher, by d/splay ing the learner's strengths and weaknesses. A though they are very different from ach evement tests (e.g they are not a way5 g ven marks or graded), students often
has

fallto

see the dlfference Pragnastic (ot aptitude) terts try to Pred ct how we

I nguist c sk (speak ng, listen ng, read ng, writing) and on any lnquistic compo nent (e g. vocabu arY, Pro' n Lrnciat on, grammar, spelling). Many ways of elic rting informatro]l have been dev ied;such as asking stu dents to make a tra n5 ation, carry out an action, or glve a paraphrase. Ant cipating the effects of a task s not easy, however;a question may be unnecessar ly diff cu t, or an answer may requ re lnfor mat on that has not been

rhat thcr c were no (l J rh ings s hir ics, (l) orhcr: \\i11. thc niqht sirc put her ellcs, rhis rh:u end (3) Lrn(ju rhc Irill.^\'\'e theot to Ptrr (:il m(lrrcv rhere all.rhour it. (C /a4ql,') So shc got ,rnrt Lekc ir r*,n rve (i) qrr(rI rhc mominq. \Il toorhs aL1gone rnd (7) rroner: Derc s:Litl, \\'ell, rhcrcvou (S) r'ousce. You srid rrrrr diclni btli.'r e (9) liiricsrhorvcanvoucxpectthe i 10) io coDre:Lnd see\1)u if... . Oh r1 l)- ldo belielc in liirics {l) lar3l,.). voLr hrorr (I)) reJlvrlo. (L.1ar3lr'1. So l).rve seid. \\i:ll, rrr' (Ll) toniehr.' So dr.rr night, thank soodness, rre (1/i) {(i lrrr.q/:,,J So thc ncxt morninirshe gc.s tup l15l h.ppr 'l)h, th.:v rc been. drc\'\'c bccn...

Annlrr:

Srrsie s:ritl

clozetesting
l5

a pereon

lsu.ceed

if

taught.

: r.:r Test of Eng ish : rir Lang uage. : :rnn t te5t5 deter: . TLrrh of a particu
:

earning an 12. These tests fo.us on specific k inds of act v ty (e.9. sound mita tion, pattern metch ng), and provide data about nd vid

sthere{ore a l\,\'ays ook crit callY at test procedures, and to a m for improvemcnt5 in te!t
ne.ssarY

to

n thi5 kind of language test, every nth word a pa5sage (the gaps are usua ly betwen five and seven word5 apart), and the student has to complete (or

omltted from

deslgn,

se

ection, and

adminlstration.

:r

- cf 5tudy has been

These are corn

ua difficu tles.
Testing can focus on any

'close )the gap5 Thisformof tesring iswdelyu5ed:ltisqood at estab ishing whether a student has a 'fee ' for the lan guage, and fortesting awareness of po nts of deta L severa types of cloze test exlst; for example, etudents can be glven the omltted words be ow the passage, or they.an be glven an init a letter a5 a cLLre ln the examp e above, taken from a workbook on conversat onal Engl sh, there are no c ues:the

the informalsty

studentmustf I inanyappropriateword, bearinq n mind e of the passage (K Morrow1978,p 49.)