Preferred Citation: Bierman, Irene A. Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text.

Berkeley: University of California Press, c1998 1998. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft1%1$$&'#

Writing Signs
The Fatimid Public Text Irene A. Bierman
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

Berkeley Los Angeles London

199 T!e Regents "# t!e Uni$ersit% "# Ca&i#"rnia

(o the critical iss)es in Islamic Art *istory that +le" ,ra!ar forced )s all to faceand to the man himself

Preferred Citation: Bierman, Irene A. Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1998 1998. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft1%1$$&'#

(o the critical iss)es in Islamic Art *istory that +le" ,ra!ar forced )s all to faceand to the man himself

Pre#a'e
+ne vis)al si"n fo)nd in contemporary m)lti.c)lt)ral cities is the p)!lic presence of different alpha!ets. /i"ns %ritten in different alpha!ets appear on !)ildin"s lar"e and small, on store fronts, on !ill!oards flankin" the road, on !)sses passin" thro)"h the streets. In 0os An"eles, alon" parts of 1ilshire Bo)levard, si"ns %ritten in Persian, 2orean, ,reek, *e!re%, /panish, and 3n"lish differentiate places, markin" 4ones. (hese %ritten si"ns in p)!lic places indicate the presence of a comm)nity. (hey are em!edded in a %hole ran"e of socially constr)cted instit)tions and practices. (he f)ll potency of %hat these %ritin" si"ns convey depends on the social position from %hich yo) vie% them. 5or some vie%ers, these si"ns %ith 6stran"e7 alpha!ets stren"then differences. (hey tell them %hat they are not, alienatin" them from information, and preventin" them from participatin" in the social

net%orks the %ritin" si"nifies. 5or other, literate vie%ers, the si"ns s)pport cohesion: a "ro)p identity that has as its inde8 a %ritten si"n in the p)!lic space. 9eco"ni4in" the alpha!et is, ho%ever, only the !e"innin" of )nderstandin" ho% %ritin" si"ns convey their meanin". Alpha!et and lan")a"e have a comple8 relationship %hich is socially defined in time and place. (oday in 0os An"eles, si"ns in 0atin letters can !e in 3n"lish or in /panish lan")a"es. (he Ara!ic alpha!et, in %hich Persian is %ritten, so commonly seen on the 1estside of the city, is testimony to the lar"e Iranian comm)nity in the city, yet many of the si"ns are act)ally in 3n"lish. 6Corner market,7 6*olly%ood caf:,7 6;ideo store7 are the messa"es the Ara!ic letters convey. Addressed to an a)dience %ho can read that alpha!et, the )se of 3n"lish %ords s)""ests the social inte"ration of the comm)nity. Beyond <)estions of alpha!et and lan")a"e, the display of %ritin" si"ns in different alpha!ets in the p)!lic space si"nals for all mem!ers of the society social practices %hich ena!le the p)!lic space to !e the site for s)ch a display of difference. As nat)ral as %ritin" in the p)!lic space may seem, many societies of the eastern =editerranean over many cent)ries in the =iddle A"es did not )se %ritin" in the p)!lic space in si"nificant %ays, !)t, rather, )sed it inside comm)nal spaces. Indeed, at many times, in different places, even in 0os An"eles, %hen %ritin" did appear in the p)!lic space, it %as only the dominant alpha!et and lan")a"e. (he role of %ritin" si"ns in the vis)al c)lt)re of societies is of primary interest to me. *o% do s)ch si"ns mean>-is the <)estion I mean to p)rs)e. 5or my st)dy, I have chosen the places in %hich they appeared, the times in %hich they %ere seen, and the people %ho %rote them and the people %ho sa% them, the %hole conte8t)al frame%ork. (he si"ns %hose meanin" I p)rs)e appeared on the o)tside, on the inside, on %alls, and on floors of !)ildin"s. (hey %ere p)t there !y people %ith po%er. (hey %ere intended to !e seen, some !y everyone %ho passed, some !y limited "ro)ps %ho so)"ht o)t the place, to meet there. I am %ritin" a!o)t the special achievement of the 5atimids 9'9?11@1 C.3., !eca)se they e8panded the )se of %ritin" addressed to "ro)p a)diences, %hat I call %ritin" si"ns, and left a lastin" le"acy of %ritin" in the p)!lic spaces in Cairo. +ther r)lers in Cairo follo%ed their practice, and today their medieval %ritin" si"ns are displayed alon"side contemporary, less permanent ones, in the p)!lic space. Part of my p)rpose is to clarify ho% %ritin" in Ara!ic s)cceeded in that society !y !ein" ca)"ht )p in the social relationships of po%er and e<)ality. 0et me emphasi4e that in Writing Signs, %ritin" is )sed as a ne)tral descriptor: it indicates the presence of script, or more technically, any %ritten markin"s com!ined accordin" to a partic)lar set of lin")istic conventions. 61ritin"7 carries no A)d"ment a!o)t "rammatical or ortho"raphical correctness, or the manner of prod)ction Bincised, carved, dra%n %ith a penC or the medi)m Bpaper, st)cco, mosaic, or ceramicC, nor is any comment intended on the <)ality of the letters or the style of the %ritin". Writing Signs is not a st)dy of Ara!ic 6calli"raphy.7 Calli"raphy is a normative term. It involves a specific !ody of techni<)es for letter formation and script prod)ction. 1ritin" that can !e called calli"raphy is hand.e8ec)ted. /)ch 6!ea)tif)l %ritin"7 re<)ires for the %ritin" of Ara!ic specially slanted pen points. /ome %ritin" addressed to "ro)p a)diences in the eastern =editerranean in the cent)ries st)died here did have calli"raphic <)alities, !)t that fact is not the iss)e directly addressed in this st)dy. Dor is Writing Signs a paleo"raphic or epi"raphic st)dy in the conventional sense. Both terms refer to the science of decipherment and stylistic eval)ation of inscriptions. 1hile, of co)rse, the semantic meanin" of %ritin" as %ell as its style is relevant here, this st)dy foc)ses on ho% %ritin" made its meanin" to its "ro)p a)dience, and for this p)rpose semantic meanin" and style are only part of lar"er considerations. In contrast to formal !ook.hand terms )s)al in the st)dies of calli"raphy and epi"raphy, the key terms in this st)dy of %ritin" are 6officially sponsored %ritin",7 6"ro)p a)dience or !eholders,7 and

6sectarian7 and 6p)!lic spaces.7 (hese terms serve to hi"hli"ht the specific conte8ts in %hich those in a)thority %ithin "ro)ps addressed messa"es in %ritin" to a "ro)p a)dience, and ho% those %ritin"s conveyed their meanin". (hese terms help to discover the pro!a!le meanin"s the 5atimid r)lers intended %hen they made their %ritten messa"es hi"hly visi!le-perhaps even permanent-!y em!odyin" them in %ritin" on the e8terior of !)ildin"s, in p)!lic spaces, and th)s made them into %hat I call 5atimid p)!lic te8ts. Writing Signs addresses the follo%in" <)estions: 1hat did a 5atimid p)!lic te8t mean> (o %hom> And ho% did it !rin" its meanin" to those a)diences> (his foc)s shifts the emphasis from the seemin" )ni<)eness of =)slim practice as a %hole to an e8ploration of the social circ)mstances that partic)lari4ed those )ses of %ritin" and the messa"es it conveyed. It !e"ins %ith an analysis of the %ritin" practices of vario)s "ro)ps in the eastern =editerranean, ar")in" for the e<)ivalent )ses of %ritin" amon" sectarian and r)lin" "ro)ps from the si8th to the tenth cent)ries. (hese t%o cate"ories, sectarian and r)lin", %ere separate yet overlappin", since %hile some =)slim and Christian "ro)ps did r)le d)rin" this period, others %ere amon" the r)led. In a chronolo"ical sense these practices are pre. 5atimid, !)t in a s)!stantive sense the e<)ivalencies in practice m)st !e )nderstood as a si"nificant classification %hose distin")ishin" marker is that they %ere comm)nal practices. (his st)dy then proceeds to a detailed, t%o.part analysis of the chan"es in the prevailin" %ritin" practices instit)ted !y the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p. Chapter #, (he 5atimid P)!lic (e8t and the /i"n of IsmaEilism, coverin" the period 9F#?1$@#, details the chan"es in the )ses of %ritin" from the rei"n of the ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 to the appointment of wazr Badr al.HamGlI. Chapter &, (he 5atimid P)!lic (e8t in a Chan"in" Political Climate, 1$@#?11@1, investi"ates the perpet)ation of the older aspects of the p)!lic te8t, and the ne% chan"es in the p)!lic te8ts. (he disc)ssions in !oth these chapters attempt to sho% ho% 5atimid %ritin" practices interacted in the social net%orks in the capital of Cairo, playin" a vis)ally si"nificant role in the spatial hierarchies %ithin the city. Indeed, as this st)dy %ill ar")e, some aspects of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t %ere especially effective precisely !eca)se they addressed the %hole =)slim pop)lation, sometimes creatin" distances, at times !rid"in" differences, and at other times, helpin" to s)pport ne% alliances %ithin a pop)lation %hose composition chan"ed over the t%o h)ndred years of 5atimid r)le, as did the nat)re of the r)lin" "ro)p. In the later 5atimid period, other ne%ly introd)ced elements of the p)!lic te8t addressed the entire )r!an pop)lation-He%s, Christians, and =)slims. 5or the p)rposes of this analysis, I have created a theoretical frame%ork that ena!les )s to )nderstand %ritin" addressed to a p)!lic a)dience as !ein" f)ll of meanin", conveyed in specific conte8t)al %ays -aesthetically, territorially, and referentially. (his is a tool to analy4e the ran"e of meanin"s %ritin" conveyed sim)ltaneo)sly to the people %ho interacted %ith their !)ilt environment and %ho participated in varyin" de"rees in the socio.economic, political, and reli"io)s circ)mstances of the time. Chapter 1, Initial Considerations, consists of a !rief methodolo"ical and terminolo"ical disc)ssion critical to e8plainin" ho% the data %ere or"ani4ed. (he chapter e8plores the three primary f)nctions of s)ch %ritten si"ns reflectin" my conviction that form alone is not the only aspect thro)"h %hich %ritten components of the vis)al environment related. +f co)rse, it is tr)e that form and content in art are not separate entities %ith their o%n histories and traAectories. B)t my analysis sho%s ho% the form of %ritin" had vario)s levels and dimensions of semantic denotation and connotation, A)st as the referential and territorial dimensions are sho%n to have comple8 yet specifia!le and doc)menta!le manifestations. 5inally, )nder this same r)!ric are fo)nd <)estions related to the corp)s of materials and <)estions of definin" criteria for the canon of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t. In<)iries into the f)nctions of officially sponsored %ritin" in medieval societies in the eastern =editerranean are still relatively fe% in n)m!er. (he %ritin"s of 3rica Jodd, 9ichard 3ttin"ha)sen,

+le" ,ra!ar, Cristel 2essler, /tanley =orison, and Hanine /o)rdel.(homine have helped li"ht this not %ell.traveled road. I see myself %alkin" in the same direction, in my o%n %ay. (he s)ccessf)l completion of this st)dy reflects in part !oth the financial s)pport from several instit)tions and the %illin"ness of many collea")es in many places to disc)ss iss)es and share ideas. 5irst I %ish to thank that )ni<)e instit)tion, (he Center for Advanced /t)dy in the ;is)al Arts, and Jean *enry =illon and former Associate Jean =arianna /hreve /impson, for allo%in" me to participate in that stim)latin" and challen"in" atmosphere. (here I e8plored some of the %ays in %hich %ritin" made its meanin". /everal collea")es there, especially Peter Br)nette, Jonald Pre4iosi, and Bar!ara /tafford offered their insi"hts into vario)s theoretical iss)es relevant here. +le" ,ra!ar and Irvin" 0avin offered m)ch.deserved and needed criticisms and inval)a!le pointers. (hey helped me find %ays to !)ild )pon my )nderstandin" of 5atimid society laid do%n earlier in my st)dies %ith 1ilfred =adel)n". A 5)l!ri"ht Civili4ation "rant, t%o s)mmer "rants from the American 9esearch Center in 3"ypt, as %ell as s)pport from the UC0A Art Co)ncil, the Academic /enate, and the ,)stav 3. von ,r)ne!a)m Center for Dear 3astern /t)dies ena!led me to travel the len"th and !readth of the eastern =editerranean to see !oth the specific sites disc)ssed here and, !eyond them, those %hich formed the corp)s from %hich the implications are dra%n. (his travel %as partic)larly critical for this st)dy !eca)se many sites have not !een p)!lished, or p)!lished only minimally, and sometimes p)!lished in piecemeal fashion. (ravel ena!led me not only to see ne% sites !)t to reassem!le old ones so that %ritten si"ns %ere reinserted into their vis)al conte8t. (he opport)nity to investi"ate this s)!Aect also depended on access to materials in m)se)ms and in other collections. Amon" those %ho opened instit)tional doors as %ell as %indo%s of )nderstandin", I %ish to thank and ackno%led"e the help provided !y 3sin Atil, Urs)la Jrei!hol4, =arilyn Henkins, 0o)ise =ackie, 3d%ard =eader, A!d al.9ao)f Ko)ssef, DaEmat AlI A!L Bakr, and the late 0arry /almon. =y collea")es at UC0A and else%here have provided critical hearin" over the last fe% years. I %ant to thank especially Jonald Pre4iosi, Here Bacharach, and =ichael =oronyM and also Ismail Poona%ala, Jonald =cCall)m, Cecelia 2lein, Koshiaki /himi4), Hames 5lana"an, /amy /havit, Haroslav /tetkevych, Pa)la /anders, =ay (rad, Dasser 9a!!at, and 9ifaEat A!o).3l.*aA. 5or s)""estions for the final revisions of this man)script, I o%e thanks to /hreve /impson, Javid 2)n4le, /)san Jo%ney, and to n)mero)s st)dents %ho have read sections as assi"ned readin"s for medieval Islamic art history, several of %hom sho)ld !e mentioned: Beh4ad Allahyar, /hokrallah ,hoochani, /)san /ims, Patricia 2a!ra, *e"hnar Neitlian, and A!ier Niadeh. (hanks are d)e also to the vario)s revie%ers of this man)script, often nameless to me, %ho helped me sharpen my tho)"hts, and to H)dah Bierman %ho reminded me to thread my tho)"hts and think my sentences. 0ynne 1ithey of the University of California Press is d)e special thanks for her contin)in" s)pport. (hanks also to ,race 1a8 and /andy de ,riAs %ho helped in vario)s sta"es %ith typin" this man)script. And, finally, I %ish to thank in partic)lar Dasser 9a!!at for the line dra%in"s of the al. *OGkim minarets and !astion, Dairy *ampikian for the other line dra%in"s, and Carel Bertram for the many maps that help )s %alk thro)"h Cairo. *elp-even in the form of critical hearin"-does not imply responsi!ility. All of those %ho in one %ay or another have helped me to %alk my path and to avoid minefields are not responsi!le for those on %hich I stepped. (his last version of the man)script %as %ritten at UC0A, on the Pacific shore, %here I often took heart from a %onderf)lly told tale that offered enco)ra"ement !eca)se it contained these poi"nant %ords: 61e are acc)stomed to !elieve that o)r %orld %as created !y ,od speakin" the 1ordM !)t I ask, may it not !e that he wrote it, %rote a %ord so lon" %e have yet to come to the end of it> =ay

it not !e that ,od contin)ally %rites the %orld, the %orld and all that is in it>7 BH. =. Coet4ee, Foe, emphasis added.C

1. Initia& C"nsi(erati"ns
6P)!lic te8t7 names the 5atimid practice of %ritin" si"ns in Ara!ic.P1Q It %as, I shall ar")e, a socially and politically intensified )se of %ritin" in contrast to the practices of other societies in the eastern =editerranean. In fact, the 5atimids made %ritin" a si"nificant p)!lic art. (his st)dy of the art of the p)!lic te8t e8plores ho% the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p e8tended the )se of %ritin" in their capital of Cairo B9'9?11@1 C.3. A.*. #8'?F'@C to s)pport their political and he"emonic interests. It demonstrates ho% that e8tended ran"e of %ritin" si"ns !ecame a vis)al le"acy contin)ally reiterated !y r)lin" "ro)ps %ithin a restricted area of Cairo. 5or the 5atimids, every %ritten si"n in the p)!lic space %as a p)!lic te8t: an officially sponsored %ritin" addressed to a p)!lic a)dience %hich contin)o)sly reminded the vie%ers of the official 5atimid position. (he phrase 65atimid practice7 also encompasses the ne% %ays in %hich 5atimid patrons )sed %ritin" as a vis)ally si"nificant si"n on the interiors of the sectarian !)ildin"s they sponsored. 5or a period of almost t%o h)ndred years in Cairo, %ritin" si"ns %as a 5atimid "est)re: 5atimid po%er, 5atimid comm)nity, 5atimid territory. Beca)se the time in %hich the p)!lic te8t flo)rished and the places %here it %as displayed %ere relatively limited, and !eca)se the !)ildin"s on %hich the %ritin"s %ere displayed and the cloths into %hich the messa"es %ere %oven have not s)rvived as %ell as one co)ld %ish, the idea of the p)!lic te8t may seem too %ell ar")ed from too narro% a !ase. I think not. B)t the limitations make desira!le some initial considerations of terms and ideas that create a concept)al frame%ork ena!lin" one to see and appreciate the po%er and )ni<)eness of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t. 5irst amon" these is the idea of space, p)!lic and sectarian spaces, and of %hat %as incl)ded and %hat %as reAected from the %ritin"s e8tant or kno%n to have e8isted in each space. (his st)dy looks closely at the messa"es displayed in each to see if and ho% they chan"ed over time. De8t, after considerin" the corp)s of these %ritin"s and )nderstandin" the nat)re of the spaces in %hich they %ere displayed, %e need to consider the o!Aects and materials on %hich the %ritin" %as presented. (hird, %e come to the central idea of this interpretation-ho% these %ritin"s made their meanin"s. (hese %ritin"s consisted primarily of R)rSnic <)otations, sec)lar sal)tations, names and titles of sponsors, and similar simple and familiar short passa"es. 1hat is important is the paradi"m )sed to e8plore the possi!le meanin"s these "ro)p.addressed %ritin"s conveyed to the o!servers. 5inally, as part of the disc)ssion of meanin", I e8plore !riefly the idea of 6conte8t)al literacy,7 important to )nderstandin" ho% the 5atimids %ere a!le to address the diverse pop)lations of Cairo %ith their systematic displays of %ritin" in Ara!ic. (hese initial considerations make possi!le the close analysis of %ritin" in Ara!ic and other lan")a"es in the eastern =editerranean of %hich the 5atimid p)!lic te8t is the special foc)s. In the eastern =editerranean for millennia !efore the 5atimids came to Cairo in 9'9, %ritin" %as )sed for a variety of p)rposes.PTQ 3m!edded in specific social instit)tions, %ritin" %as sponsored !y vario)s "ro)ps. 0ists, ta!les, and !)siness records helped commerce thrive. Dotation systems stored mathematical and scientific kno%led"e. 3ssay.te8ts %ere developed to record philosophy, history, and myth. And 9oman a)thorities p)t %ritin" on the enta!lat)res of the central !)ildin"s of the fora, and displayed letters on !anners and standards in military processions.P#Q (hat the 5atimids )sed %ritin" in the e8tensive net%orks of their social or"ani4ation %as clearly not of itself a ne% practice in the eastern =editerranean.

B)t to the eyes of Cairene !eholders, the %ritin" on the e8terior of the minarets of the mos<)e of al. *OGkim in the year 1$$T #9# Bfi". 1C presented a si"nificant depart)re in the conventional )ses of %ritin" !eca)se it %as )sed to address a "ro)p a)dience in p)!lic space. 1ritin" in Ara!ic %as displayed on this str)ct)re in a hi"hly visi!le format and on stone and mar!le, permanent and e8pensive materials, in contrast to the limited )ses of %ritin" in p)!lic space !y previo)s and contemporary =)slim and Christian r)lers in the eastern =editerranean for some fo)r h)ndred years and, in fact, even %ith the earlier 5atimid practice itself.P&Q ,enerally speakin", !efore the chan"e si"naled !y the %ritin" si"ns on the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, those in a)thority displayed %ritin" in p)!lic spaces only in limited fashion, placin" them at )r!an thresholds and on lintels over the entrances of some maAor !)ildin"s. (hose %ho passed the e8terior of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim in 1$$T #9# %itnessed some of the si"nificant first steps taken !y the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p to )se %ritten si"ns actively to define )r!an spaces and to convey meanin" to p)!lic a)diences in the 5atimid capital area of 3"ypt.

5i". 1. Dorthern minaret, mos<)e of al.*OGkim In addition to this display of %ritin" in the p)!lic space, =)slim !eholders, especially those %ho %ere part of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p, %itnessed another chan"e in the )se of %ritin"-one that occ)rred inside the same mos<)e, an IsmGEIlI =)slim sectarian str)ct)re. (hose %ho entered the mos<)e of al. *OGkim sa% displayed on its interior %ritin" lar"er in scale than that in other mos<)es in the capital area Bfi". TC. B)t si4e %as not the sole factor that si"naled the chan"e in the )se of %ritin". (he format, or the manner of display, set it apart from %ritin" on the interior of earlier str)ct)res. In the interior of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, %ritin" relatively lar"e in scale for the practices of the time and place framed the architect)ral feat)res almost )nenc)m!ered !y other desi"n elements, %hereas in the interior of the earlier 5atimid mos<)e in Cairo, al.A4har, %ritin" small in scale framed depictions of plants and trees Bfi". #C. In addition, the %ritin" in the interior of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim differed from the display of %ritin" in the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn, the lar"e con"re"ational mos<)e !)ilt in the ninth third cent)ry in al.RatOGSiE,, so)th of the 5atimid royal city. (here, %ritin" had !een )sed in a limited %ay in the mihra! area of the sanct)ary, !)t not to fill the ornamental !order r)nnin" aro)nd the architect)ral feat)res of the mos<)e Bfi". &C.

/anct)ary, mos<)e of al.*OGkim Interior, sanct)ary, al.A4har mos<)e +ri"inal mihra!, mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn (he choice of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim as the site for a manifestation of this shift in the )ses of %ritin" related in very direct %ays to the str)ct)re itself and to the political and he"emonic feat)res of 5atimid society of the time. (hese specific relationships are taken )p in chapter #. B)t %hat is relevant here is an )nderstandin" that %ritin" o)tside and %ritin" inside the mos<)e addressed different, and overlappin", a)diences. (he kind of "ro)p that co)ld !e addressed in a p)!lic space !y the %ritin" on the e8terior of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, or in the p)!lic processions the 5atimids sponsored, %as critically different from the "ro)p addressed inside the sectarian space, the IsmGEIlI mos<)e. In this st)dy, the t%o adAectives 6p)!lic7 and 6sectarian7 are )sed to denote spaces of contrastin" accessi!ility.

P)!lic space, as distinct from sectarian space, is %here anyone-or everyone-co)ld pass. (hat is, p)!lic space is accessi!le to the %hole mem!ership of the society, r)lin" and r)led, traders, servants, forei"ners, =)slims, He%s, Christians, men, and %omen. (h)s the act of p)ttin" %ritin" in Ara!ic, in several places at pedestrian level, and in lar"e scale letters on the minarets of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, itself located o)tside the royal city of Cairo, made that %ritin" vie%a!le !y all %ho passed that p)!lic space. (hat %ritin" %as Band isC in that sense a p)!lic te8t. 0ike%ise, the %ritin" in Ara!ic displayed on the clothin" of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p, and on the trappin"s of their horses d)rin" official processions, %as intended to impress those %ho %atched the ceremonies from the p)!lic space, that is, mainly those from the )r!an comple8 of Cairo.=isOr %ho %atched alon" the ro)te of the parade. +ne s)ch spectator, DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, visitin" Cairo in 1$&@ &#9, d)rin" the rei"n of the ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir, has left )s a clear acco)nt of one of those processions. *e fo)nd the )se of %ritin" on te8tiles and clothin" remarka!le, descri!in" %ith care the corte"e of ten tho)sand horses %hose saddlecloths had the name of the r)ler %oven into their !orders. PFQ /)ch systematic display of %ritin" in p)!lic space seems not to have !een paralleled in other =)slim or Christian practice.P'Q /ectarian space, !y contrast, is "ro)p.specific space. It is a space %here people of similar !eliefs "athered in an official comm)nal manner. In the societies covered !y this st)dy, sectarian space %as mainly space for the "atherin" of mem!ers of reli"io)s "ro)ps: mos<)es, ch)rches of vario)s denominations, syna"o")es, and shrines.P@Q (hese are the spaces %here the main rit)al ceremonies cementin" comm)nal life %ere enacted for the mem!ers of the "ro)p. /ectarian space %as fre<)ented only !y mem!ers of that "ro)p, and, characteristically, one did not enter anotherSs sectarian space, %hether or not %ritten r)les "overnin" s)ch access e8isted. 1e kno%, for e8ample, that the mos<)e of al.A4har, %ithin the royal city of Cairo, %as a space intended for IsmGEIlI prayer, sermons, and o!servances. Don.IsmGEIlI =)slims %o)ld not )s)ally have fre<)ented this space for prayer !eca)se many practices, !e"innin" %ith the specific manner of %ashin" !efore prayer, varied from their o%n o!servances. Clearly, that mos<)e %as not only a =)slim sectarian space, !)t in the time of the 5atimids, a specifically IsmGEIlI =)slim sectarian space. Before the chan"es initiated !y the 5atimids most officially sponsored %ritin" addressed to a "ro)p a)dience %as placed inside sectarian spaces. =oreover, even %ithin that space, %ritin" %as s)!ordinate in vis)al importance to other si"ns of po%er displayed there. In Christian ch)rches of all rites Be."., ,reek +rthodo8, Armenian, etc.C and in mos<)es and shrines Be."., the ,reat =os<)e of Jamasc)s, al. A4har, and the Jome of the 9ockC, %ritin" framed depictions of landscapes, !i!lical fi")res or folia"e, and, in "eneral, %as s)!ordinate in vis)al importance %ithin the interior settin". 5atimid practice, !e"innin" %ith the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, shifted the role of %ritin" on the interior of =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res. By a dramatic )se of %ritin", that is, !y makin" %ritin" on the interior %alls of that mos<)e lar"er in scale than any previo)s %ritin" similarly positioned, and !y red)cin" the n)m!er of competin" si"ns of po%er, the 5atimids !e"an to make the =)slim sectarian spaces they patroni4ed vis)ally dissimilar from other sectarian spaces, Christian, He%ish, and =)slim. (hese chan"es in the role of %ritin" %ere apparent primarily to the =)slim mem!ers of the society %ho fre<)ented that sectarian space. In the sectarian spaces of the Christians and He%s in 5atimid society, %ritin" practices seem to have remained traditional. (he 5atimid p)!lic te8t %as a si"nificant chan"e from the traditional )ses of officially sponsored %ritin", remarka!le in its o%n time. I need, ho%ever, to clarify-even to circ)mscri!e-the e8tent of the vis)al impact of those practices that constit)ted the p)!lic te8t %ithin the !)ilt environment as a %hole. (he phenomenon of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t %as "eo"raphically specific. It %as a pra8is o!serva!le only in the 5atimid 3"yptian capital, a desi"nation %hich in this st)dy encompasses the area of the royal enclos)re of Cairo Bal-QhiraC and the s)rro)ndin" )r!an areas of =isOr, a term )sed in the

medieval te8ts to denote the )r!an areas so)th of Cairo Bmap 1C. Ket even %ithin this capital area, the p)!lic te8t did not f)nction e<)ally in all of the )r!an areas or at all times for all of the inha!itants. 9ather, as the analysis of 5atimid practice %ill sho%, the p)!lic te8t %as a dynamic phenomenon %ithin the city.

=ap 1. ,reater Cairo in the 5atimid period Bdra%n !y Carel BertramC /patially, it involved chan"in" relationships !et%een vario)s )r!an areas, distin")ishin", for e8ample, practices in Cairo from those in =isOr. 1hile all of the str)ct)res displayin" this ne% )se of %ritin" %ere linked !y the patrona"e of mem!ers of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p, their location and f)nction varied, as did the presence of %ritin" in specific areas on them. /imilarly, the display or %earin" of inscri!ed fa!ric in official ceremonial occasions %as also limited to specific ro)tes and str)ct)res, namely, those ro)tes over %hich the 5atimid processions traveled. (h)s only these areas %ere involved in displayin" the p)!lic te8t on te8tiles. /ocio.politically, the p)!lic te8t %as also a dynamic phenomenon in terms of "ro)p relationships and persons patroni4in" str)ct)res %ith %ritin" on them and %earin" inscri!ed "arments. 1earin" clothin" %ith %ritin" on it in p)!lic processions, displayin" inscri!ed te8tiles, and patroni4in" =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res %ith si"nificant displays of %ritin" defined, and %as limited to, the mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p. (he r)lin" "ro)p incl)ded the Caliph, his family, the wazr, vario)s di"nitaries and heads of !)rea)s, poets and %riters of the co)rt, and the army. Importantly, ho%ever, the composition of the r)lin" "ro)p chan"ed s)!stantially over time, as did the position of the individ)als e8ercisin" po%er %ithin it. 3ven the reli"io)s affiliations of mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p over the period of 5atimid r)le chan"ed, and to%ard the end of their r)le in the t%elfth cent)ry came to parallel more closely that of the pop)lation as a %hole. Ket, the r)ler.vers)s.r)led distinction remained sta!le and primary despite the fl)id and varia!le inner dynamics of the r)lin" "ro)p. /ocially, the a)diences for the vario)s aspects of the p)!lic te8t also chan"ed over time. 1hile it %as al%ays tr)e %ithin the lar"e )r!an settin" of Cairo.=isOr that the a)dience %as mi8ed-different economic levels, different reli"io)s affiliations-the disc)ssions in chapters # and & %ill make clear that in the initial periods of 5atimid r)le some parts of the p)!lic te8t %ere aimed at =)slim a)diences, e8cl)din" Christians. In contrast, in the later part of 5atimid r)le, some e<)ivalently placed te8ts in the p)!lic space addressed all mem!ers of the pop)lation, %hile others, namely, those in 5atimid sponsored sectarian spaces, addressed all =)slims. *o% s)ch %ritin" related to the official sponsor o!vio)sly %as e<)ally dynamic. (he ast)te !eholder then, as today, co)ld reco"ni4e that %ritin" as a si"n of po%er related to po%er in vario)sly inflected %ays. It e8plicated and dissim)lated. (he official sponsorship of %ritin" at times indicated po%er %here po%er e8isted. 3<)ally clearly, the display of official %ritin" co)ld "ive the ill)sion of po%er to its sponsor %here effective po%er no lon"er e8isted, or no lon"er e8isted in the same %ay. (hese aspects of %ritin" %ill !ecome clearer %ith the disc)ssion of the later 5atimid practice %hich, altho)"h displayin" the CaliphSs name, inde8ed not his po%er, !)t that of his wazr. (o t)rn then to its media, the 5atimid p)!lic te8t %as displayed mainly on !)ildin"s and on cloth. 1e face strikin"ly different pro!lems in tryin" to reconstr)ct and st)dy the p)!lic te8t on each of these. (he pro!lems imposed !y the te8tile fra"ments are some%hat less familiar, and so the sit)ation in %hich %e find them %arrants a more e8tensive e8planation, and %ill !e treated second. +nly a limited n)m!er of !)ildin"s !)ilt !efore 9'9 #F8 in =isOr are e8tant, and only a limited n)m!er

of the !)ildin"s s)!se<)ently sponsored !y the 5atimids themselves are e8tant. In addition, the medieval %ritten so)rces are not detailed eno)"h to add si"nificantly to o)r kno%led"e of the corp)s of e8tant str)ct)res. Pro!lems e8ist, for instance, in tryin" to reconstr)ct them in detail, especially s)fficient detail for this st)dy.P8Q (hese are not ne% pro!lems and my reliance on later medieval, fifteenth cent)ry, so)rces, like al.=a<rI4I, to reconstr)ct aspects of the 5atimid.!)ilt environment follo%s familiar traditions. Al.=a<rI4I %as one of the fe% medieval %riters %ho talked a lot a!o)t !)ildin"s. B)t even he did not comment in s)fficient detail to help )s "reatly. ,iven these limitations, my reference to the 5atimid.!)ilt environment is !ased on the e8tant !)ildin"s of the 5atimid period %ithin the area of Cairo.=isOr: those in Cairo, those o)tside it in the vicinity of the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn, and those in the s)rro)ndin"s of the =)<atOtOam hills, pl)s the te8t)al references %here appropriate. (hese !)ildin"s are important to )s not simply !eca)se they are e8tant !)t !eca)se several of them fi")re in the official acts of the "overnment %hich %ere aimed at a "ro)p a)dience. +thers of the e8tant str)ct)res %ere passed Bor nearly passedC in the procession. =any of the 6missin"7 !)ildin"s %ere not focal points for official acts !)t, rather, %ere connectin" links in the spatio.temporally e8tended rit)als and ceremonies. 1hat is a si"nificant omission from the visi!le archaeolo"ical !)ildin" record, and one not f)lly satisfied !y mentions in the medieval chronicles, are the 5atimid 1estern and 3astern Palaces inside Cairo.P9Q *o% or %hether their facades differed vis)ally from the nei"h!orin" mos<)es is somethin" %e simply do not kno% and cannot presently reconstr)ct. +n the other hand, cloth %ith %ritin" on it remains from the 5atimid period in "reat <)antities. (he te8tile fra"ments %ith %ritin" on them s)rvivin" from the 5atimid period n)m!er in the tho)sands. =ost maAor m)se)ms thro)"ho)t the %orld have some 5atimid cloth, )s)ally la!eled tirz.P1$Q In spite of these e8tensive material remains, ho% %hat has s)rvived f)nctioned in 5atimid society is almost impossi!le to reconstr)ct.P11Q 1e are hampered !y a clear lack of correspondence !et%een %hat %e read in the medieval so)rces and %hat %e see of the archaeolo"ical fra"ments. 1e are also hampered !y the historical conditions of te8tile archaeolo"y and the demands of the modern market place. (hese are factors serio)sly limitin" the reconstr)ction of the many %ays in %hich te8tiles %ith %ritin" on them %ere made meanin"f)l in 5atimid society, and the pro!lem is serio)s eno)"h to merit a more e8tended disc)ssion here. 38cept for one instance of a correspondence !et%een an archaeolo"ical fra"ment and a te8tile )se description in a medieval te8t,P1TQ inscri!ed cloth descri!ed as cost)mes for official processions, or han"in"s associated %ith them, cannot !e identified amon" c)rrent archaeolo"ical te8tiles. 5or instance, amon" the h)ndreds of fra"ments I have e8amined in many collections, in many co)ntries, not one displays a contin)o)s <)otation from the R)rSGn like that descri!ed !y I!n al.(O)%ayr as flankin" the mihra! in the mos<)e of al.*OGkim d)rin" the 9amadan procession.P1#Q (he l)8)rio)s silks mentioned in descri!in" the attire of the ImGm.Caliph have yet to appear-or if they have !een d)" )p, they have not !een identified. Dot a fra"ment of the famo)s te8tile %orld map recorded !y al. =a<rI4I in his acco)nt of the dispersal of ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOirSs treas)ries B1$'1?'9 &F#?'TC has !een revealed. Accordin" to him, this te8tile.map displayed all locations and %as fa!ricated in "old, silver, and colored silks, displayin" at the lo%er end the name of the ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 and the date #F& B9'& C.3.C.P1&Q +f co)rse, some l)8)rio)s te8tiles have !een fo)nd. (hey e8ist in the ch)rch treas)ries and reli<)aries in some m)se)m holdin"s in 3)rope.P1FQ B)t e8cept for certain individ)al te8tiles like the 6veil of /t. Anne,7 P1'Q %hich is a complete loom len"th and %hich has !een )sed in at least one manner %e can identify, as a reli<)ary %rappin", the )se of most of the other te8tiles represented no% !y their fra"ments is )nclear. 3ven their final )se is )nclear, and that is in part the fa)lt of the lo% esteem in %hich archaeolo"y has held te8tiles )ntil recently. Archaeolo"ical e8cavations have provided te8tiles

primarily from !)rials and from ref)se heaps. B)t the doc)mentation of s)ch te8tile findin"s in "eneral has !een poorly recorded.P1@Q 3ven in vol)mes like 2endrickSs atalogue o! the Textiles !rom the "ur#ing-$rounds in %g#&t, %here the title s)""ests a final )se for the te8tiles, %e are not told %hether the te8tiles %ere fo)nd on skeletons B%hose a"e at !)rial or se8 also "o )nmentionedC or in the "rave %ith, not on, the !ody. 1e are not told %hether the "raves %ere Christian, =)slim, or He%ish.P18Q Perhaps the fra"ments came from a ref)se heap in the "raveyard: %e are not told. And sadly, many fra"ments come to )s %itho)t the !enefit of an archaeolo"ical conte8t no matter ho% va")e. In short, the researcher of 5atimid cloth is dealin" "enerally %ith evidence of )nkno%n provenance, and for %hich the provenance is no% forever )nkno%a!le. (he demands of the marketplace and of collectors have f)rther complicated reconstr)ctin" te8tiles and their )se. =ost te8tiles %hich come on the market %ere c)t to preserve only their em!ellished parts Bthe parts %ith the silk, "old, and %ritin"C, and %ith that c)ttin" m)ch technical evidence that )s)ally provides data a!o)t te8tiles %as destroyed. In proportion to the total n)m!er of e8tant fra"ments, fe% have selva"es and finishes. 1itho)t them it is not possi!le to kno% the %idth of the finished fa!ric, or even %here the em!ellished section that is preserved %as displayed on the total fa!ric. At least one of the f)ll len"th pieces that remain, the 6veil of /t. Anne,7 provides a !ase for )nderstandin" the desi"n layo)t of relatively lar"e fra"ments of similar desi"n that are identified in the collections of the =etropolitan =)se)m of Art and (he (e8tile =)se)m.P19Q All these caveats aside, m)ch has !een learned from the fra"ments of cloth %ith %ritin" in Ara!ic on them. (he ran"e of messa"es and script styles has !een descri!ed. 0ike%ise, some st)dies have investi"ated the technolo"y of "old thread, and others the ran"e of colors and the so)rce of fi!res Blinen, hemp, cotton, silk, and %oolC. B)t the factors descri!ed a!ove do p)t serio)s limits on %hat can !e learned from the te8tiles for this e8ploration. (he term 6p)!lic te8t7 also incl)des %ritin" on coins !eca)se s)ch %ritin" %as officially sponsored and it had a "ro)p a)dience !y virt)e of the sheer n)m!er of people %ho %o)ld have seen the %ritin". +!vio)sly %ritin" on coins is )s)ally vie%ed in a more individ)ali4ed manner than is either %ritin" displayed on comm)nal !)ildin"s, %here many "ather, or %ritin" %orn in official processions, %here many %atch. (his difference acco)nts for the manner in %hich s)ch %ritin" is analy4ed in this st)dy. *o%ever, the fact that the %ritin" on coins, officially sponsored %ritin", %as a vis)al e8perience for a "reat n)m!er of people %ithin and o)tside the territory of the iss)in" r)ler !rin"s that %ritin" %ell %ithin the foc)s of this st)dy.PT$Q (he ,eni4a records, for instance, provide ample evidence that %ritin" on coins %as meanin"f)l for those en"a"ed in money chan"in" and transactions in the marketplace. 1ritin" on coins %as read for its semantic content, and the format of the %ritin" Bconcentric circles or linesC %as )sed for identification.PT1Q 6+fficial %ritin"7 and 6p)!lic te8t7 e8cl)de from consideration non.officially sponsored %ritin" %ith a "ro)p address, ho%ever m)ch the %ritin" practice mi"ht have !een tolerated !y officialdom. 5or e8ample, these cate"ories serve to e8cl)de "raffiti in ,reek, /yriac, 0atin, and Armenian left !y pil"rims in the /inai, %hich many reported seein",PTTQ or in Ara!ic fo)nd on col)mns and other parts of str)ct)res at Ha!al /ays, RasOr al.*Oayr al./har<i, and else%here.PT#Q In addition, they also e8cl)de %ritin" sponsored !y the "ro)p leadership %ith a "ro)p address !)t not )sed officially in comm)nal "atherin" spaces for the "ro)p, even tho)"h it played an ela!orate role %ithin the r)lin" class c)lt)re. /)ch %ritin" on te8tiles and "arments, as %ell as on a variety of l)8)ry o!Aects, %as c)stomary in the private practices amon" the r)lin" "ro)ps of most of the medieval societies of the eastern =editerranean. ,reek., then 0atin., and finally Ara!ic.speakin" societies in the eastern =editerranean, for e8ample, all had finely !lo%n "lass vessels %ith %ritin" on them. In each of these societies, and th)s in each lan")a"e and alpha!et, some vessels displayed "ood %ishes to the drinker, or !eholder, or o%ner.PT&Q

In addition, %e kno% in detail that in A!!asid co)rtly society, handkerchiefs or head!ands inscri!ed %ith verses of Ara!ic poetry %ere for a time the passion.PTFQ 3ven individ)als not %ithin the co)rt seemed to participate in personali4in" their clothin" %ith %ritin".PT'Q All these )ses of %ritin" f)eled fashiona!le taste and served individ)al interests, and it co)ld !e ar")ed they served a limited "ro)p, !)t not in a manner to en"ender cohesion of the society as a %hole !y the reinforcement of !eliefs and social relationships. In contrast to these )ses, the %ritin" on te8tiles and clothin" that %as part of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t %as an officially orchestrated, systematic, "ro)p.addressed display of %ritin" servin" the interests of officialdom in the s)pport of effective "overnance and, %ithin its o%n terms, cohesion and sta!le social order. In a more o!vio)s %ay, several other kinds of %ritin" also do not <)alify as part of the p)!lic te8t. (here is no p)!lic te8t in %ritin" that constit)ted official "overnment record keepin" in %hich the a)dience addressed !y the %ritin" %as not a "ro)p. 1ritin", of co)rse, %as an important part of official chancery practices of all r)lin" "ro)ps in the period. 1e kno% in detail that hand%ritin" and the a!ility to compose in Ara!ic %as an important factor in the choice of officials to staff Islamic "overnment dwns Bor !)rea)sC. 5rom al.Ral<ashandI, %e kno% in specific detail A)st ho% intensified these chancery practices !ecame in the 5atimid period.PT@Q Devertheless, official scri!al practice, or its intensification, as in the 5atimid period, did not affect its a)dience. Chancery records %ere seen primarily !y state f)nctionaries or individ)al recipients of official missives, not a "eneral a)dience. (his st)dy of the f)nctions of 5atimid p)!lic te8ts promotes a specific )nderstandin" of ho% officially sponsored %ritin" Bor any artifact or o!Aect or str)ct)reC makes its meanin". =eanin" as )nderstood here is not completely contained in the %ritin" itself !)t, rather, "ro%s in the %e! of conte8t)al relationships %oven !et%een the official %ritin", the patrons, the ran"e of !eholders, and the esta!lished conte8ts in %hich that %ritin" %as placed. (ake as a simple e8ample %hat al.(Oa!arI tells )s a!o)t one )se of non.official %ritin" in the early =)slim comm)nity. *e says that EUmar i!n al. 2hatOtOG! had the phrase 6reserved for Por devoted toQ the %ay of ,od,7 PT8Q !randed on the thi"hs of his horses. 1hat %e are told a!o)t the %ritin" is its semantic content and its placement. B)t ho% it comm)nicated meanin" to the !eholder, %ho those !eholders %ere, %e are not told. (o ans%er the <)estion, 61hat did this %ritin" mean>7 and to specify %hat meanin" to %hom, %e need to kno% a!o)t a variety of relationships: for e8ample, %ere all horses Bthose !elon"in" to =)slims and those notM those !elon"in" to leaders and those notC !randed> 1ere all !rands phrases, and if so, %hat %as their content> 1ere some !rands idiosyncratic marks, and this the only phrase> 1ere other o!Aects or animals marked %ith this phrase> 1hat did the !rand look like in itself and in relation to others> And finally, %hat %as the si"nificance of the loc)s of this !randin"> 1itho)t ela!oratin" this e8ample any f)rther, %hat !ecomes clear is that to )nderstand the specific meanin" of that %ritin" as a !rand, %e m)st e8plore, at least, the net%ork of relations !et%een EUmar, his !rand and !randin" practices, the !eholders, and the operant social )sa"es that encompassed them. +f co)rse, officially sponsored %ritin"s and the p)!lic te8t are <)ite different from al.(Oa!arISs story and EUmarSs !rand. B)t the story is a )sef)l tool here for e8plorin" the vario)s net%orks of relationships that made that )se of %ritin" meanin"f)l to the !eholders of EUmarSs horse. As s)ch, it hi"hli"hts for this st)dy of officially sponsored %ritin", its content, its form, the reality of conditions of its !ein" seen, and its !eholders. (his st)dy s)""ests that these net%orks thro)"h %hich official %ritin" comm)nicated meanin" to !eholders had three primary dimensions: territorial, referential, and aesthetic. 3ach of these three dimensions, %hich co)ld also !e called f)nctions, or"ani4es many levels of relationships !et%een official %ritin" and the !eholder, and social )ses and practices. Certainly, these three f)nctions e8isted sim)ltaneo)sly. (hat is, the !eholder of official %ritin" derived meanin" from each of these three sets of relationships at the same time, altho)"h each did not comm)nicate meanin" e<)ally or in the same manner. At certain times, in certain historical

circ)mstances, one of those f)nctions of %ritin" predominated. (his te8t is not an attempt to say in %ords %hat the vie%er sa%. 9ather, it !)ilds from a f)ndamentally ,om!richian notion that %ritin" relates to other %ritin" and the reality of conditions in %hich these %ritin"s co)ld !e seen.PT9Q (he maAor iss)es taken )p in this te8t are )nderstandin" ho% the f)nctions of the officially sponsored %ritin" !alanced one another, %hich one predominated to %hich "ro)p a)dience, and ho% those meanin"s chan"ed %ithin "ro)ps and !et%een "ro)ps over time. /ome preliminary disc)ssion of these dimensions %ill clarify these net%orks of relationships. (he territorial f)nction refers to the many %ays in %hich officially sponsored %ritin" reinforced and perpet)ated to !eholders !oth the solidarity of their "ro)p, !indin" it, and its e8cl)sivity from other "ro)ps, !o)ndin" it from another or others.P#$Q By markin", and th)s distin")ishin" for the !eholder, one social territory from another, official %ritin" si"naled a !o)ndary separatin" systems of different informational content. +fficially sponsored %ritin" as )sed !y vario)s societies or "ro)ps in the eastern =editerranean comm)nicated especially effectively thro)"h this dimension !eca)se the %ritin" systems Bof primary concern here, and to a lesser e8tent the lan")a"esC of many "ro)ps %ithin this st)dy %ere specific to that "ro)p. 1hat is clear from the actions of vario)s leaders of "ro)ps %ithin the early medieval =editerranean is that they reco"ni4ed the effectiveness of %ritin" as a si"n of !o)ndedness of a "ro)p, and conscio)sly chose a %ritin" system B%hat %e mi"ht call simply an alpha!etC !eca)se of its differences from, or similarities to, the alpha!ets of nei"h!orin" "ro)ps. (his !o)ndedness is not a startlin" revelation for )s in the late t%entieth cent)ry %ho have %itnessed the !reak )p of the /oviet Union, and the s)!se<)ent search for appropriate alpha!ets and lan")a"es to si"nal ethnic identities. =ore to the point for this st)dy, in the fifth cent)ry %hen the Armenian 2in" ;ramsap)h officially sanctioned the Bc)rrentC Armenian alpha!et created !y =estrop =astocS, he conscio)sly s)pported the adoption of a %ritin" system that resem!led no nei"h!orin" one. (he previo)s %ritin" systems )sed !y Armenians had !een !ased on ,reek and /yriac formsM the ne% alpha!et %as fashioned of "lyphs that looked si"nificantly different.P#1Q (h)s from the fifth cent)ry on, the Armenian alpha!et %as a si"n !y %hich Armenians as a "ro)p %ere distin")isha!le from all other Christians in the area, especially the dominant "ro)p, the ,reek +rthodo8 Christians, %hose lan")a"e, like the Armenian lan")a"e, is Indo. 3)ropean.P#TQ Contrast this choice on the part of the Armenian comm)nity to adopt an alpha!et em!lematic of complete difference from other Christians %ith the actions of the Coptic comm)nity in adoptin" a modified ,reek alpha!et. (hey chose to represent their *amitic lan")a"e, Coptic, in alpha!etic characters that %ere vis)ally close Baltho)"h not totally identicalC to those of the ,reek alpha!et, the alpha!et of the dominant reli"ion, practiced !y the r)lers of the territory and !y the maAority of the people %ithin their empire. (he Coptic alpha!etic "lyphs emphasi4ed similarity or identification !y !l)rrin" alpha!etic !o)ndaries !et%een the Coptic Christians and the ,reek +rthodo8, altho)"h some !o)ndaries %ere maintained thro)"h the discerni!le differences in the letter forms. +f co)rse, the iss)e here is not simply the adoption of alpha!ets, !)t their social )se. Patrons, )nderstood here also as !eholders, marked Armenian sectarian spaces %ith the Armenian alpha!etM Coptic %as displayed in Coptic ch)rches. /amaritan and *e!re% appeared only in syna"o")es. (he fact that %ritin" d)rin" the period of this st)dy %as )sed to mark space as e8cl)sive to a "ro)p %as a pra8is %e reco"ni4e today !y the very fact that %e )se the presence of a specific alpha!et Band lan")a"eC in the identification of those sectarian !)ildin"s %hich other%ise are archaeolo"ically indistin")isha!le.P##Q (h)s, it is the presence of Armenian on a mosaic floor in Her)salemP#&Q that ena!led contemporary scholars to identify its specific "ro)p a)dience as Armenian Christian, %hen the rest of the depictions in the mosaic floor %ere relatively common in the "eo"raphic area. /ome lan")a"es-mainly ,reek and to a m)ch lesser e8tent Ara!ic and Aramaic-did not f)nction in

this territorial or !o)ndin" manner, or not in this manner d)rin" all periods of this st)dy. (he mere presence of these scripts and lan")a"es did not immediately mark the space as sectarian specific to the !eholder. ,reek, for instance, %as displayed in syna"o")es as %ell as in ,reek +rthodo8 ch)rches.P#FQ B)t the !eholder co)ld )nderstand 6territorial dimensions7 from its placement or, more e8actly, the pattern of its placement in social practice. 5or e8ample, mos<)es directly sponsored !y Umayyad r)lers from al.1alId on displayed only %ritin" in Ara!ic on the 'ibla %all, %hereas other lan")a"es %ere sometimes displayed else%here. (he second dimension or f)nction of officially sponsored %ritin" %e call the referential. (his term refers to those net%orks of meanin"s derived from the evocational field of the %ritin"M its 6content7 or informational !ase. (his !ase incl)ded the oral and %ritten traditions of the society, as %ell as traditions of social relationships, like the names and titles of honored people Bpast and presentC %ithin the "ro)p, and dates and events of "ro)p si"nificance. 1ritin" on the interiors of sectarian spaces, %hether they %ere =)slim, Christian, or He%ish, %as taken from "ro)p.specific evocational fields. As %ill !e ar")ed in chapter T, the semantic content of the most vis)ally dominant %ritin" in all sectarian spaces came from socially e<)ivalent te8ts: the R)rSGn, De% (estament, and *e!re% Bi!le. +fficially sponsored %ritin" %ithin these spaces also "ave donor and patron information that helped to or"ani4e and stratify the "ro)p %ithin itself. /imilarly, the 5atimid p)!lic te8ts placed inside =)slim sectarian spaces %ere directed to =)slim a)diences in %ays that are detailed in chapters # and &. In contrast, ho%ever, those p)!lic te8ts, displayed on the o)tsides of str)ct)res and in processions, addressed a p)!lic a)dience. (hese te8ts came from more than one evocational field and spoke to more than one a)dience. Importantly, the semantic content %as accessi!le to !eholders %ho %ere not familiar %ith the R)rSGn, %ho %ere not =)slim. (h)s the p)!lic aspects of the p)!lic te8t conveyed information "ermane to s)!servin" the 5atimid social order on a lar"er scale than a sectarian or "ro)p.specific one in a mi8ed society. Amon" the "ro)ps considered in this st)dy, %ritten te8ts that s)pplied !eliefs essential to "ro)p action, affirmation, and cohesion %ere script and lan")a"e specific. 5or =)slim !elievers, ,odSs revelation %as and is in Ara!icM for He%s, ,od revealed the (orah, oral and %ritten, in *e!re%M to Christians, the De% (estament came lar"ely in translations. (h)s for =)slims and He%s, re"ardless of specific intra. "ro)p differences, Ara!ic and *e!re%, respectively, %ere the lan")a"es of the essential comm)nal evocational field Bor information !aseC that !o)nd the "ro)p to"ether.P#'Q Amon" Christian "ro)ps, in contrast, the lan")a"e and, importantly here, the script chosen for the translation of the De% (estament B,reek, Armenian, /yriac, Coptic, etc.C !ecame the script and lan")a"e of the "ro)pSs !elief.conveyin" evocational field. 5or Copts the De% (estament of )se %as %ritten in CopticM for Armenians, in ArmenianM for 0atin rite Christians, in 0atin.P#@Q 1hen the semantic content of the %ritin" did not contain essential !eliefs of the "ro)p, the %ritin" did not BnecessarilyC f)nction territorially to identify a sectarian "ro)p. 9ather, the %ritin" defined a "ro)p on a different scale, one !o)nd !y c)lt)ral traditions B%ritten and oralC of a !roader nat)re. ,reek %ritin" and lan")a"e %as for a time the primary e8ample of this phenomenon !eca)se every time ,reek %as present in a sectarian space it did not necessarily convey content from the De% (estament. 1hat ena!led ,reek script and lan")a"e to !e so %idely appropriated !y vario)s sectarian "ro)ps %ere the social )ses of the lan")a"e in the eastern =editerranean after Ale8ander. 5rom the time of Ale8anderSs con<)est of this area in the late fo)rth cent)ry B.C., a varied constit)ency of ,reek. speakin" people developed. 3ven )nder 9oman occ)pation, %hen the official lan")a"e %as 0atin, so many people spoke ,reek that official inscriptions in many places %ere %ritten in ,reek.P#8Q (h)s, in the fo)rth cent)ry C.3., %hen ,reek !ecame the official lan")a"e of the By4antine empire, not only %ere the ne% %ritten messa"es transmitted in it, !)t ,reek also !o)nd to"ether the already e8istin" classical c)lt)ral traditions %ith those of the Christianity that had diver"ed from it.P#9Q It sho)ld not

s)rprise )s, there is no evidence of comment at the time, to find %ritin" in ,reek in syna"o")es as %ell as in ,reek +rthodo8 ch)rches. In fact, as recent research confirms, ,reek %as the lan")a"e )sed in p)!lic te8ts in the eastern =editerranean %ell into the late ei"hth cent)ry.P&$Q +f co)rse, the referential and territorial dimensions the %ritin" conveyed to the !eholder in each of these sectarian spaces %as different. In the ,reek +rthodo8 ch)rches, the evocational fields of the %ritin" displayed to the !eholder %ere from !oth the %ritten traditions conveyin" essential !eliefs and from those social relationships that s)pply the names and titles of historic and contemporary people important to the "ro)p. In the syna"o")es, ho%ever, ,reek %as never )sed to comm)nicate the essential !eliefs.P&1Q (hese %ere e8pressed in *e!re%. B)t the %ritin" that did appear in ,reek, s)ch as the names and titles of donors, and similar information, evoked a variety of "ro)p.!ased social relationships. (he different evocational fields of the t%o scripts Band lan")a"esC stemmed directly from the fact that the con"re"ation %as ,reek speakin", and kno%led"e of ,reek lan")a"e played a c)lt)ral role in the society on a !road scale.P&TQ (he third dimension of meanin" of officially sponsored %ritin", the aesthetic, or"ani4es all those net%orks of relationships that !eholders !ro)"ht to !ear %hen they sa% the form, material, rhythm, color B%hat mi"ht !e called styleCP&#Q of the officially sponsored %ritin". I am concerned here, for e8ample, not only %ith the "old and "lass mosaic medi)m in %hich the %ritin" in the Jome of the 9ock appeared, !)t %herever else %ritin" appeared in that medi)m, and %here it did not. (he linka"es or relationships of %here %ritin" appeared in this style, or did not appear in this style, comm)nicated meanin" to the !eholder as did the shape and form of the %ritin" of the letters. In fact, as I %ill ar")e in chapter T, the meanin"s derived from the aesthetic dimensions of officially sponsored %ritin" in the Jome of the 9ock %ere the predominant ones for the !eholders. 1hat %ill !ecome clear over the ne8t three chapters is A)st ho% important the aesthetic f)nction %as in comm)nicatin" meanin" to the !eholder. 1hen %ritin" co)ld not !e read-and even %hen it co)ld-its color, materiality, and form %ere prominent aspects of comm)nication. +ne !rief e8ample from the 5atimid period ill)strates this. I!n al.(O)%ayr tells )s that %hen the ImGm %ent to the mos<)e of al.*OGkim Bkno%n as al.An%arC d)rin" 9amadan, te8tiles near the mihra! %ere em!ellished %ith %ritin" from the R)rSGn. *e even lists the s(ras.P&&Q (h)s, since he indicated the semantic content of the %ritin", pres)ma!ly he sa%, read, and )nderstood it. B)t in tellin" this story, he "ave e<)ally many-if not more-details a!o)t the color, materiality, and form of the %ritin". (hese factors th)s m)st have !een important in conveyin" meanin" to him, and pres)ma!ly to those to %hom he reco)nted the information in his o%n time, and to )s today. I!n al.(O)%ayr noted that the %ritin" of the s(ras had diacritical marks. (his )ndo)!tedly %as a cl)e to his a)dience and to )s, that the script %as not 2)fic. In all pro!a!ility it %as one of the c)rsive scripts -the scripts %ith diacritical marks. 1hy %o)ld he have made that comment> 1hat does it tell a reader> It tells )s that the %ritin" on the c)rtains paralleled the scripts %hich %e kno% %ere )sed in many of the R)rSGns of the period. Conversely, it tells )s e<)ally clearly that the %ritin" on the c)rtains contrasted sharply %ith the %ritin" on the interior of the !)ildin" in %hich it %as displayed, Bthe An%ar mos<)e completed in the early eleventh cent)ryC, and %ith the %ritin" on and in the !)ildin" sponsored !y the 5atimids at a!o)t the same time that these c)rtains %ere displayed.P&FQ (he %ritin" in and on all of these str)ct)res %as in 2)fic, sometimes very ela!orate 2)fic. B)t I!n al.(O)%ayr does not stop at that detail. *e mentioned that the han"in"s %ere in silk. 1e kno% then that they %ere neither cotton, linen, nor %ool. (hey %ere th)s very costly, for the fa!ric %as pro!a!ly imported.P&'Q And, finally, he related their color-%hite. 1e kno%, and certainly his a)dience kne%, that %hite %as the official 5atimid color, as em!lematic of their r)le as the !lack B%oolC %as of their contemporaries, the A!!asids in Ba"hdad. (h)s, from his comments B!y placin" %hat he

descri!ed %ithin the net%ork of vis)al relationships and social practices for %hich %e have evidenceC, %e can !e"in to reconstr)ct the ran"e of meanin"s that the official %ritin" %ith diacritical marks displayed on %hite silk c)rtains had for I!n al.(O)%ayr and other contemporary !eholders. It seems appropriate at this point to in<)ire ho% this st)dy of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t relates to scholarly in<)iry in "eneral and, in specific, to the st)dy of %ritin" in the disciplines that constit)te Islamic /t)dies, for it is a part of !oth. (he r)!rics of analysis here are derived in part from elements of models of comm)nication no% almost three decades old.P&@Q +ver the past years these cate"ories have "enerated m)ch scholarly de!ate, and scholars o)tside lin")istic and literary st)dies in almost all social science and h)manistic disciplines have attempted to di"est, refine, rethink, and inte"rate this analytic paradi"m.P&8Q (his st)dy of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t shares %ith s)ch %orks an a"reement that meanin" involves the sta"in" of specific relationships. B)t this st)dy has a si"nificant diver"ence from s)ch a paradi"m !eca)se it incl)des in its paradi"m the sites or locations of meanin", a point of vie% that is a!sent from the narro%er, lin")istically oriented analysis.P&9QWriting Signs incl)des the !eholder, a "ro)p a)dience, as an essential element in its paradi"m. As s)ch it takes inspiration directly from the pa"es of I!n al.*OaythamSs BAlha4enSsC theory of perception %ritten %hile he %as in Cairo at the co)rt of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim Br. 99'?1$T1 #8'?&11C and !eyond, teachin" at al.A4har mos<)e )ntil his death in c. 1$#9. *e claimed that &erce&tion of a form re<)ired discernment, inference, reco"nition, comparison %ith other si"ns BamrtC, and A)d"ment !y )sers to relate them properly.PF$Q *is insistence that for all practical p)rposes forms %ere &ercei)ed and not seen, pointed the %ay to )nderstandin" the active role of the !eholder in placin" a "iven form in a net%ork of memori4ed forms and associations. Incl)din" the a)dience in the analysis in Writing Signs "ives historical dimension to the meanin" of official %ritin". 1itho)t an anchor in vie%er B)serC and place, the reconstr)ction of the meanin" of the %ritin" Bor any artifactC takes on an ahistorical timelessness. 1hen I said a!ove that meanin" %as not completely contained in the %ritin" itself !)t %as also a f)nction of the relationship of the !eholder, the %ritin" and social )sa"e and practices, I asserted that the meanin" of a partic)lar e8ample of %ritin" %as sit)ated in a !eholder in a specific historical moment: it therefore chan"es over time and %ith "ro)ps of !eholders. (h)s, the 6same7 %ritin" on the minarets of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim %ill carry different meanin"s to a =)slim than to a Christian a)dience in the same year, for e8ample, in 1$$T #9# %hen the %ritin" first appeared. /o, too, the 6same7 %ritin" on cost)mes and te8tiles in 5atimid processions %o)ld have conveyed different meanin"s to spectators alon" the ro)te in 1$'$ than in 11T#. (hese diver"ent meanin"s for the !eholders %ere the res)lt of shiftin" political, economic, "eo"raphical, and reli"io)s attit)des or circ)mstances, as %ell as chan"es in the composition of the a)dience and !eholder.PF1Q In addition to concern a!o)t the !eholderSs role in the constr)ction of the meanin" of %ritten si"ns, this st)dy )nderstands %ritin" practices in any society as s)!servin" the he"emonic interests of officialdom, as defined !y the "iven society. All societies %ith %ritin", then as %ell as no%, have some mi8 of %ritten and oral modes of comm)nication. (he )ses of %ritin", %hether e8tensive or limited, the modes and instit)tions thro)"h %hich %ritin" is ta)"ht, and, in partic)lar for the 5atimid emphasis here, the chan"es or shifts in the )ses of %ritin" %ithin a society are all )nderstood as socially constr)cted practices s)!servin" the interests of those %ho instit)te the chan"es. (hat a society )sed %ritin" to keep led"ers does not in itself s)pply s)fficient reason for that same society event)ally to p)t %ritin" in or on !)ildin"s. /eein" %ritin" practices as socially constr)cted, and f)lly )nderstanda!le only in terms of the practices of a "iven society is s)pported increasin"ly !y the research of psycholo"ists, sociolo"ists, anthropolo"ists, and historians.PFTQ (hese premises indicate that %ritin" is approached in this st)dy in %ays )nlike those )sed in most other %orks addressed to the )nderstandin" of %ritin" in the Islamic %orld. 9ather, Writing Signs is in the

spirit of chan"e called for !y =ichael 9o"ers,PF#Q and in the interests of conte8t)al )nderstandin" of the role of %ritin" advocated !y Priscilla /o)cek.PF&Q It has profited "reatly from earlier st)dies, like those of 9ichard 3ttin"ha)sen, +le" ,ra!ar, and Hanine /o)rdel.(homine that have approached some of the iss)es incl)ded here.PFFQ B)t it is f)ndamentally different from Band presents historical evidence to <)estionC approaches !ased e8plicitly or implicitly on an or"anic, evol)tionary model !y %hich inevita!ly, at least <)asi.mechanically, the p)!lic te8t %o)ld emer"e !y nat)ral processes. (here are many kinds of compendi)ms and articles !ased on this evol)tionary ass)mption. (hese incl)de almost all scholarly %orks !ased on style analysis that post)lates simple styles as 6early7 and ela!orate styles as 6late7 or 6developed.7 (hese compendi)ms have )sef)l f)nctionsM s)ch records form a !ase for this st)dy. (hey do record difference, yet they )nderstand difference as merely se<)ential and developmental, e8cl)din" the possi!ility that difference may simply mark contemporary variants ca)sed !y other prod)ction factors s)ch as maker or )se. In fact, !eyond this e8planation of chan"e, most %riters make no attempt to acco)nt for difference or chan"e in any %ay. In other %ritin"s on %ritin", the or"anic metaphor is applied e8plicitly to the )se of %ritin" and the inevita!ility of its !ecomin" more and more prominent not !eca)se of style !)t !eca)se it %as la)nched on its traAectory !y reli"ion.PF'Q Ket, as a co)nter to this vie% it is )sef)l to remem!er that the R)rSGnic revelation is not the only one "iven directly !y ,od to men. (he (orah is )nderstood to !e )ncreated and revealed !y ,od in oral and in %ritten form. Donetheless, the traAectories of the )ses of %ritin" !oth %ithin and !et%een each "ro)p of sectarian !elievers varies over time and place. (hese evol)tionary models )s)ally conflate !ook hands %ith %ritin" on all other artifacts and !)ildin"s, th)s implyin" that %hen hand%ritin" attained a hi"h de"ree of ela!oration in =)slim societies, it finally had to appear some%here !eyond man)scripts and chancery doc)ments and %as therefore placed on !)ildin"s. As this in<)iry %ill ela!orate later, neither of these evol)tionary models can !e historically s)!stantiated. (he "eneral ar")ment made conventionally is that chan"e occ)rred in the )se of officially sponsored %ritin" from the time of the Umayyad Caliph EA!d al.=Glik Br. '8F?@$F 'F?8'C. In fact, in the Umayyad period, the )ses of officially sponsored %ritin" in Ara!ic in =)slim sectarian spaces appear more limited than those in ,reek in Christian sectarian !)ildin"s d)rin" By4antine r)le. =oreover, the formats for the )se of %ritin" in Ara!ic had !een esta!lished !y early =)slim r)lersM decade then follo%ed decade %ith fe% chan"es. Do e8ceptional or ne% )se of officially sponsored %ritin" addressed to a "ro)p appeared in the eastern =editerranean. 5atimid 3"yptian practice, the p)!lic te8t, then, %as !oth distinct in its o%n time, and distinctly different from previo)s practice, even from 5atimid practice in Dorth Africa and from that of their initial years in 3"ypt. (he p)!lic te8t m)st not !e seen as commonplace !)t, as my field o!servations s)""est, as a )ni<)e, historically !ased occ)rrence not totally replicated else%here. 1e need only a c)rsory vis)al familiarity %ith the historical and "eo"raphical e8panse of the practice of =)slim "ro)ps to kno% <)ite clearly that the official )ses of %ritin" %ere Band areC different, for e8ample, in /afavid practice from those in +ttomanM in ,hana from those in the PhilippinesM in Jetroit, =ichi"an from those in Pakistan. +ne 6evol)tion7 or 6development7 that occ)rred in the eastern =editerranean d)rin" the time of this st)dy is s)pported !y recent scholarly st)dies, namely, conversion to Islam. In the eastern =editerranean, more people %ere =)slim at the end of the period of the st)dy than at the !e"innin". =ore people %ere =)slim %hen the 5atimids r)led than %hen the Umayyads r)led. 3"ypt, /yria, and Ira<, !y the time of the 5atimids, had a pop)lation that %as dominantly =)slim, even if %e adopt the late conversion date of 1$1$ C.3. ar")ed for !y B)lliet.PF@Q 3ven tho)"h si"nificant Christian and He%ish minorities e8isted in 3"ypt, the pop)lation the 5atimids r)led %as =)slim, and this st)dy offers an )nderstandin" of ho% the p)!lic te8t %as indeed related to the =)slim.ness of the society in the 5atimid capital. It seeks to hi"hli"ht, in fact, that the specific composition of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p %ithin the society, and that of the r)led pop)lation, and not simply its =)slim.ness, in part acco)nts for

the presence and the meanin" of the p)!lic te8t. A lan")a"e 6development7 is linked to conversion and =)slim r)le: d)rin" the 5atimid period more people kne% Ara!ic in 3"ypt than in the Umayyad period. 62no%in"7 Ara!ic involved several social considerations. +n the one hand, kno%in" Ara!ic, in the sense of speakin" the pop)lar lan")a"e, or al-*mmi#a, %as important, !)t to participate in the hierarchy of the society, command of readin", %ritin", and speakin" proper or p)re Ara!ic, !s+h+a, %as mandatory. (he he"emonic str)ct)res of the society, especially those representin" the sciences of "rammar and la%, s)pported and fostered !oth %hat constit)ted !s+h+a and, its corollary, rendered A)d"ments as to those %ho had s)fficient skills to rise to positions of importance. Do char"e %as more damnin" a"ainst a rep)tation for those in or seekin" prominent positions than not kno%in" Ara!ic B!s+h+aC. In the tenth fo)rth cent)ry, and especially in the eleventh fifth, the cent)ries of 5atimid r)le, Cairo.=isOr !ecame a center for "rammar and la%, and =)slim st)dents, especially from the %estern lands came there to st)dy these sciences. PF8Q (he si4e of the 5atimid "overnment and record keepin" in Ara!ic s)""ests the importance of kno%in" !s+h+a and the n)m!er of people %ho <)alified at least for !)rea)cratic positions. 3vidence for Christians and He%s speakin" and %ritin" at least al-*mmi#a is fo)nd in part in the nat)re of the anecdotes A!L /OGlihO reports %hich indicate a si"nificant level of spoken Ara!ic %ithin the Christian comm)nities.PF9Q (he %ritin" of the ,eni4a doc)ments sho%s a familiarity %ith al-*mmi#a amon" some He%s in 5atimid society, even tho)"h many of the doc)ments %ere %ritten in *e!re% characters. (his practice of %ritin" Ara!ic lan")a"e in *e!re% characters is yet another e8ample of alpha!et and not lan")a"e !o)ndin" and !indin" a "ro)p. And finally %e have the presence of Coptic te8ts and vestments that display %ritin" in Ara!ic in addition to that in Coptic, %hich s)""ests the commonalty of Ara!ic as a spoken lan")a"e in 5atimid society, as %ell as some readin" kno%led"e of it.P'$Q Clearly, iss)es relevant to the 5atimid p)!lic te8t are not simply the speakin" of Ara!ic, !)t !oth the reco"nition of Ara!ic %ritin" as %ritin" in Ara!ic letters, and the a!ility to read Ara!ic. Jo)!tless, He%s, Armenians, Copts, and other non.=)slims in 5atimid society, all of %hom had a different "ro)p. specific alpha!et and lan")a"e, reco"ni4ed or co)ld identify Ara!ic %ritin" %hen they sa% it. (h)s all !eholders co)ld )nderstand many aspects of the territorial and aesthetic f)nctions of official %ritin" in Ara!ic !y reco"ni4in" the presence of %ritin" in Ara!ic. B)t for !eholders to derive meanin" from the referential f)nctions of official %ritin", they needed to kno% its semantic content. Clearly, for !eholders to )nderstand the referential aspects of officially sponsored %ritin", they needed to !e literate. (his st)dy ass)mes that the minimal literacy s)fficient to ena!le at least the relevant )r!an people to f)lfill their d)ties to act appropriately is one %hich ena!les many !eholders to read names and titles, dates, and other similar data.P'1Q =y ar")ment is closely related to Brian /tockSs hypothesis of a 6te8t)al comm)nity7 %here 6te8ts emer"ed as a reference !oth for every day activities and for "ivin" shape to the lar"er vehicles of e8planation,7 P'TQ for it incl)des !oth literate and illiterate !eholders. B)t %hat I call 6conte8t)al7 readin" hi"hli"hts the iss)es involved in !eholders seein" the %ritin" itself rather than simply kno%in" the te8t Beither in oral or %ritten fashionC and reactin" to it.P'#Q A contemporary ethno"raphic st)dy !y /ylvia /cri!ner and =ichael ColeP'&Q testin" literacy in Ara!ic offers s)!stantial evidence s)pportin" my ass)mption that a si"nificant n)m!er of people in 5atimid society %o)ld have had 6conte8t)al7 literacy, and therefore co)ld have )nderstood the referential meanin"s from vie%in" the 5atimid p)!lic te8t. (his ass)mption follo%s from the evidence "athered !y /cri!ner and Cole that =)slim males, in receivin" even a minimal mos<)e school ed)cation, learned eno)"h Ara!ic for 6conte8t)al7 literacy. In the 5atimid capital in 3"ypt, the )r!an pop)lation %as predominantly =)slim. (h)s, amon" the males at least, %e ass)me conte8t)al literacy thro)"h minimal participation in mos<)e schools. In addition to this male "ro)p %ithin 5atimid society, %e are

told that =)slim %omen, pro!a!ly only )pper class IsmGEIlI, %ere ed)cated. And, as mentioned a!ove, some mem!ers of the vario)s Christian comm)nities and of the He%ish comm)nity read Ara!ic. A fe% more %ords need to !e said a!o)t conte8t)al literacy and the findin"s of the /cri!ner and Cole st)dy to clarify their relevance here. /cri!ner and Cole tested contemporary literacy in Ara!ic in a 0i!erian society %here three lan")a"es and scripts B;ai, the main lan")a"e and scriptM Ara!ic, kno%n only to =)slim mem!ers of the societyM and 3n"lish, c)rrently !ein" ta)"ht in the "overnment schoolsC %ere learned in different instit)tions, and )sed for different p)rposes %ithin the society !y differin" altho)"h overlappin" a)diences. In 0i!erian society, =)slims, e8cept those %ho e8celled in =)slim st)dies, received only the )s)al minimal mos<)e school trainin". B(hose %ho e8celled %ere sent to the main cities and the )niversities.C 1hat these psycholo"ists discovered, and %hat is important for this st)dy, is that =)slims %ith only minimal trainin" in Ara!ic, that is minimal introd)ction into the %ritin" system and evocational !ase of that %ritin" system, co)ld read the 6official7 %ritin" in Ara!ic in their society. Beca)se of the %ay they learned Ara!ic, they also had a "reater memory.store of learned te8ts, mainly from the R)rSGn. Altho)"h these =)slimsS kno%led"e of Ara!ic %as not s)fficient to read literat)re, or any ran"e of 6)ne8pected7 material, nevertheless they co)ld read all those materials in their society that %ere in Ara!ic, precisely !eca)se the material that appeared in Ara!ic %ritin" in their society %as e8pected. It came from a limited evocational !ase. (he critical element here is the ran"e of e8pectation. In ;ai society only very circ)mscri!ed material appears in Ara!ic. And =)slims %ithin the society can read the ran"e of Ara!ic that appears !eca)se the ran"e of Ara!ic Bthe semantic content: the %ordsC is e8pected. 0iteracy in Ara!ic does not e8tend !eyond that a!ility. Chapters # and & of Writing Signs ass)me a 6conte8t)al7 literacy and then detail the limited ran"e, th)s the 6e8pectedness,7 of the evocational !ase of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t. It is not that the semantic content of the p)!lic te8t never chan"ed over the period of 5atimid r)le, !)t, rather, %ithin elements of the p)!lic te8t Bparts of the processions, inside and o)tside mos<)es and shrinesC the evocational !ase %as relatively constant. It co)ld !e readBilyC readBilyC. +ne final aspect related to the readin" of %ritin" in Ara!ic needs to !e mentioned. =ost, altho)"h not all, of the %ritin" in Ara!ic that made )p the 5atimid p)!lic te8t %as displayed in 2)fic. 2)fic is a script %hich is instantly reco"ni4a!le !y its "eometrical lines. B)t it is hi"hly incomplete phonetically: in this script diacritical marks are )s)ally not added to letters, and th)s t%enty.ei"ht differin" consonantal so)nds are represented !y only seventeen different "raphic shapes. (he possi!le am!i")ities of readin" that can res)lt from an alpha!etically incomplete script have led many contemporary scholars to re"ard 2)fic as inherently diffic)lt to decipher. B)t as ,eoffrey /ampson demonstrates, incomplete scripts can convey f)lly clear meanin"s to readers kno%led"ea!le of the contents.P'FQ Beholders acc)stomed to seein" incomplete scripts conveyin" specific semantic content in familiar conte8ts can read the %ritin". It follo%s, then, that the %ritin" in Ara!ic in 2)fic script on 5atimid !)ildin"s co)ld have !een read !y the conte8t)ally literate of 5atimid society for precisely the reason those same !eholders co)ld read the semantic content. (he conte8t made the content e8pected. (h)s, only some %ords and phrases-a limited voca!)lary-appeared in the 2)fic of the p)!lic te8t. P''Q 1hat %as special a!o)t the 5atimid practice of p)!lishin" its p)!lic te8t %as the systematic display: ho% the 5atimids )sed the te8ts they chose in the p)!lic space, ho% they %ere ")ided in their choice !y their socio.political needs, and their ac)te sensitivity to the diversity of their constit)ency. (he p)!lic te8t, the 5atimidSs special achievement, is !est hi"hli"hted !y o!servin" the )se of officially sponsored %ritin" !y others in the eastern =editerranean.

N"tes
1. I have )sed this phrase 6p)!lic te8t7 !efore, defined in a less circ)mscri!ed manner. /ee Irene A. Bierman, 6(he Art of the P)!lic (e8t: =edieval 9)le,7 in World ,rt Themes o! -nit# in .i)ersit#/ ,cts o! the 01th 2nternational ongress o! the 3istor# o! ,rt, ed. Irvin" 0avin, # vols. BPhiladelphia: Penn /tate University Press, 1989C, T:T8#?91. I also )sed the term as part of a title for a session 6P)!lic (e8t and /tyle: 1ritin" and Identity in the Islamic 1orld7 at the 1988 Ann)al Colle"e Art Association =eetin"s in *o)ston. T. 1ritin", its )ses and effects on society, is disc)ssed !y a n)m!er of scholars in a variety of disciplines. /ome of the more "eneral %orks that have informed this st)dy are: =. (. Clanchy, From 4emor# to Written 5ecord/ 67118697: B0ondon: Arnold, 19@9CM Hac<)es Jerrida, Writing and .i!!erence, translated and %ith an introd)ction !y Alan Bass B0ondon: 9o)tled"e, 2e"an Pa)l, 19@8CM Hack ,oody, The ;ogic o! Writing and the <rganization o! Societ# BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 198'CM Hack ,oody, The 2nter!ace "etween the Written and the <ral BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 198@CM ,eoffrey /ampson, Writing S#stems B/tanford: /tanford University Press, 198FCM /ylvia /cri!ner and =ichael Cole, The Ps#cholog# o! ;iterac# BCam!rid"e: =I( Press, 1981CM Brian /tock, The 2m&lications o! ;iterac# BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 198#CM and Brian ;. /treet, ;iterac# in Theor# and Practice BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 198&C. #. A recent article on aspects of the sym!olic in 9oman )se of %ritin" is, Calle 1illiamson, 6=on)ments of Bron4e: 9oman 0e"al Joc)ments on Bron4e (a!lets,7 lassical ,nti'uit# ', no. 1 BApril 198@C: 1'$?8#. /)san Jo%ney dre% my attention to this article. &. /ee chap. T for an ela!oration of pre.p)!lic te8t practice. F. DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, Sa!ar-nma, edited and annotated !y =)hOammad Ja!ir /iya<i B(ehran: N)vvar, 19F'C, 8T. '. /ee chap. T. @. +mitted here is consideration of mus+allas !eca)se they appear to have !een minimally delineated spaces. 3arly ones have !een fo)nd that are simply ro%s of stones like that adAoinin" the mos<)e at Ha!al /ays in so)thern /yria B2la)s Brish, 6Jas +mayyadische /chloss in Usais,7 4itteilungen des .eutschen ,rchaologischen 2nstituts ,bteilung =airo 19 B19'#C: 1&@?&9C and t%o )ndated ones fo)nd ne8t to camp sites in the De"ev B,. Avni and /. 9osen, 6De"ev 3mer"ency /)rvey-198# 198F,7 %xca)ations and Sur)e#s in 2srael & B198FC: 8'?8@C. H)d"in" from al.=a<rI4ISs lack of s)!stantive descriptive comments a!o)t the mus+alla o)tside the BG! al.DasOr of Cairo, it, too, %as simply a lar"e delineated space. 8. At least one 5atimid str)ct)re is kno%n thro)"h H. H. =arcel, .escri&tion de l>%g#&te/ ?tat moderne/ 22/ 22e &art BParis: n.p., 18TTC. /ee chap. &. 9. /ome of the interior %alls from the 3astern Palace have recently !een discovered. (hey %ere fo)nd )nder the direction of Dairi *ampikian %ho heads the restoration of the ma)sole)m and part of the madrasa of al./OGlihO DaAm al.JIn AyyL! !y the ,erman Instit)te of Archaeolo"y. Under a part of the madrasa demolished in late 199T to make %ay for an entrepren)rial comple8, the 5atimid %alls emer"ed. (hey are an"led to the street in %ays <)ite different from the %alls of the overlayin" AyyL!id str)ct)re, s)""estin" a some%hat different street ali"nment than presently ass)med. B)t the month lon" salva"e archaeolo"y permitted on the site %ill not add to o)r kno%led"e a!o)t the facade of the palace. 1$. =ost maAor m)se)ms have some 5atimid tirz. (he lar"est collections in Dorth America are in (he (e8tile =)se)m, 1ashin"ton, J.C.M the =etropolitan =)se)m of Art, DKCM the =)se)m of 5ine Arts, BostonM the Cleveland Art =)se)m, ClevelandM and the 9oyal +ntario =)se)m, (oronto. In 1estern

3)rope, the maAor collections are held !y the ;ictoria and Al!ert =)se)m, 0ondon, and the Benaki =)se)m, Athens. In the =iddle 3ast, the Islamic =)se)m in Cairo has the most e8tensive holdin"s. (he maAor catalo")es or p)!lications of the m)se)m holdin"s are the follo%in": Dancy Pence Britton, , Stud# o! Some %arl# 2slamic Textiles in the 4useum o! Fine ,rts BBoston: =)se)m of 5ine Arts, 19#8CM 3BtienneC Com!e, 6(iss)s 5atimides d) =)s:e Benaki,7 in 4?langes 4as&ero, # vols. BCairo: 0SInstit)t franUais dSarcha:olo"ie orientale, 19#&C, 1:TF9?@TM 5lorence 3. Jay, 6Jated (ira4 in the Collection of the University of =ichi"an,7 ,rs 2slamica & B19#@C: &T$?T'M =. /. Jimand, in vario)s of The 4etro&olitan 4useum o! ,rt "ulletin n)m!ers, notes additions of tirz to the ==ASs collectionsM 0isa ,olom!ek and ;eronica ,ervers, 6 Tiraz 5a!rics in the 9oyal +ntario =)se)m,7 in Studies o! Textile 3istor# in 4emor# o! 3arold ". "urnham, ed. ;eronica ,ervers B(oronto: 9oyal +ntario =)se)m, 19@@C, 8T?1T'M A. 5. 2endrick, atalogue o! the Textiles !rom the "ur#ing-$rounds in %g#&t, # vols. B0ondon: ;ictoria and Al!ert =)se)m, 19T&CM A. 5. 2endrick, atalogue o! 4uh+ammadan Textiles o! the 4edie)al Period B0ondon: ;ictoria and Al!ert =)se)m, 19T&CM 3rnst 2)hnel, 2slamische Sto!!e BBerlin: 3rnst 1asm)th, 19T@CM 3rnst 2)hnel, %ith te8tile analysis !y 0o)ise Bellin"er, atalogue o! .ated Tiraz Fabrics B1ashin"ton, J.C.: (he (e8tile =)se)m, 19FTCM and Carl Hohan 0amm, 6Jated or Jata!le (ira4 in /%eden,7 ;e 4onde <riental #T B19#8C: 1$#. 11. /ome of the implications of the state of the te8tile remains for the st)dy of te8tiles have !een disc)ssed !y ,olom!ek and ,ervers, 6 Tiraz 5a!rics,7 8T?8', and their !)rial conte8t has !een sho%n in Hochen A. /okoly, 6Bet%een 0ife and Jeath: (he 5)nerary Conte8t of (OirG4 (e8tiles,7 in 2slamisch Textil@unst des 4ittelalters: ,@tuelle Problem B9i""is!er": A!e""./tift)n", 199'C: @1?@'. 1T. Bierman, 6Art of the P)!lic (e8t,7 T8#?9$. 1#. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat, T vols. BCairo: BLlG<, 18F#C, T:T81. 1&. I!id. 1:1&@?&8. (he te8t mentions the fa!ric as ()star, a fa!ric identified %ith the province of 2h)4istan. 1F. (he 6veil of /t. Anne7 is one s)ch te8tile. /ome fra"ments in m)se)m holdin"s indicate !y their lavishness that the ori"inal te8tile %hen it %as %hole m)st have !een s)mpt)o)s. 1'. (his te8tile %as first p)!lished in ,. =arUais and ,. 1iet, 60e voile de /ainte Anne dSApt,7 ,cad?mie des 2nscri&tions des "elles-;ettres/ Fondation %ugAne Piot/ 4onuments et 4?moires #& B19#&C: 'F?@T. =ost recently it %as e8hi!ited in 0ondon, 19@', and p)!lished !y the Arts Co)ncil of ,reat Britain in the catalo")e, The ,rts o! 2slam B0ondon: 1esterham Press, 0td. Co)ncil of ,reat Britain, 19@'C, @'. 1@. 5e% e8cavations in the area of 3"ypt and the /)dan have !een caref)l to record their te8tile findin"s in detail. A nota!le recent e8ception: In"rid Ber"man, ;ate Bubian Textiles, vol. 8 of The Scandina)ian Coint %x&edition to Sudanese Bubia B/tockholm: 3sselte /t)di)m, 19@FC. =ore )s)al is the p)!lication of fra"ments, like that of the pile fra"ment %ith the %ritin" on it specifically disc)ssed !y AlI I!rahim Pasha in the "ulletin de l>2nstitut d>%g#&te B19#FC, p)!lished %ith a photo"raph !)t no information a!o)t %here in 5)stOGtO Bor even if in 5)stOGtOC it %as fo)nd. 18. 1e are tempted to make ")esses of co)rse a!o)t the sectarian identity of the persons !)ried in the "raveyards, !)t %e need to take care. By re")lation, of co)rse, =)slims and He%s sho)ld not !e !)ried in clothin", and %e are tempted th)s to ass)me that the "raves %ere Christian. B)t %e kno% that the practice did not al%ays follo% re")lation. 5or e8ample, the He%ish man from the lo%er middle class, %ho provides for an 6a)stere7 f)neral for himself. *e directs his s)rvivors to !)ry his !ody clothed in 6t%o cloaks, three ro!es, a t)r!an, ne% )nderpants and a ne% %aist !and.7 /. J. ,oitein, , 4editerranean Societ#, vol. &, .ail# ;i!e BBerkeley, 0os An"eles, 0ondon: University of California Press, 198#C, 1'$.

19. /everal fra"ments of similar cloth e8ist in the collections of these m)se)ms. Interestin"ly, the layo)t remains ro)"hly constant on all of the pieces, !)t the <)ality of the e8ec)tion of the desi"n varies as does the %ei"ht of the cloth and <)ality of the %eavin". (he =etropolitan =)se)m pieces are nos. 19@&.11#.1&a, 19@&.11#.1&!, T9.1#'.&, p)!lished in the "ulletin o! the 4etro&olitan 4useum o! ,rt TF B19#$C: 1T9. (hose in the (e8tile =)se)m are nos. @#.#'@, @#.TT8, @#.TT9, @#.@9, @#.1'&. All of the fra"ments are either !l)e or "reen linen. I thank =arilyn Henkins for introd)cin" me to these te8tiles. T$. 1hat is not considered here is official %ritin" on %ei"hts. (he incl)sion of the %ritin" on coins and e8cl)sion of that on %ei"hts is !asically a decision !ased on a)dience. 1hat is ass)med here is that many !)yers in the markets e8perienced the effects of the )se of %ei"hts, !)t only a limited "ro)p handled them, sa% them and the %ritin" on them. +ther %ei"hts, like those )sed to set the %ei"hts of coins, had even more limited circ)lation. T1. ,oitein, 4editerranean Societ# 1:T#'. TT. 5or Armenian, ,eor"ian, and 0atin inscriptions, see =ichael 3. /tone, ed., The ,rmenian 2nscri&tions !rom the Sinai BCam!rid"e: *arvard University Press, 198TCM for ,reek and Da!atean, Avrahm De"ev, The 2nscri&tions o! the Wadi 3a''a'/ Sinai BHer)salem: Instit)te of Archaeolo"y, 19@@CM and C. 1. 1ilson and *. /. Palmer, <rdnance Sur)e# o! the Peninsula o! Sinai B/o)thampton: +rdnance /)rvey +ffice, 18'9C. D)mero)s other articles and !ooks mention these inscriptions, many simply in passin"M others like I. /vecenko, 6(he 3arly Period of the /inai =onastery in the 0i"ht of Its Inscriptions,7 .umbarton <a@s Pa&ers T B19''C, )se inscriptions to recreate history. T#. 5or e8amples of these and "raffiti at other locations see: A!L al.5araA al.EUsh, 62itG!Gt Eara!iyya "hayr mansLra fI Ha!al /ays,7 ,l-,bh+th 1@ B19'&C: TT@?#1'M J. Baramki, 6Al.n)<)sh al.Eara!iyya fI al.!Gdiya al.sLriyya,7 ,l-,bh+th 1@ B19'&C: #1@?&'M Hanine /o)rdel.(homine, 6Inscriptions et "raffiti Ara!es dS:po<)e Umayyade V propos de <)el<)es p)!lications r:centes,7 5e)ue des Dtudes 2slami'ues #T B19'&C: 11F?T$M and the section on inscriptions in Ara!ic, in +le" ,ra!ar, 9. *olod, H. 2n)stad, and 1. (ro)sdale, it# in the .esert/ Qas+r al-3+a#r %ast, T vols. BCam!rid"e: *arvard University Press, 19@8C, 1:191?9#. T&. =any e8amples of "lass vessels %ith %ritin" on them e8ist in most "lass collections thro)"ho)t the %orld. (he ran"e of <)ality of the "lass is from very fine to rather coarse. =ost of the %ritin" on "lass vessels, %hether in 0atin, ,reek, or Ara!ic, is mold !lo%n. /ome is en"raved. (he types of messa"es ran"e from "ood %ishes to the names of artists Bperhaps %orkshopsC to the la!elin" of ima"es. A fe% e8amples from the eastern =editerranean %ill serve to indicate the ran"e of the %hole. /pecific e8amples, rather than "eneric types, %hen "iven, refer to the collection at the Cornin" =)se)m, in Cornin", De% Kork. Jrinkin" vessels displayin" "ood %ishes in ,reek, dated to the first cent)ries C.3., commonly display s)ch sentiments as, 6Be happy so lon" as yo) are here,7 6/)ccess to yo),7 69eAoice and !e =erry,7 and 6Cheers.7 /imilar messa"es appear in Ara!ic on "lass vessels, altho)"h sometimes the format is more formal, as in the case of a small c)p %ith Ara!ic dated to the ei"hth or ninth cent)ry B'9.1.1C, %here the messa"e is: 6In the Dame of ,od the =ercif)l, the Compassionate, Blessin"s on him %ho drinks from this c)p %hich %as made in Jamasc)s )nder the s)pervision of /)n!at in the year 1.W7 +ther vessels displayed scenes or fi")res %hich %ere identified !y %ritin", s)ch as the 6"ladiator !o%ls.7 +n others, %ritin" identified !i!lical fi")res, or "eo"raphical sites represented on the vessel. /ometimes %ritin" %as )sed simply to la!el contents, like the "lass vials made to contain Her)salem earth and la!eled as s)ch. TF. I!n EA!d 9a!!ihi and al.1ashshG are t%o %ell kno%n and fre<)ently <)oted a)thors %ho descri!ed

the Ba"hdad and /amarra co)rt passion for %earin" and "ivin" te8tiles %ith verses of poetry em!roidered on them. Both so)rces <)ote several e8amples of the verses fo)nd on te8tiles, !elts, hair decorations, and sashes of the people at co)rt. (his %as a lyrical fashion for the literate to enAoy privately. I!n EA!d 9a!!ihi, ,l-*2'd al-Fard, @ vols. BCairo: BLlG<, 1##T*C, &:TT#?T'M and al. 1ashsha, =itb al-4uwashsh, ed. 9. 3. Br)nno% B0eiden: 3. H. Brill, 188'C, 1'@?@#. Chaps. #@?F' are especially f)ll of short verses that appeared on the dress of co)rt. T'. =)hOammad A!del A4I4 =ar4o)k, 6(he ()r!an of /am)el i!n =)sa, (he 3arliest Jated Islamic (e8tile,7 "ulletin o! the Facult# o! ,rts/ airo -ni)ersit# 1' BJecem!er, 19F&C: 1&#?F1. T@. Al.Ral<ashandI, S+ubh+ al-a*sha ! sin*at al-insh>, 1& vols. BCairo: al.=)Sassasah al.=isOriyya, al.EXmma, 19'&C, #:&8F?88. T8. Al.(a!ari, Ta>r@h, vol. F BCairo: =at!aEat al.Isti<ama, 19#9C, T@FT?F#. (he Ara!ic phrase transliterated is 6hOa!isLn fI sa!Il Allah.7 =ichael =orony dre% my attention to this mention of the )se of %ritin". T9. I am paraphrasin" here !eca)se ,om!rich in his attack on essentialism %as talkin" a!o)t markin"s or lines or form in paintin". 3. *. ,om!rich, ,rt and 2llusion: , Stud# in the Ps#cholog# o! Pictorial 5e&resentation/ The ,. W. 4ellon ;ectures in the Fine ,rts/ 6EF1, Bollin"en /eries #F BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 19F'C, T8?#TM 6+n Physio"nomic Perception,7 in 4editations on a 3obb# 3orse and <ther %ssa#s on the Theor# o! ,rt B0ondon: Phaidon P)!lishers, 19'#C, &F?F'M and 69aphaelSs =adonna della /edia,7 in Borm and Form: Studies in the ,rt o! the 5enaissance 2 B0ondon: Phaidon P)!lishers, 19''C, '&?8$. #$. Bo)ndary formation has !een st)died !y a %ide ran"e of disciplines. /ee 5redrik Barth, ed., %thnic $rou&s and "oundaries/ The Social <rganization o! .i!!erence B0ondon: ,eor"e Allen Un%in, 19'9CM ,re"ory Bateson, 6(he 0o"ical Cate"ories of 0earnin" and Comm)nication,7 in Ste&s to an %colog# o! the 4ind BDe% Kork: Ballantine Books, 19@TC, T@9?#$8M *eather 0echtman, 6/tyle in (echnolo"y/ome 3arly (ho)"hts,7 in 4aterial ulture/ St#le/ <rganization/ and .#namics o! Technolog#, ed. *eather 0echtman and 9o!ert /. =errill BCam!rid"e, =ass.: 1est P)!lishin", 19@'C, #?T$M and =ar"aret Conkey, 6Bo)ndedness in Art and /ociety,7 in S#mbolic and Structural ,rchaeolog#, ed. Ian *odder BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 198TC, 11F?T8. #1. A detailed history of the creation of the Armenian alpha!et is A. ,. Peri4anyan, 6Concernin" the +ri"in of Armenian 1ritin"7 Bin 9)ssianC, Peredneaziats@iG sborni@ 22 B=osco%: I4d.vo vostochnoi literat)ry, 19''C, 1$#?##. A more a!!reviated acco)nt of the history, !)t one %hich foc)ses on the morpholo"y, is the t%o part series of articles !y /er"e D. =o)raviev, 60es caractYres danieliens Bidentification et reconstr)ctionC7 and 60es caractYres mesropiens Ble)r "Ynes reconstit):eC,7 !oth in 5e)ue des Dtudes ,rm?niennes 1& B198$C: FF?8F, 8@?111. +ne can see in the historical circ)mstances and in the rationales for this alpha!etic chan"e direct parallels to those that led to the chan"e !y Atat)rk from the Ara!ic alpha!et and +ttoman lan")a"e to the modified 0atin alpha!et and ()rkish lan")a"e. =ore contemporary e8amples a!o)nd. In the former /oviet Union 9)manian and =aldavian %ere distin")ished !y different alpha!ets altho)"h they %ere the 6same7 lan")a"e. And, no%, %ith the !reak)p of the /oviet Union, the ()rkic.speakin" rep)!lics are en"a"ed in decidin" the serio)s iss)e of %hich alpha!et is the appropriate em!lem of their ne% nations. #T. +f co)rse, the ne% alpha!et also distin")ished Armenian from other nei"h!orin" Indo.3)ropean lan")a"es and %ritin" systems: e."., Pahlavi and Avestian, )sed primarily !y non.Christians. ##. 1hat is specifically referred to here is that the difference in !eliefs, do"ma, or rit)al amon" the vario)s Christian "ro)ps )s)ally did not leave traces in the comm)nal !)ildin"s of these "ro)ps.

Ch)rches )s)ally can !e distin")ished from syna"o")es and mos<)es, !)t, for e8ample, Armenian, By4antine, and /yriac ch)rches of this period are c)rrently archaeolo"ically indistin")isha!le, )nless, of co)rse, %ritin" appears. /ee chap. T. #&. /ee chap. T. #F. 1hile this iss)e %ill !e taken )p in chap. T in detail, ,reek inscriptions in syna"o")es appear in areas %here the comm)nity spoke ,reek. In the coastal city of Caesarea, for e8ample, the syna"o")e displayed three inscriptions in ,reek: see =oses /ch%a!e, 6(he /yna"o")e of Caesarea and Its Inscriptions,7 in ,lexander 4arx: Cubilee Holume on the <ccasion o! 3is Se)entieth "irthda# BDe% Kork: He%ish (heolo"ical /eminary, 19F$C, &##?&9M 3. 0. /)kenik, 6=ore a!o)t the Ancient /yna"o")e of Caesarea,7 "ulletin 5abinowitz T BH)ne 19F1C: T8?#$. (he syna"o")e in the coastal city of Apollonia has t%o inscriptions in ,reek Band one in /amaritanC: see =arilyn Hoyce /e"al Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, Bro%n University H)daic /t)dies, no. T9 BChico: /cholars Press, 198TC, 1''?'@. In Ascalon there are t%o ,reek inscriptions and one in *e!re%: see 3. 0. /)kenik, The ,ncient S#nagogue o! el-3ammeh, 'T?'@. In (i!erias, one inscription in ,reek: see 3. 0. /)kenik, ,ncient S#nagogues in Palestine and $reece B0ondon: +8ford University Press, 19#&C, @?T1 and FTM and Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 9F. 5or certain of these iss)es, the disc)ssions in chaps. T and & of 1alter H. +n", /.H., The Presence o! the Word B=inneapolis: University of =innesota Press, 19'@C are especially relevant. #'. /ee Hoseph Jan, 6=idrash and the Ja%n of 2a!!alah,7 in 4idrash and ;iterature, ed. ,eoffrey *. *artman and /anford B)dick BDe% *aven: Kale University Press, 198'C, 1T@?#9, for a provocative disc)ssion of the traAectory of the role of %ritin" amon" the He%s and reasons for the difference in contrast %ith medieval Christian practice. #@. Clearly, this reality conAoined elements of the referential and territorial f)nctions of officially sponsored %ritin". 9eferential dimensions th)s did, at times, have territorial f)nctions. #8. C. B. 1elles, 6Inscriptions,7 in $erasa it# o! the .eca&olis, ed. Carl *. 2raelin" BDe% *aven: American /chools of +riental 9esearch, 19#8C, #FF?&9#. (his st)dy is especially effective in demonstratin" the lon"evity of ,reek as the lan")a"e of official )se. #9. As more "ro)ps of people adopted the ,reek lan")a"e they also !ecame part of the acc)lt)ration %here!y pa"an ima"es and instit)tions %ere !ecomin" adopted and adapted into the ne%ly emer"in" c)lt)re of the fifth and si8th cent)ries. 5or e8amples of this process: /peros ;ryonis, Hr., 6Pane"yris of the By4antine /aint: A /t)dy in the Dat)re of a =edieval Instit)tion, Its +ri"in and 5ate,7 Sobornost B1981C: 19'?TT8, esp. T$9 ff.M =ichael Avi.Konah, 6Ancient /yna"o")es,7 ,riel #T B19@#C: T9?&#, and 60a mosaZ<)e A)ive dans les relations avec la mosaZ<)e classi<)e,7 in ;a mosaI'ue greco-romaine, collo<)e international s)r 60a mosaZ<)e "reco.romaine,7 Paris, 19'# BParis: 3ditions d) Centre Dational de la 9echerche /cientifi<)e, 19'FC, #TF?#1. &$. 5or a series of disc)ssions a!o)t the presence of ,reek and 0atin on !)ildin"s, see: /. (homas Parker, 5omans and Saracens: , 3istor# o! the ,rabian Frontier, American /chool of +riental 9esearch Jissertation /eries, no. ' B1inona 0ake: American /chools of +riental 9esearch, 198'C, chaps. 1?FM and 1elles, 6Inscriptions,7 #FF?&9#. 5or a detailed analysis of Christian practices of p)!lic te8ts into the late ei"hth cent)ry in the area of the By4antine provinces of Palestine Prima, /ec)nda, and (ertra, parts of Ara!ia and Phoenicia =aritima, or the Umayyad H)nds of al.Urd)n and 5ilastin, see 9o!ert /chick, 6(he 5ate of the Christians in Palestine d)rin" the By4antine.Umayyad (ransition, A.J. '$$?@F$7 BPh.J. diss., University of Chica"o, 198@C, esp. 1T?#8. &1. 5or all these e8amples see the so)rces indicated in note ## a!ove. In the oral practice, of co)rse, %e kno% that the vernac)lar %as )sed to s)mmari4e %hat %as !ein" read in *e!re%, so that orally vers)s

vis)ally ,reek %as )sed to comm)nicate essential !eliefs. &T. (his kind of relationship of *e!re% to the other lan")a"es e8ists in other syna"o")es %here the comm)nity, for instance, spoke Aramaic-and some mem!ers of some syna"o")es kne% ,reek. /ee, for instance, the inscriptions in the si8 syna"o")es in Beth /heEan B/cytholoplisC in the ,alilee %here Aramaic inscriptions appear alon" %ith ,reek. Beth Alpha: t%o inscriptions, one in Aramaic-partially destroyed-"ives the date and lists the in.kind donations of the con"re"ation. (he ,reek inscription "ives the names of the craftsmen Bfather and sonC %ho did the %ork. An inscription %ith the same content B!earin" the names of the father and sonC appears in another syna"o")e of the city, Beth /heEan A: see 3. 0. /)kenik, The ,ncient S#nagogues o! "eth ,l&ha B0ondon: +8ford University Press, 19#TCM and Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 1T'?T@. In Beth /heEan A, three ,reek and one Aramaic inscriptions appear: see Deh)m (sori, 6(he Ancient /yna"o")e at Beth /heEan,7 %retz 2srael: ,rchaeological/ 3istorical and $eogra&hical Studies 8 B19'@C: 1&9?'@. Beth /heEan B has t%o ,reek and one Aramaic inscriptions: see Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 1#&?#F. At 9ehov the archaeolo"ical %ork is not complete. &#. /tyle here has an e8tended meanin" Badoptin" one offered !y 0echtman, 6/tyle in (echnolo"y,7 &? FC %hich incl)des the activities %hich prod)ce the formal, physical characteristics of %ritin". &&. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:T81. (he %eavin" displayed the basmala, and s(ras al-!tih+a/ al-Gum*a, and al-mun!i'(n. &F. (he date of this incident is )nclear !eca)se I!n al.(O)%ayr did not mention the name of a specific ImGm.Caliph. B)t A)d"in" from %here this incident %as reported in the al-=hitat, he is pro!a!ly reportin" an incident from the first half of the t%elfth cent)ry. =ost of the ma)sole)ms displayin" ela!orate 2)fic on the interior %o)ld have !een !)ilt !y this time, and pro!a!ly, too, the mos<)e of al. A<mar. &'. /ee chap. # for detailed information on this s)!Aect. &@. 9oman Hako!son, 6Closin" /tatement: 0in")istics and Poetics,7 in St#le in ;anguage, ed. (homas A. /e!eok BCam!rid"e: =I( Press, 19'$C, #F$?@@, esp. #F#. *e lists here si8 f)nctional perspectives: emotive, referential, poetic, phatic, metalin")al, and conative. (hese perspectives applied to vario)s comm)nication f)nctions of poetry. 1hile in the analysis of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t the la!el 6referential7 has !een adopted, it is here defined some%hat differently than in Hako!son. &8. 5or a criti<)e of Hako!sonSs paradi"m, see Jonald Pre4iosi, 5ethin@ing ,rt 3istor#: 4editations on a o# Science BDe% *aven and 0ondon: Kale University Press, 1989C, esp. chap. F. A thoro)"h list of scholars infl)enced, directly or indirectly, !y Hako!sonSs %ork is impossi!le and )nnecessary here. (he follo%in" list %ill "ive a ran"e of the scholars and the fields %here his iss)es %ere taken )p: 5rederic Hameson, The Prison-3ouse o! ;anguage BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 19@TC, chap. #M *ayden 1hite, Tro&ics o! .iscourse: %ssa#s in ultural riticism BBaltimore: Hohns *opkins University Press, 19@8C, chap. #M and (erence *a%kes, Structuralism and Semiotics BBerkeley and 0os An"eles: University of California Press, 19@@C, @'?8'. /ee also =ichael Ba8andall, Painting and %x&erience in Fi!teenth- entur# 2tal# B+8ford: +8ford University Press, 19@TCM and +le" ,ra!ar, 6/ym!ols and /i"ns in Islamic Architect)re,7 in ,rchitecture as S#mbol and Sel!-2dentit#, Proceedin"s of /eminar 5o)r in the /eries Architect)ral (ransformations in the Islamic 1orld, 5e4, =orocco, +cto!er 9?1T, 19@9 BPhiladelphia: (he A"a 2han A%ard for Architect)re, c. 198$C, 1T?1@. &9. +le" ,ra!ar delivered a paper, 6,rafitti or Proclamations: 1hy 1rite on B)ildin"s>7 BAnn)al =eetin" of the Colle"e Art Association, Philadelphia, 198#C in %hich he proposed in a very tentative manner a five.modal paradi"m Bindicative, commemorative, semantic, iconic, and formalC %hich shared some of the limitations of Hako!sonSs on %hich it, too, %as modeled. Ket, the literat)re on the

social f)nction of si"ns, in %hich the !eholder, reader, )ser is present is not lar"e. (he te8t edited !y =arshall Blonsky, <n Signs BBaltimore: (he Hohns *opkins University Press, 198FC contains more articles addressed to this iss)e than most vol)mes of this sort. /ee also *ed"e and ,)nther 2ress, Social Semiotics BIthaca: Cornell University Press, 1988C. F$. A. I. /a!ra, <&tics/ ,stronom# and ;ogic Studies in ,rabic Science and Philoso&h# B;arior)m, 199&CM Alha4en, The <&tics o! 2bn al 3a#tham, trans. A. I. /a!ra, T vols. B0ondon: 1ar!)r" Instit)te, University of 0ondon, 1989CM A. I. /a!ra, 6/ensation and Inference in Alha4enSs (heory of ;is)al Perception,7 in Studies in Perce&tion: 2nterrelations in the 3istor# o! Philoso&h# and Science, ed. Peter 2. =achamer and 9o!ert ,. ()rn!)ll BCol)m!)s: +hio /tate University, 19@8C. F1. Aspects of these iss)es that pertain to shapin" the interpretation of the confi")ration one sees are termed !y Ba8andall, 6the period eye7 BPainting and %x&erience, T9?1$#C. Ba8andall presents the !eholdin" a)dience as homo"eneo)s. FT. =ost st)dies mentioned in note T )nderstand %ritin" and literacy from the same theoretical perspective as adopted in this st)dy. (he nota!le e8ception, of co)rse, is the %ork of the social anthropolo"ist, Hack ,oody. ,oody, in most, !)t not all, of his st)dies, ar")es that %ritin" !rin"s %ith it inherent <)alities replicated in all societies. 5or an e8position of the pro!lems of ,oodySs approach, see /treet, ;iterac# in Theor# and Practice, chap. 1T. F#. H. =. 9o"ers, in his revie% of alligra&h# and 2slamic ulture !y Annemarie /chimmel, in ,rt 2nternational T@, no. & B198&C: '8, %here he calls for a re.eval)ation of the practice %ithin the Islamic field of seein" a direct relationship !et%een chancery hand%ritin" and %ritin" on !)ildin"s and other o!Aects. F&. Priscilla P. /o)cek, 6(he Arts of Calli"raphy,7 in The ,rts o! the "oo@ in entral ,sia, ed. Basil ,ray BParis: UD3/C+./ham!ala P)!lications, 19@9C, @?#&, %here she defines her topic as calli"raphy %ithin co)rt circles and o)tlines <)estions %hich remain )nans%era!le. FF. 9ichard 3ttin"ha)sen, 6Ara!ic 3pi"raphy: Comm)nication or /ym!olic Affirmation,7 in Bear %astern Bumismatics/ 2conogra&h#/ %&igra&h# and 3istor#: Studies in 3onor o! $eorge . 4iles, ed. Jickran 2. 2o)ymiAian BBeir)t: American University of Beir)t, 19@&C, T9@?#11M +le" ,ra!ar, 6(he Umayyad Jome of the 9ock in Her)salem, 7 ,rs <rientalis # B19F9C: F1?8&M of the %ritin"s of Hanine /o)rdel.(homine, those takin" )p iss)es similar to 60Secrit)re Ara!e et son :vol)tion ornamentale,7 in %criture et la &s#chologie des &eu&les/ JJ22e semaine de s#nthAse BParis: A Colin, 19'#C, T&9?'1. F'. (hese incl)de A. *. Christie, 6(he Jevelopment of +rnament from Ara!ic /cript,7 "urlington 4agazine &$ B19TTC: T8@?9TM /am)el 5l)ry, 60e d:cor :pi"raphi<)e des mon)ments 5atimides d) Caire,7 S#rie 1@ B19#'C: #'F?@'M Adolph ,rohmannn, 6(he +ri"in and Jevelopment of 5loriated 2)fic,7 ,rs <rientalis T B19F@C: 18#?T1#M =)hOammad A!del A4I4 =ar4o)k, 6(he 3vol)tion of Inscriptions on 5atimid (e8tiles,7 ,rs 2slamica 1$ B19&TC: 1'&?''M and 0isa ;olov.,olom!ek, 6Plaited 2)fic on /amanid 3pi"raphic Pottery,7 ,rs <rientalis ' B19''C: 1$@?##. 5ran4 9osenthal, 6/i"nificant Uses of Ara!ic 1ritin",7 ,rs <rientalis & B19'1C: 1F?T#, %here the !asis for the development of )se is reli"ion. 3rica Cr)ikshank Jodd, 6(he Ima"e of the 1ord,7 "er#tus 18 B19'9C: #F?@#, esp. &9, F&M Anthony 1elch, 63pi"raphs as Icons: (he 9ole of the 1ritten 1ord in Islamic Art,7 in The 2mage and the Word: on!rontations in Cudaism/ hristianit# and 2slam, ed. H. ,)tman, American Academy of 9eli"ion and /ociety of Bi!lical 0iterat)re, 9eli"ion and (he Arts, /eries & B=isso)la, =ont.: /cholars Press for the American Academy of 9eli"ion, 19@@C, '#?@&, %here he a)"ments JoddSs position !y disc)ssin" the role of the Caliph EA!d al.=Glik. +!vio)sly e8cl)ded here are the compendi)ms that doc)ment the )se of inscriptions and %hich provide the records of pra8is that are essential to scholarly %ork: e."., the or&us inscri&tionum ,rabicorum,

the 5 %,, and vario)s %orks of /o)rdel.(homine, s)ch as 6Inscriptions et "rafitti Ara!es.7 F@. 9. B)lliet, on)ersion to 2slam in the 4edie)al Period/ ,n %ssa# in Quantitati)e 3istor# BCam!rid"e [ 0ondon: *arvard University Press, 19@9C, 11@?#1, %here in disc)ssin" the entire %estern area of Islam he sets the date for the conversion process B%hen most non.=)slims %o)ld have !ecome =)slimC in 3"ypt at 1$1$, a date that coincides almost precisely %ith the 5atimid p)!lic te8t. +ther scholars Bs)ch as J. Jennett, on)ersion and Poll Tax in %arl# 2slam PCam!rid"e: *arvard University Press, 19F$Q and I. 0apid)s, 6(he Conversion of 3"ypt to Islam,7 2srael <riental Studies T P19@TQ: TF'?F@, amon" othersC set the date for this conversion some t%o h)ndred years earlier. =ichael =orony, in 6(he A"e of Conversions: A 9eassessment,7 in on)ersion and ontinuit#/ 2ndigenous hristian ommunities in 2slamic ;ands %ighth to %ighteenth enturies, Papers in =edieval /t)dies 9, ed. =ichael ,ervers and 9am4i Hi!ran Bikha4i B(oronto: Pontifical Instit)te of =edieval /t)dies, 199$C, 1#F?F$, revie%ed the evidence for conversions %ithin Islamic societies and assessed some of the p)rposes to %hich conversion hypothesis have !een applied in scholarly %ritin"s. *e ca)tioned a"ainst )sin" conversion as a 6ca)se7 for developments especially %hen relationships are asserted rather than demonstrated. F8. =ichael Carter, 60an")a"e, (r)th and Po%er in Classical Islam7 Bpaper delivered at American 9esearch Center in 3"ypt, 5e!r)ary, 199#C, and notes from this lect)re %hich he kindly made availa!le to me. (he fo)rth tenth and especially the fifth eleventh cent)ries sa% the p)!lication of teachin" "rammars for !s+h+a as the standardi4ation of %hat constit)ted p)re and proper Ara!ic !ecame esta!lished. F9. =any kinds of comments in A!L /OGlihO, al.Armani, The hurches and 4onasteries o! %g#&t and Some Beighbouring ountries, trans. B. (. A. 3vetts B+8ford: (he Clarendon Press, 189FC s)""est the level at %hich the leaders of the vario)s Christian Bmainly Coptic, Armenian, and Destorian comm)nitiesC interacted %ith the )pper echelons of the 5atimid "overnin" "ro)p and th)s pres)ma!ly interacted in Ara!ic lan")a"e. Almost every pa"e of this te8t reports incidents of conversations !et%een leaders of the Christian comm)nities and mem!ers of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)ps. '$. 9o!ert D. Delson, 6An Icon at =t. /inai and Christian Paintin" in =)slim 3"ypt d)rin" the 1#th and 1&th Cent)ries,7 ,rt "ulletin 'F, no. T B198#C: T$1?18, disc)sses an ill)strated mid.thirteenth cent)ry "ospel %here Ara!ic is )sed. 5or the )se of Ara!ic in the He%ish comm)nities one need only cons)lt the vario)s scholarly %orks of, amon" others, ,oitein, especially 4editerranean Societ#, vols. 1?&. It sho)ld !e noted here that the He%ish comm)nity %rote Ara!ic primarily in *e!re% characters. '1. /ampson, Writing S#stems, 11?&F, %here he s)pports this position. 'T. /tock, The 2m&lications o! ;iterac#, esp. #?11. *e %rote a co"ent s)mmary of this mono"raph, incl)din" these points, in 6(e8ts, 9eaders and 3nacted Darratives,7 Hisible ;anguage T$, no. # B198'C: 19&?#$1. '#. 9eadin" phrases %ithin a conte8t %as an iss)e raised !y 3ttin"ha)sen, 6Ara!ic 3pi"raphy,7 T9@? #$T. *e pointed o)t that !eholders often co)ld comprehend the content of an inscription re"ardless of Bserio)s, and often hilario)sC spellin" errors. +n a !roader !ase, /ampson, Writing S#stems, @@?98, raises these iss)es. /cri!ner and Cole, The Ps#cholog# o! ;iterac#, p)!lished a contemporary ethno"raphic st)dy %ith res)lts that are directly relevant to this definition of 6literacy.7 I have raised this <)estion !efore in speakin" of the 5atimids in 6Art of the P)!lic (e8t.7 '&. /cri!ner and Cole, The Ps#cholog# o! ;iterac#. 'F. /ampson, Writing S#stems, @&?@F, 9T?9#, %here he disc)sses incomplete scripts and their reada!ility. (his iss)e is also considered in Bierman, 6Art of the P)!lic (e8t.7

''. Clearly the appearance of 2)fic %ritin" on the %alls of !)ildin"s in the 5atimid period %as not an invitation to !eholders to participate in an ele"ant "ame of decipherment %here "raphic shapes of letters co)ld represent inn)mera!le %ords. It is the kno%led"e of the conte8t, as /ampsonSs %ork e8plains, that, for e8ample, ena!les todaySs researchers acc)stomed to readin" medieval inscriptions of the 5atimid period to more easily read the lines of 2)fic %ritin" on the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e, than f)lly literate speakers and readers of Ara!ic, the person on the street, so to speak, %ho is not savvy a!o)t the 5atimid conte8t.

). Signing t!e C"mm*nit%

5or some five h)ndred years !efore the 5atimid p)!lic te8t first appeared, officially sponsored %ritin" %as )sed thro)"ho)t the eastern =editerranean to address "ro)p a)diences. (he archaeolo"ical remains from the time of the %idespread !)ildin" pro"ram initiated !y the By4antine 3mperor H)stinian Br. FT@? F'F C.3.C provide a s)fficient !ase of comm)nal practices-the specific )ses of %ritin" and the employment of specific alpha!ets-to disc)ss %hat %e call 6si"nin" the comm)nity.7 +)r first p)rpose, then, is to revie% ho% those in po%er )sed %ritten si"ns addressed to "ro)p a)diences, e8plorin" and assessin" !oth the official practice in the By4antine, Umayyad, A!!asid, and early Cairene 5atimid rei"ns, and the relevant social practices in non.r)lin" "ro)ps of those imperi)ms %here some assessment is possi!le. 5or some "ro)ps, s)ch as the Haco!ite, =alkite, and /yriac Christians, the lack of s)fficient evidence makes assessment impossi!le.P1Q Indeed, the evidence for the social practice of officially sponsored %ritin" in the ,reek +rthodo8 and Christian comm)nities e8ists !asically from the )r!an comm)nities. Amon" the He%ish comm)nities, destr)ction of syna"o")es d)rin" the fifth and si8th cent)ries leaves them represented lar"ely !y archaeolo"ical remains. Altho)"h the evidence is lar"e eno)"h, m)ch of it from these five h)ndred years is fra"mentary and its contents )ne8plored. Jetailed disc)ssion of the prod)cers of the te8ts or the e8pectations of the intended a)diences remains diffic)lt, sometimes impossi!le. Conse<)ently, in this e8ploration of comm)nity %ritin" my inferences are often dra%n from practices %idely spaced in time and place. (he diffic)lties of interpretation are not simply the res)lt of individ)al missin" !)ildin"s like the ,reat =os<)es of 9amla and Aleppo,PTQ or of !)ildin"s a!o)t %hich little is kno%n !eyond their location, s)ch as H)stinianSs Dea cathedral in Her)salem,P#Q and %hole cate"ories of str)ct)res that represent official architectonic practices, s)ch as dr al-imaras.P&Q Dor is it simply a matter of !)ildin"s only partially e8tant, like most syna"o")es, or so !adly dama"ed or chan"ed !y later restorations that they are not )sef)l for this analysis, s)ch as many of the ch)rches.PFQ 3<)ally important, simply said, %e often kno% little a!o)t %hat does remain. Critically, %e do not kno% or )nderstand many of the social practices. 1e can only poorly identify or even descri!e the comm)nities that )sed and s)pported some !)ildin"s %e do kno%. 1e have kno%n for some time that the small to%n of Umm al.Himal, for e8ample, contained fifteen ch)rches. Ket only no% are %e !e"innin" to )nderstand the composition of the con"re"ations that s)pported them, and ho% the vario)s ch)rches mi"ht have f)nctioned in a lar"er social net%ork.P'Q /imilarly, %e kno% nothin" of the comm)nities that d)rin" the Umayyad r)le !)ilt the small mos<)es %hich dotted the desert area of the bild al-shm, like those fo)nd at Umm al.1alId and Ha!al /ays.P@Q (h)s, in most instances, %e not only do not kno% the rite )sed in the ch)rches, or the specific !eliefs of those )sin" the mos<)es, %e have little relia!le kno%led"e of %ho sponsored the str)ct)res or of the socio.economic and political sit)ation of their con"re"ations. +ne f)rther e8ample sho)ld serve. 5or some pop)lations disc)ssed in this chapter, !oth the prod)cers and the a)diences have to !e inferred from the presence of an alpha!et and lan")a"e. (he /yro. Palestinian Aramaic fo)nd in the ch)rch at Umm al.9)SLs near Her)salem, in the monastery at 2hir!ad

=ird in the H)daean desert, and in a mosaic inscription in a ch)rch at al.R)%aysma, so)th of Amman, indicate a /yro.Palestinian comm)nity distin")isha!le only !y its %ritin".P8Q Dothin" else no% c)rrently kno%n separates this comm)nity materially from others, and like%ise nothin" is kno%n a!o)t the social str)ct)re of the comm)nity. In s)m, then, altho)"h many h)ndreds of official !)ildin"s remain-ch)rches, mos<)es, syna"o")es, !aptisteries, hospitals, and the like-many are in s)ch a fra"mentary state that they are not )sef)l for the p)rposes of this st)dy. +ften floors remain, !)t %alls do not. All too often the ori"inal ornamentation is missin", or if pla<)es %ith %ritin" on them are fo)nd at the site, little can !e done to reconstr)ct the specific placement of the pla<)e. 1ritin" in non. permanent materials !y and lar"e perished lon" a"o. /till, tho)"h not as f)lsome as %e %o)ld like, eno)"h archaeolo"ical evidence remains to permit a !e"innin" analysis. (he time frame of this st)dy, startin" %ith the rei"n of the 3mperor H)stinian, also clearly !rin"s some diffic)lties. B)t the practices of )sin" %ritin" addressed to "ro)p a)diences !oth in the !)ildin"s sponsored !y mem!ers of his imperi)m, and in the str)ct)res !)ilt !y other "ro)ps %ithin the !roader social formation of By4antine r)le can here !e e8amined as a !ase of Umayyad practice of %ritin" si"ns. By4antine did not !ecome Umayyad practice. 9ather, the systems of %ritin" si"ns for "ro)p a)diences em!edded %ithin the !roader social formations of !oth By4antine and Umayyad societies %ere e<)ivalent !)t not identical. In !oth societies, and in those s)!se<)ent )ntil the 5atimids, )sin" %ritin" %as one factor amon" cl)sters of others that linked the social or"ani4ation of small and lar"e comm)nities. (his time frame also helps )s shift the consideration of the social practice of )sin" %ritin" a%ay from e8planations !ased solely on reli"ion, =)slim vers)s Christian. =any scholars !elieve, incorrectly, a more e8panded )se of %ritin" to !e characteristic of =)slim vis)al practices from the late ei"hth cent)ry on%ard. (o the contrary, )sin" these partic)lar five h)ndred years lets )s e8amine the social )ses of %ritin" !y societies that s)cceeded one another in a "iven "eo"raphic area. Imperi)m s)cceeded imperi)m, By4antine, Umayyad, A!!asid, !)t the system of )sin" the "enre of %ritten te8t disc)ssed here chan"ed little. I am emphasi4in" that typical forms of %ritin" linked similar kinds of prod)cer, a)dience, topic, medi)m, content, and conte8t re"ardless of alpha!et and lan")a"e, and re"ardless of the reli"ion that dominated the society. In fact, a caref)l readin" of the evidence demonstrates that officially sponsored %ritin" %ith a "ro)p address served socially e<)ivalent f)nctions for all sectarian comm)nities from the si8th thro)"h the tenth cent)ries. 9)le appropriated the trappin"s of r)le. 1rit lar"e is the tr)th that re"ardless of differences in reli"io)s !eliefs, the pattern of the )se of %ritin" addressed to "ro)p a)diences %as e<)ivalent thro)"ho)t all comm)nities. 1hat follo%s is a siftin" of this )neven archaeolo"ical and artifact)al evidence for o!serva!le re")larities %hich can !e )nderstood as social r)le or social practice %hether or not prescriptive r)les or re")lations can !e fo)nd in the records of the referent comm)nity. (hese o!served re")larities of practice are !racketed !y the frames I call the territorial, aesthetic, and referential f)nctions. (ho)"h considered here discretely, for a !eholder all three aspects of meanin" %ere present at once. *o%ever, in any partic)lar historical conte8t, one f)nction %as often the primary conveyor of the meanin". \ \ \

Territ"ria& F*n'ti"n
(he )niversal social practice amon" "ro)ps in the eastern =editerranean in this period %as to )se officially sponsored %ritin" to mark sectarian spaces !y placin" %ritin" inside those spaces, strate"ically. Christians of all denominations, =)slims, and He%s alike follo%ed the same practice. In contrast, only to a very limited e8tent %as officially sponsored %ritin" addressed to a mi8ed a)dience

)sed as a territorial marker in the p)!lic spaces. Indeed, %ritin" placed on the o)tside of str)ct)res, or invadin" p)!lic spaces in any %ay, %as rare. In fact, one si"nificant earlier )se of %ritin", the inscri!in" of milestones alon" maAor hi"h%ays connectin" commercial centers, %as virt)ally discontin)ed !y the openin" years of this st)dy and %as not pro"rammatically revived !y any r)lin" "ro)p.P9Q (ho)sands of milestones are e8tant from 9oman?early By4antine practice, %hereas only a fe% are e8tant from as late as the Umayyad and early A!!asid periods.P1$Q (he practices of the By4antines, Umayyads, A!!asids, and early 5atimids, as r)lin" "ro)ps, %ere similar in their minimal )se of %ritten si"ns in the p)!lic space. (hose minimal )ses %ill !e revie%ed here first, !efore the more si"nificant territorial f)nctions of %ritin" %ithin sectarian spaces %ill !e analy4ed. (he most consistent %ay in %hich %ritin" %as addressed to a mi8ed a)dience in the p)!lic space, one that %as rene%ed and contin)ed thro)"ho)t the entire period, involved the markin" of thresholds of %alled )r!an areas. By4antine, Umayyad, and 5atimid r)lers and "overnors placed %ritin" on the o)tsides of the "ate%ays thro)"h %hich access into cities %as controlled.P11Q 38amples of this practice are fo)nd in the seats of imperi)ms like Constantinople and Cairo, as %ell as in more r)ral, altho)"h commercially strate"ic, areas like A<a!a.P1TQ 9)lers contin)ally )pdated inscriptions, s)ch as those on the city "ates into Constantinople, and %ritin" %as placed on the "ates of %alled cities ne%ly constr)cted late in this period, s)ch as Cairo. (he presence of ,reek or Ara!ic alpha!ets on the e8terior of city thresholds %as a si"n of po%er markin" !o)ndariesM it indicated not that the "ro)p %ithin %as !o)nd !y a common lan")a"e or common !eliefs, !)t that the "ro)p %as !o)nd !y a common r)le. =oreover, that alpha!et on the "ate %as a vis)al inde8 of !oth the official lan")a"e of r)le, and, !y e8tension, of the lan")a"e of the !elief system of the r)lin" "ro)p. Cities vis)ally linked !y similar %ritin"s !ecame )nits in a chain %hich inde8ed the e8tent of r)le, and often-in the se<)ence of inscriptions-the s)ccession of r)le.P1#Q 0ess fre<)ently and less consistently, r)lers also )sed %ritin" in the p)!lic space to mark the perimeter of their territory. *i"hly )neven archaeolo"ical data s)""ests that only By4antine r)lers amon" all those st)died here consistently marked the forts on the frontier of their territory in the eastern =editerranean %ith %ritin".P1&Q 9ecent analysis of these forts and their inscriptions !y (homas Parker s)""ests that this specific practice %as especially important to By4antine r)lers primarily !eca)se they often re)sed 9oman forts %hich already displayed other officially sponsored %ritin". (h)s the re. makin" or re.%ritin" !y By4antine r)lers %as one %ay of )pdatin" the %ritten si"ns of po%er and r)le. *i"h%ay markers f)nctioned in a similar %ay. Umayyad r)lers do not seem to have )sed %ritin" as a consistent si"n on str)ct)res servin" similar perimeter or !order f)nctions, possi!ly !eca)se they seem to have !)ilt ne% !)ildin"s for ne% types of !order services. 0ike%ise, the A!!asids and 5atimids apparently did not mark their !orders in the eastern =editerranean in the same fashion. +fficially sponsored %ritin" on coins is the only other si"nificant )se of %ritin" in p)!lic space d)rin" these cent)ries !efore the emer"ence of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t. (he coins minted !y all r)lers and "overnors from the si8th to the eleventh cent)ry displayed %ritin". /ince coins circ)lated mainly %ithin the territory of the iss)er, many )r!an residents in all cities thro)"ho)t the area, and over the cent)ries, %o)ld have !een e8posed to %ritin" on coins as a si"n of po%er that "overned them, even takin" into acco)nt Philip C)rtinSs hypothesis that coins %ere circ)lated far less %idely than %e tho)"ht.P1FQ (%o incidents from this period involvin" the %ritin" on coins ill)strate, first, the )se of alpha!ets as a "ro)p identity si"n and, second, the dan"ers of easy "enerali4ations a!o)t si"nificantly a)"mented )ses of %ritin" !y early =)slim r)lers. Umayyad copper coins of the Jamasc)s mint Bphase t%o coinsC displayed a By4antine royal portrait on the o!verse, typical of the seventh cent)ry Constantinopolitan

folles Bcopper coinsC, and on the reverse the capital =, %hich on the By4antine prototype represented the n)meral &$, their nominal denomination. (hese coins %ere minted %ith three different %ritin" formats "ivin" the mint name: one %ith ,reek as the sole denomination BJA=C, one %ith ,reek BJA=A2+CC and Ara!ic Bdimash'C, and one solely %ith Ara!ic Bdimash'C, %hich accordin" to =ichael Bates represents their pro!a!le date of iss)e Bfi"s. F, ', @C.

5i". Fa. Copper coin, Umayyad period, ,reek lan")a"e B19F&.11T.& Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". F!. Copper coin, Umayyad period, ,reek lan")a"e B19F&.11T.& Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". 'a. Copper coin, Umayyad period, ,reek and Ara!ic lan")a"es B191@.T1F.##1& Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". '!. Copper coin, Umayyad period, ,reek and Ara!ic lan")a"es B191@.T1F.##1& Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". @a. Copper coin, Umayyad period, Ara!ic lan")a"e B19@$.1$@.T' Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". @!. Copper coin, Umayyad period, Ara!ic lan")a"e B19@$.1$@.T' Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC (hese Umayyad copper coins follo% the By4antine prototype closely in ima"e and in %ei"ht. +nly the presence of %ritin" distin")ished the Umayyad iss)es from the By4antine !eca)se no By4antine folles displayed the Jamasc)s mint name, even in ,reek, as part of their ima"e. 1e can )nderstand the shift in alpha!ets and lan")a"es on the coins as the iss)ersS attempt to relate the ima"e on the coin Band th)s the coinC to the "ro)p of Ara!ic speakers, especially the =)slims %ithin their territory, rather than to the ,reek speakers, especially the +rthodo8 ,reek =)slims. An e<)ally interestin" analo")e, and perhaps one more familiar, is the Umayyad silver coin iss)ed from the Jamasc)s mint %ith /assanid ima"ery. (he o!verse of these coins displays the ima"e of the /assanian emperor 2hosra% II. +n the ri"ht of the ima"e is his name %ritten in Pahlavi script Bmiddle Persian lan")a"eC, and !ehind his head is a la)datory inscription also in Pahlavi script. (his entire ima"e, then, complete %ith its ori"inal %ritin", is Noroastrian /assanian, relatin" r)le to a specific reli"io)s c)lt)re. Coins iss)ed in A.*. @T Bfi". 8C !ear in addition the inscription in Ara!ic, 6In the name of ,od, =)hOammad is the =essen"er of ,od,7 Bthose iss)ed in @# and @& display a sli"htly lon"er inscriptionC. *ere, a"ain, %ritin" in Ara!ic served as a territorial marker.

5i". 8a. Umayyad silver coin, 2hosra% II B19@1.#1'.#F Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC

5i". 8!. Umayyad silver coin, 2hosra% II B19@1.#1'.#F Collection of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC (he second incident in coina"e history, one from %hich m)ch has !een e8trapolated in assessin" the )ses of %ritin" in Ara!ic !y =)slim r)lers, occ)rred in '9'?9@ C.3. A.*. @@?@9 %hen the Umayyad Caliph EA!d al.=Glik !e"an to mint coins %hich displayed only %ritin" in Ara!ic Bfi". 9C.P1'Q Instit)tin" this ne% epi"raphic format provided a readily distin")isha!le marker that ena!led )sers to differentiate his ne% dinars B"old coinsC and dirhams Bsilver coinsC %hich %ere li"hter in %ei"ht from the others in common c)rrency.P1@Q (he 6other7 heavier coins in circ)lation %ere those minted previo)sly !y himself and earlier Umayyad r)lers, and those of other rival =)slim leaders, as %ell as those of By4antine leaders. EA!d al.=GlikSs decision to p)t more %ritin" on coins needs to !e seen as an isolated act in developin" a set of si"ns indicative of his o%n and of Umayyad po%er. *e did not )se %ritin" in any other vis)al medi)m either more fre<)ently or in more vis)ally si"nificant %ays than other r)lers of his time.P18Q

5i". 9a. 9eform coin, EA!d al.=Glik B1$$T.1.&$' Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". 9!. 9eform coin, EA!d al.=Glik B1$$T.1.&$' Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 1e do not f)lly )nderstand %hat made EA!d al.=Glik choose a solely epi"raphic format for his coins and not also for the !)ildin"s he sponsored, !)t o!vio)sly one of his intentions %as to create a vis)al difference from other coins, th)s helpin" his o%n ne% iss)e. (hat other =)slim leaders minted coins in the epi"raphic pattern he esta!lished at the Jamasc)s mint, !e"innin" %ith his "overnor of Ira<, al. *OaAAGA, is !est )nderstood in the li"ht of political alliances. (hose adoptin" the ne% epi"raphic format ali"ned themselves %ith the Umayyad Caliphate and %ith Caliph EA!d al.=Glik. A totally epi"raphic format in Ara!ic %as an innovation that denoted a specific "ro)p in the social matri8 and %as an effective tool to set the Umayyads and those %ho s)pported them apart from others. (he contin)ed adoption of this format !y the A!!asids and their "overnors is like%ise a political decision that )nderstood the format as a le"itimatin" si"n of =)slim po%er associated %ith a specific socio.political tradition. (he !reak %ith this format !y the 5atimids in the tenth cent)ry needs to !e seen as a conscio)s manip)lation of a %idely adopted si"n of =)slim political po%er. +ne looks in vain in the archaeolo"ical and s)pportin" te8t)al records for other s#stematic )ses of %ritten si"ns in the p)!lic space !eyond the limited ones descri!ed here. 38tant !)ildin"s from /alonika to Cairo reveal an e<)ivalent a!sence in the practice of all r)lin" "ro)ps in the )se of %ritin" in the p)!lic space. 1ritten si"ns %ere not )sed systematically to differentiate Christian sectarian !)ildin"s accordin" to their riteMP19Q nor to mark !)ildin"s of different reli"ionsM nor to indicate different f)nctions for str)ct)res-even in lar"e, prospero)s cities %ith pop)lations representin" several sectarian "ro)ps and economic levels.PT$Q 3ven the placement of %ritin" on the lintels of entrance door%ays is done irre")larly. In the late fo)rth cent)ry, in the rei"n of (heodosi)s, the 9oman temenos in Jamasc)s %as p)rified for Christian )se. At that time inscriptions %ere carved into already e8istin" lintels of the triple.arched door%ay in the facade of the so)th %all of the temenos. (hese inscriptions are still visi!le today on the o)ter face of the %alled.)p door of the mos<)e. B)t it %as even more fre<)ent for lintel inscriptions to !e on the inner face, or inner of the t%o doors if the doors

are do)!le, as at the Jome of the 9ock.PT1Q +ne can point to e8ceptions: the Armenian ch)rch on Achtamar, )n)s)al in its island settin" and in its ornamentation %ithin Armenian conventions, and the so.called (hree Joor =os<)e in Rairo%an for %hich f)ll archaeolo"ical data is lackin", !oth some%hat removed from the "eo"raphical area considered here, !)t !oth displayin" %ritin" on their e8teriors.PTTQ Ket these rare instances only )nderscore %hat %as the normal practice of not )sin" %ritin" as a vis)ally si"nificant marker in the p)!lic space. Investi"ation into p)!lic ceremonies-By4antine, Umayyad, A!!asid, and early 5atimid-reveals a similar a!sence of s#stematic )ses of %ritin" as vis)al si"ns of po%er.PT#Q Jescriptions of p)!lic ceremonies are infre<)ent and not systematic and th)s only preliminary A)d"ments can !e p)t forth. 1hat can safely !e said is that te8tiles %ith %ritin" on them, or standards %ith %ords or letters, did not play a si"nificant eno)"h role in any ceremonies of this period to elicit s)!stantial comment. By contrast, from these same %ritten so)rces %e do )nderstand the importance of certain colors: for e8ample, the importance of %earin" !lack, )s)ally !lack %ool, for officials in A!!asid p)!lic ceremony. Color also played a role in By4antine ceremonial, especially in Constantinople, as did stat)ary, %hich %as often carried in processions. 1hat little is kno%n a!o)t Umayyad p)!lic display s)""ests the lack of a consistent system of displayin" this po%er to a p)!lic a)dience. /trikin"ly different in fre<)ency and consistency %as the )se of %ritin" placed inside sectarian space, markin" that space as "ro)p specific. *ere e8tensive archaeolo"ical evidence e8ists for most "ro)ps, even tho)"h a"ain it is )neven. 1ithin sectarian spaces, !eholders, already comm)nity mem!ers, came prepared %ith a common conte8t)al frame of reference. 1ithin their space, the presence of the "ro)p. specific alpha!et served to the sectarian !eholders as one of several si"ns of their "ro)pSs identification. In fact, the importance of the alpha!et as a comm)nal si"n is reinforced !y %hat %e kno% of the %ritin" practices of He%ish and Coptic comm)nities as early as the tenth cent)ry in 3"ypt. 1ithin these comm)nities, Ara!ic, the lan")a"e of r)le, %as %ritten in the alpha!et of the "ro)p, kno%n today as H)deo.Ara!ic and Copto.Ara!ic. 1e can e8pand that statement to say that %ritin" in the "ro)p.specific alpha!et %as an em!lem of the "ro)p !eca)se the presence of that same alpha!et marked all the "ro)pSs sectarian spaces. Jirectly stated, the Coptic alpha!et and lan")a"e %as placed in all Coptic ch)rches, and Copts as a comm)nity %ere reinforced !y acceptin" those spaces and the %ritin" therein as appropriate to their "ro)p, and their "ro)p alone.PT&Q (he territorial f)nction of the )se of Coptic %as reinforced !y the social practice of 3"yptian society as a %hole, for Coptic %as )sed in no other sectarian space e8cept those fre<)ented !y Copts. Ket altho)"h %ritin" %as a )!i<)ito)s territorial si"n )sed !y all "ro)ps d)rin" these cent)ries, it %as a secondary si"n or site for conveyin" territorial meanin"s. Jepictions occ)pied far lar"er areas inside all sectarian spaces. 5or e8ample, more space on the %alls of the Jome of the 9ock Bfi". 1$C and the ,reat =os<)e of Jamasc)s %as devoted to the depictions of trees and plants and, in the ,reat =os<)e of Jamasc)s specifically, to the depictions of !)ildin"s, than %as allocated for %ritin". (he same co)ld !e said for Christian sectarian spaces. 1ritin" %as secondary to the depiction of !i!lical and De% (estament fi")res. (o the !eholder %ithin %hichever sectarian space, =)slim, Christian, or He%ish, depictions, m)ch more than officially sponsored %ritin", served as "ro)p.specific em!lems, markin" that space and others like it as !elon"in" to the "ro)p. (ho)"h vis)ally less important, officially sponsored %ritin" did mark the space as "ro)p specific, and the presence of a partic)lar alpha!et often si"naled to the !eholder a transformed or comm)nity. specific messa"e for depictions that %ere common in the society as a %hole. (ake, for e8ample, the closely similar depictions in several mosaic pavements on the floors of diverse sectarian str)ct)res!oth syna"o")es and ch)rches-from the si8th cent)ry, as noted a!ove.PTFQ (hese floors, in vario)s states of preservation, are located at the ch)rch of /hellal, at the syna"o")e at ,a4a, at the =aEon Bor

DirimC syna"o")e, on an Armenian mosaic floor in Her)salem, and in a!!reviated versions in a fe% other places Bfi"s. 11, 1T, 1#, 1&C. *o% %ritin" f)nctioned to specify the depiction !ecomes clear %hen %e compare three of these pavements %ithin three different types of comm)nal space: the pavements in the syna"o")e at =aEon, in the ch)rch at /hellal, and in the Armenian ch)rch in Her)salem.

5i". 1$. Interior, Jome of the 9ock BJra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y Cres%ellC 5i". 11. 5loor mosaic, ch)rch of /hellal BJra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y Avi.KonahC 5i". 1T. 5loor mosaic, syna"o")e at ,a4a BJra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y Avi.KonahC 5i". 1#. 5loor mosaic, =aEon syna"o")e BJra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y Avi.KonahC 5i". 1&. 5loor mosaic, Armenian ch)rch, Her)salem BJra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y DarkisC (hese three floors all depict a "rape vine Bflo%in" from a vaseC %hich has little folia"e, a!)ndant "rapes and, in its loops, a ran"e of !easts, !irds, and o!Aects. All have peacocks framin" the vase: those at the =aEon syna"o")e and the ch)rch of /hellal !reak thro)"h the confines of a sin"le loopM those in the Her)salem pavement have tails that !reak o)t of a sin"le loop !)t do not enter a second. (he central vertical re"isters of all three display similar motifs: a !ird in a ca"e, vario)s containers of fr)it, and perhaps also an ea"le.PT'Q Basically, in formal terms, the depictions are strikin"ly similar. 1hat vis)ally distin")ishes them, and makes them "ro)p specific, is the presence of %ritin" as part of the %hole depictive frame%ork. (he script is Armenian on the pavement in Her)salem, ,reek on that at /hellal, and Aramaic at the syna"o")e at =aEon. (o the !eholder standin" %ithin the "ro)p space, the script %as part of the territorial content of the depiction. Amon" the common ima"es of the %hole depiction, the specific alpha!et %as a vis)al cl)e for the !eholder. It placed the ima"es in the mosaics in a territorial or "ro)p. specific conte8t, evokin" !y its presence the meanin" of the ima"es appropriate to the individ)al sectarian "ro)p. (h)s, the ima"es %ere read as 6Armenian7 or 6He%ish7 or 6,reek +rthodo8.7 (he depiction of the !ird in a ca"e %hich appeared in all of the mosaics, for instance, represented a common neo.platonic alle"orical theme of a so)l as a prisoner of the !ody. 3ach of these sectarian "ro)ps, havin" adopted the theme, transformed it in "ro)p.specific %ays.PT@Q (he presence of the alpha!et of the "ro)p informed the !eholder and inde8ed the "ro)p.specific referents. In fact, %e, the contemporary !eholders, )nderstand the meanin" conveyed !y the presence of the alpha!et in a similar %ay. 1e see Band p)!lishC one as Armenian Art, one as He%ish Art, and one as early Christian Art !ased on the presence of the "ro)p.specific %ritten si"n. I sho)ld mention here as an aside that %ritin" f)nctioned in similar %ays on the early Umayyad coina"e, as mentioned a!ove. +n those coins, %ritin" in Ara!ic, and in one instance ,reek and ,reek.Ara!ic, c)ed the !eholder that the familiar ima"e had a ne% "ro)p referent.PT8Q 3val)atin" the archaeolo"ical evidence from several vanta"e points stron"ly reinforces o)r contention that it %as the mere presence of the "ro)p.!ased alpha!et, and not its content or its placement, that %as the definitive territorial marker for the "ro)p.a)dience. (ake, for instance, A!!asid Caliph al.=aSmLnSs

tamperin" %ith part of the inscription of Umayyad Caliph EA!d al.=Glik in the Jome of the 9ock.PT9Q Caliph al.=aSmLn added his name over that of EA!d al.=Glik in the inscription on the east end of the intermediate octa"on, so)th face. (he semantic content no% reads: 6hath !)ilt this dome the /ervant of ,od, EA!d Allah the ImGm al.=aSmLn, Commander of the 5aithf)l in the year t%o and seventy.7 (hat al.=aSmLn s)!stit)ted his name for that of EA!d al.=Glik has lon" !een reco"ni4ed !y scholars, !)t in s)!stit)tin" his name, he did not chan"e the date. It still reads A.*. @T B'91?9T C.3.C, some 1&$ years !efore the time of the s)!stit)tion of names in 8#1 T1'. In %ays recallin" 3ttin"ha)senSs ar")ment more than a decade a"o,P#$Q the semantic content inconsistencies only hi"hli"ht the importance of the presence of officially sponsored %ritin" for a "ro)p.a)dience, ho%ever important the presence of his name %as to the Caliph. (he social practices that orchestrated the placement of %ritin" %ithin sectarian spaces %ere similarly operative for all "ro)ps.P#1Q In sectarian "atherin" places sponsored !y the r)lin" "ro)ps, s)ch as ch)rches and mos<)es and shrines like the Jome of the 9ock, %ritin" %as most fre<)ently placed %ithin the roofed enclos)re, on %alls, primarily %ithin a position !orderin" m)ral representations %hich %ere si"nificantly lar"er in scale. (his format of %ritin" framin" depictions %as )s)ally placed in certain focal architect)ral feat)res like niches, apses, mihra!s, or central areas, especially those defined !y a dome. (his arran"ement appears, for e8ample, in the follo%in" e8tant str)ct)res !)ilt d)rin" o)r era and in %hich m)ral ornamentation s)rvives:P#TQ BBy4antineC /t. Polye)ktos, the *a"ia Irene Bfi". 1FC,P##Q and /ts. /er"i)s and Bacch)s, all in Constantinople Bfi". 1'CMP#&Q the *a"ia /ophia in /alonika Bfi". 1@CMP#FQ BUmayyadC the Jome of the 9ock in Her)salem Bfi". 1$CMP#'Q the ,reat =os<)e in Jamasc)sMP#@Q B5atimidC al.A4har mos<)e in Cairo Bfi". #C.P#8Q A!!asid additions and restorations to the str)ct)res in the eastern =editerranean maintained the same format as in the initial constr)ction.P#9Q

5i". 1F. Diche, /t. Polye)ktos, *a"ia Irene, Istan!)l Bphoto !y (erry AllenC 5i". 1'. Interior, /ts. /er"i)s and Bacch)s, Istan!)l 5i". 1@. Interior, *a"ia /ophia Bdra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y CormakC A simple comparison of the m)ral arran"ements of three str)ct)res demonstrates the point: in the *a"ia /ophia in /alonika Bfi". 1@C, the depiction of the vir"in and child enthroned occ)pied the semi.dome of the apse, and the %ritin" !orders the depiction alon" the !ottomM in the Jome of the 9ock, Her)salem Bfi". 1$C, the depictions of trees, plants, and royal Ae%elry occ)py the main part of the %all areas, and the %ritin" !orders the depiction alon" the top. /imilarly, in the al.A4har mos<)e, Bfi". #C, the first mos<)e !)ilt !y the 5atimids in Cairo, depictions of trees and vines are lar"e in scale and occ)pied the main %all sections, and the %ritin", si"nificantly smaller in scale, !orders these depictions. In addition to framin" depictions, all "ro)ps )sed %ritin" !y itself to frame focal areas. Consider, for e8ample, the %ritin" in ,reek carved into the mar!le niche in the ch)rch of /t. Polye)ktos Bfi". 1FCP&$Q or the %ritin" in Ara!ic that framed the mihra! in the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn in al.RatOGSiE, Bfi". &C. A partic)larly vis)ally impressive e8ample of this practice is the !and of %ritin" in ,reek carved into the enta!lat)re )nder the dome of /ts. /er"i)s and Bacch)s in Constantinople Bfi". 1'C. +ne )se of %ritin" on %alls of sectarian spaces, ho%ever, appears to have !een specific to Christian practice. +nly in the e8tant m)ral artic)lations of Christian spaces from this period %as %ritin" placed

%ithin the depiction, either to identify or la!el, a kind of tableau &arlant. B)t descri!in" this practice as pec)liar to Christian "ro)ps is an assessment !ased on a!sent evidence. (he m)ral artic)lations of =)slim and He%ish spaces are very )nevenly preserved from this period. In the ,reat =os<)e, Jamasc)s, for e8ample, less than 1F percent of the ori"inal interior artic)lation of this period remains, and the %alls of most syna"o")es are not e8tant, and th)s any "enerali4ations for these "ro)ps are risky. In contrast to the )!i<)ito)s practice of placin" %ritin" on %alls, displayin" %ritin" on floors %as a practice more limited in time, medi)m, and in "ro)p conventions. 1ritin" %as displayed in the mosaic floors of syna"o")es and of most ch)rches )ntil the ei"hth cent)ry. 1ritin" does not appear to have !een p)t on mos<)e floors. B)t even %ithin the practice of the Christians and He%s, %ritin" does not appear on the floors of all sectarian str)ct)res and cost may !e the most relevant e8planation for the a!sence or presence of %ritin" on the floors. 5or e8ample, in imperial ch)rches, or those endo%ed %ith s)!stantial f)ndin", the floors %ere constr)cted %ith o&us sectile, <)artered and matched sla!s of mar!le or occasionally limestone.P&1Q /ometimes floors %ere constr)cted o)t of stone selected !eca)se of its close resem!lance to the costlier o&us sectile.P&TQ In displayin" s)ch !ea)tif)l floorin", the patron demonstrated an a!ility to afford a costly medi)m and to command the technolo"ically e8pensive process of <)arterin" mar!le. (he practice %as not to 6!reak )p7 this e8pensive s)rface !y smaller desi"ns s)ch as %ritin", altho)"h patternin" on a lar"e scale %as often achieved !y different colored and "rained mar!le. By e8tension, the a!sence of %ritin" on the floors in the ,reat =os<)e of Jamasc)s and the Jome of the 9ock co)ld possi!ly !e attri!)ted in part to the presence of mar!le floors. +n floors %ritin" appeared in mosaic, a less e8pensive floorin". (h)s in syna"o")es, monasteries, and local ch)rches %ith mosaic floors %ritin" %as part of the floor desi"n. (he archaeolo"ical evidence for practices %ithin spaces !)ilt as mos<)es Band not converted ch)rchesC is <)ite fra"mentary, yet little evidence s)""ests that as a "eneral practice %ritin" %as placed on mos<)e floors that %ere mosaic.P&#Q 1hile it is clear that the presence or a!sence of %ritin" on floors in the practice of these comm)nities follo%ed the )se of material, materiality and cost alone cannot totally e8plain the practice. 1ritin" co)ld have !een displayed in o&us sectile, and mosaic floors co)ld have !een monochrome or color patterned %itho)t %ritin" or depictions. ;ario)s social factors, s)ch as the displacement of ,reco. 9oman c)lt)re !y an Islam.!ased one, are iss)es %hich m)st !e considered. Beyond the em!ellishment of floors and %alls %ithin sectarian spaces, little evidence e8ists to s)""est that artifacts )sed %ithin sectarian spaces d)rin" these cent)ries systematically or si"nificantly displayed %ritin". 1e make this A)d"ment !ased mainly on the %ritten record !eca)se very fe% porta!le artifacts )sed in the sectarian spaces of any "ro)p remain from this period. +ne of the e8ceptions is the fifth or si8th cent)ry polycandelon displayin" %ritin" in Aramaic dedicatin" it to the syna"o")e of 2efar *ananyah.P&&Q =ost often, ho%ever, %e are dealin" %ith mentions of the presence of %ritin" s)ch as that on an altar cloth in the *a"ia /ophia in Constantinople,P&FQ and, altho)"h it is o)tside o)r eastern =editerranean "eo"raphic area, the displayin" of the Caliphal name on the @iswa, the te8tile coverin" the 2aE!a in =ecca.P&'Q Apparently vario)s !asins, containers, and lamps from ch)rches, syna"o")es, and mos<)es displayed %ritin", !)t the )se of %ritin" on s)ch o!Aects does not seem to !e a consistent pattern. In s)m, the pattern of e8tant officially sponsored %ritin"s from this period indicates !oth the importance of its presence and of its presence in the "ro)p.specific alpha!et. Primarily, all comm)nities )sed s)ch %ritin" as a territorial marker %ithin their o%n sectarian spaces. All "ro)ps, r)lin" and r)led, marked %alls, and most floors, %ith officially sponsored %ritin". By contrast, )sin" %ritin" to invade the p)!lic space appears to have !een the domain of r)lin" "ro)ps, !oth imperial and local. And finally, the pattern of )se clearly indicates that officially sponsored %ritin" served as a territorial marker of

lesser vis)al prominence than depictions, !)t one that evoked important relationships. \ \ \

Aest!eti' F*n'ti"n
Confronted !y the officially sponsored %ritin" in sectarian or p)!lic spaces, !eholders fo)nd the reinforcement of "ro)p identification in the alpha!et, !)t also sa% the form and materiality of the %ritin" itself. 6/tyle7 conveys meanin" to !eholders !y the system of %ritin" forms they see, as %ell as thro)"h their a%areness of the %hole process that s)pported the finished prod)ct: the technolo"y, cost of materials, and the stat)s and trainin" of the artists.P&@Q In addition, the presence of a specific style conveyed meanin" !y the pattern of its social )se %ithin the society. An analysis of the aesthetic dimension of this %ritin" reinforces the patterns that emer"ed from e8aminin" the territorial f)nction of officially sponsored %ritin", namely, an e<)ivalency of practice amon" the vario)s sectarian "ro)ps in the eastern =editerranean. J)rin" this period no sectarian "ro)p developed a style of script specifically to !e seen !y its "ro)p a)dience. +fficially sponsored %ritin" follo%ed conventions for hand%ritten forms and manner of ortho"raphy,P&8Q !)t, of co)rse, %as lar"er than the %ritin" in !ooks and %as e8ec)ted in and !y entirely different materials.P&9Q Caref)l o!servation reveals a remarka!ly specific consistency !et%een officially sponsored %ritin" and one specific !ook hand in the social practices of all "ro)ps: !et%een the officially sponsored %ritin" of any sectarian "ro)p and the !ook hand in %hich their "ro)p.!ased te8t %as formally %ritten Bthat is, the R)rSGn, the *e!re% Bi!le, or the De% (estamentC.PF$Q 1e are speakin" here, for e8ample, of %hat is called 2)fic script for %ritin" Ara!ic, s<)ared serifed in ,reek, and old or s<)ared or formal He%ish for *e!re% Bfi". 18C.PF1Q All these script styles can !e characteri4ed as "eometric or s<)ared. (hey %ere distin")ished from coeval script styles in these same alpha!ets that %ere c)rsive, and %ere )sed for "overnment record keepin", !)siness records, and the like, as %ell as from vario)s versions of "eometric %ritin" that %ere less precisely rendered.

5i". 18. 1ritin" samples, formal style Bdra%n !y *ampikianC Unfort)nately, the relation !et%een the script of officially sponsored %ritin" and the Book hand remains very pro!lematic. Deither in By4antine practice, %here %e mi"ht e8pect the clearest evidence, nor in Umayyad, %here %e kno% evidence to !e el)sive, can %e speak %ith certainty a!o)t the e8tent or specific %ays the script practice of officially sponsored %ritin" and that of the !ook %ere related. PFTQ ,iven the state of o)r evidence, %e need to avoid addin" any more limitations to o)r )nderstandin" of this period. 1e m)st !e prepared, if necessary, to a!andon inherited ass)mptions that officially sponsored %ritin" imitated, or follo%ed the lead of, the hand%ritin" of the sectarian Book. In fact, I s)spect that as %ith other comple8 relationships interdependence is a more )sef)l concept than ca)sal development. A fe% scholars have already remarked on the resem!lance !et%een the script of officially sponsored %ritin" and the Book hand, altho)"h most of them confined their remarks to specific cases. Cristel 2essler, for instance, has descri!ed in detail %hat she terms the dependency of the inscription of the Jome of the 9ock on the R)rSGn !ook hands of the period.PF#Q /he demonstrated that the %ritin" of the inscription, in addition to letter shapes, displays the diacritical marks that parallel the %ritin" practices in the early R)rSGns, even to the e8tent that the letters %ere shaped to mimic the markin"s formed !y the c)t of the early 'alam Breed penC.PF&Q 3ven the ornamental devices separatin" R)rSGnic phrases in the Jome of the 9ock parallel those fo)nd in R)rSGnic te8ts, altho)"h she does not note this

latter aspect. And, of co)rse, the format for this inscription, as indeed %ith all other inscriptions from this period in any lan")a"e, %as linear as on a man)script pa"e.PFFQ In "eneral, letters %ere displayed a"ainst a plain !ack"ro)nd. /tanley =orison, takin" his o!servations in a direction different from 2esslerSs, has e8amined the relationship of certain official !ook hand styles and mon)mental inscriptions as inde8es of relations !et%een the 1estern.0atin and 3astern.By4antine Ch)rches.PF'Q And, finally, Hoseph Daveh has pointed o)t that the same formal script %as )sed for %ritin" the *e!re% lan")a"e on mon)ments and in te8ts.PF@Q (he minimal evidence availa!le for the comparison of the practice of %ritin" in man)scripts and in sectarian spaces s)""ests a similar practice %ithin the Armenian and Coptic comm)nities as %ell. 1hat is remarka!le a!o)t this practice is its consistency. ,eometric letter style, association !et%een officially sponsored %ritin" and the !ook hand, as %ell as the preservation of a linear format %ere all maintained for almost five h)ndred years. Ket %hile mem!ers of the comm)nities co)ld see these consistencies-or at least see them %ithin the practice of their o%n "ro)p-differences e8isted that created contrastin" patterns, settin" )p ne% relationships that evoked more n)anced meanin"s. Jiachronic and <)ality differences are apparent. A diachronic e8amination of the officially sponsored %ritin" in the sectarian spaces sponsored !y mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)ps indicates that small script chan"es %ere conscio)sly made to distin")ish and identify a specific "ro)p or r)ler. 5or instance, the letter terminations in the officially sponsored %ritin" in the mos<)e of al.A4har are slanted, and medial and endin" letters often ela!orated Bfi". #C, %hile these feat)res are not present in the %ritin" in the Jome of the 9ock some three h)ndred years earlier Bfi". 1$C. =ost of the differences in the officially sponsored %ritin" practices in ,reek and Ara!ic, like those in the e8ample a!ove, consisted mainly in variations on terminations of letters, in proportions of %idth to hei"ht, and of relative thickness and thinness of the vertical and hori4ontal lines of letters. +f co)rse, despite these chan"es, the "eometric nat)re of the letter formation %as preserved. PF8Q In addition, the evidence indicates differences in the fineness-in the trained <)ality-of the letter formation of officially sponsored %ritin". +fficially sponsored %ritin", !ea)tif)lly formed and skillf)lly e8ec)ted, like that of the ,reek displayed in the central areas of /ts. /er"i)s and Bacch)s Bfi". 1'C in Constantinople, e8isted at the same time that more modest letters in ,reek %ere displayed in the ch)rch of =t. De!o. (he officially sponsored %ritin" in the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn Bfi". &C from the ninth cent)ry is not as fine as that in the mos<)e of al.A4har in the tenth Bfi". #C. +f co)rse these readily o!serva!le differences represent different social hierarchies. /ts. /er"i)s and Bacch)s %as sponsored !y 3mpress (heodora Band 3mperor H)stinianC and is in the imperial capitalM the ch)rch on =t. De!o %as a monastery ch)rch in the provinces. (he mos<)es of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn and al.A4har are !oth %ithin the )r!an e8panse of Cairo.=isOr, !)t the former %as sponsored !y a provincial "overnor and the latter !y a Caliph. And, of co)rse, the t%o ch)rches and the t%o mos<)es %ere constr)cted to serve different types of con"re"ations %ithin their sectarian "ro)ps. B)t ho%ever e8tensive the variation in script styles related to chan"in" times, different places, and different social practices, the overridin" pattern of these similar vis)al si"ns evoked a relationship !et%een ideolo"y Bor !eliefC !ased in the comm)nal te8t and the social str)ct)re that maintained those !eliefs. Beholders th)s )nderstood ideolo"y and social str)ct)re in terms of their o%n "ro)p Book. !ased practice. (hese )nderstandin"s nat)rali4ed a)thority-that is, they reinforced as normal and appropriate !oth the !eliefs and or"ani4ation of the "ro)p to the sectarian !eholders. In so doin", these )nderstandin"s sit)ated those specific sectarian !eliefs and social or"ani4ation %ithin the lar"er social net%ork.

(he very lar"e diachronic sta!ility of these vis)al si"ns of po%er-officially sponsored %ritin"s %ithin sectarian spaces-presented to the vario)s sectarian !eholders the sta!le nat)re of their comm)nal a)thority. By the preservation of form, a)thority %as presented as conservative and )nchan"in". 5ormal consistencies th)s masked very real shifts !oth %ithin the !eliefs and the social str)ct)re that developed in the eastern =editerranean from the si8th thro)"h the tenth cent)ries. If the diachronically o!served sta!ility of some formal patterns of officially sponsored %ritin" s)pported and reinforced Book.!ased comm)nal a)thority, there %ere real and repeated e8ceptions that pro!ed these r)les. I %ill attempt to e8plicate the relation of %ritin" to a)thority and a)dience %hen 5atimid practice is the foc)sed s)!Aect, !)t there remain some )nans%ered <)estions %orth not for"ettin". 5or e8ample, %ritin" and depictions are displayed in the floors of a lar"e n)m!er of ,reek +rthodo8 ch)rches, despite the prom)l"ation !y the By4antine emperor of la%s for!iddin" the placin" of %ritin" and ima"es on floors.PF9Q 1hat is the nat)re of a)thority Bof comm)nal practiceC that co)ld disre"ard s)ch la%s> Concernin" =)slim practice of the seventh and ei"hth cent)ries, the ah+dth B(raditionsC tell )s that a n)m!er of people-=Glik i!n Anas %as one-spoke o)t a!o)t the appearance of %ritin" on the %alls of mos<)es. /pecifically, the %ritin" of R)rSGnic verses is mentioned as a distraction for those at prayer.P'$Q Ket despite the opposition of some people and of some ah+dth, %ritin" of R)rSGnic verses %as displayed in mos<)es. 1hat does this tell )s a!o)t the nat)re of a)thority in early =)slim practice> Also, %e m)st reco"ni4e that no matter ho% si"nificant the formal elements of officially sponsored %ritin" appear to have !een, the materiality of the %ritin" %ei"hed more heavily in the aesthetic dimension of their meanin". I %ill offer t%o e8amples, one from =)slim and one from He%ish practice, %hich e8plicate different linka"es of relationships !oth %ithin and !et%een "ro)ps that %ere !ased on the materiality of the %ritin". (he e8ample from =)slim sectarian practice, %hich concerns five of the !)ildin"s sponsored !y the Umayyad Caliphs EA!d al.=Glik and Bhis sonC al.1alId, demonstrates the importance of the materiality of the %ritin" in =)slim sectarian practice itself and its links %ith the practice of some "ro)ps of Christians. (he se<)encin" of the !)ildin"s is relatively %ell doc)mented.P'1Q Caliph EA!d al.=Glik !)ilt the Jome of the 9ock in '9$P'TQ artic)latin" the inner %alls %ith officially sponsored %ritin" in 2)fic letters, in a linear !and %hich s)rmo)nts depictions Bfi". 1$C. Both the %ritin" and the depictions %ere e8ec)ted in "old and "lass mosaic B%ith some ca!ochon Ae%els %ithin the depictionsC all of %hich s)rmo)nted mar!le %all panelin". (he Jome of the 9ock remained the only =)slim str)ct)re so artic)lated )ntil Caliph al.1alId !e"an his pro"ram of !)ildin" and reconstr)ction of @$F?1F, d)rin" %hich he )ndertook, almost sim)ltaneo)sly, the constr)ction and reconstr)ction of fo)r maAor mos<)es: t%o in the eastern =editerranean Bthe ,reat =os<)e in Jamasc)s and the al.A<sa mos<)e in Her)salemC and t%o in Ara!ia Bthe ProphetSs mos<)e in =edina and the h+arm in =ecca.CP'#Q In these, in "old and "lass mosaic, %ritin" in Ara!ic and depictions %ere displayed. 1hat %as conveyed !y the aesthetic dimension of officially sponsored %ritin" to its =)slim !eholders> +n one level, of co)rse, !y )sin" "old and "lass mosaic and the format of depiction and %ritin" in the fo)r mos<)es, al.1alId created vis)al linka"es 6!ack%ard7 in time to the Jome of the 9ock his father sponsored, and linked the latter to the 6present,7 that is, %ith his o%n str)ct)res and his o%n po%er. +n yet another level, !y adoptin" the pattern of so markin" some specific str)ct)res, al.1alId also perpet)ated and a)"mented the vis)al ine<)alities !et%een =)slim sectarian spaces he and his father had sponsored directly and all others Bthose sponsored !y previo)s Caliphs and former and contemporary provincial "overnorsC %here the "old and "lass medi)m %as not )sed. In short, they created a hierarchy %ithin =)slim sectarian spaces !ased in si"nificant meas)re on the medi)m of ornamentation. In visitin" the capital city of Jamasc)s and then the reli"io)s pil"rima"e centers of

=ecca, =edina, and Her)salem, =)slim !eholders co)ld not escape seein" the vis)al link made amon" the main Umayyad.sponsored =)slim sectarian spaces in these cities. Ket still another level of meanin" %as conveyed to =)slim !eholders !y the materiality-the "old and "lass mosaic-of the artic)lation of these =)slim sectarian spaces. 1e co)ld, in fact, ded)ce this meanin" from the pattern of the )se of "old and "lass mosaic %ithin the society as a %hole, !)t in this instance %e have reported conversations that also s)""est these )nderstandin"s. (he conversations took place d)rin" the inspection to)r that Caliph al.1alId made after the completion of the restorations he ordered to the ProphetSs mos<)e BmasGid al-nabC in =edina. *e spoke then to SU!Gn i!n EUthmGn i!n EAffGn, %hose father had !een the third Caliph. Al.1alId asked him %hat he tho)"ht a!o)t his restoration to the ProphetSs mos<)e relative to the chan"es SU!GnSs father BEUthmGnC had made to the same mos<)e.P'&Q SU!GnSs reply, 61e !)ilt it in the manner of mos<)es, yo) !)ilt it in the manner of ch)rches,7 s)""ests a reference to the meanin" conveyed !y the materiality-the "old and "lass mosaic medi)m-)sed in the interior. +!vio)sly, SU!Gn, in speakin" of 6the manner,7 did not all)de to the spatial arran"ement of that mos<)e. Do one enterin" that =)slim sectarian space co)ld have mistaken it for a Christian ch)rch. Dor did he all)de to the depictions of the architect)re and trees and the %ritin" &er se, !eca)se they resem!led the mosaic format in the ,reat =os<)e of Jamasc)s more than that in any Christian ch)rch. 1e are th)s left to concl)de that SU!Gn %as referrin" to the "old and "lass mosaic medi)m itself. In commentin" on the medi)m, SU!GnSs %ords implied more than a direct readin"-that al.1alId had made the mos<)e of =edina resem!le ch)rches-%o)ld have )s )nderstand. SU!Gn, speakin" these %ords in the early ei"hth cent)ry, %as )ndo)!tedly notin"-and the Caliph %as )ndo)!tedly hearin"%hat the archaeolo"ical evidence tells )s. Al.1alIdSs restoration made the mos<)e resem!le ch)rches sponsored !y the By4antine r)lin" "ro)p. +nly that level of a)thority co)ld have afforded s)ch a medi)m. In a =c0)han sense, here the medi)m %as indeed the messa"e. And the messa"e %as po%er -po%er to command e8pensive "lass technolo"y %ith all that s)""ests of f)rnaces and other e<)ipment, color e8pertise, and "old, and the po%er to ca)se the movement and s)pport of hi"hly trained artists.P'FQ (h)s a specific, e8trava"ant aesthetic display linked r)lin" a)thority %ith r)lin" a)thority across sectarian !o)ndaries, and it also distin")ished socio.political levels of a)thority %ithin the =)slim sectarian "ro)p. =ateriality of officially sponsored %ritin" also conveyed information a!o)t the hierarchy %ithin a "ro)pSs social str)ct)re on less spectac)lar levels. (his is especially apparent in He%ish sectarian spaces %here officially sponsored %ritin" in more than one alpha!et Band lan")a"eC %ere likely to occ)r. *ere the patterns of materiality, alpha!et, and script fineness com!ine to "ive )s today some insi"hts %hich are all the more val)a!le !eca)se %e kno% these comm)nities mainly thro)"h their archaeolo"ical remains. 0ookin" at the archaeolo"ical remains of the syna"o")es that %ere in )se in the coastal cities of the eastern =editerranean into and d)rin" the early part of the si8th cent)ry, %e find it not )n)s)al to see officially sponsored %ritin" displayed in three lan")a"es: *e!re%, Aramaic, and ,reek.P''Q (he ortho"raphy and letter shape of the %ritin" in Aramaic inscriptions, like the fra"mentary one preserved in the syna"o")e of the villa"e of SIsfiya, %as most likely to !e the most poorly e8ec)ted of the three alpha!ets.P'@Q (he ,reek alpha!et, on the other hand, %as most likely to !e the most finely e8ec)ted, as %e find in the syna"o")e of Caesarea.P'8Q Inscriptions in *e!re% %ere relatively even in fineness. All %ere modestly %ell rendered-correct spellin" and letter shape, a pattern o!vio)sly linked to the social stratification of vario)s mem!ers of the con"re"ations. In one syna"o")e or another, all of these alpha!ets appeared in stone mosaic. /ometimes the stone %as a)"mented !y local "reen "lass as it %as in SIsfiya.P'9Q 1hen %ritin" appeared in a yet more e8pensive

medi)m, ,reek %as the only alpha!et and lan")a"e displayed.P@$Q In the practice Band socio.economic levelC of these sectarian comm)nities, more e8pensive medi)m meant mar!le. 1hat do these patterns of fineness of script and its materiality si"nify to a !eholder %ho can distin")ish the alpha!ets and lan")a"es present as ,reek, Aramaic, and *e!re%> At that time, and )ntil %ell into the ei"hth cent)ry, ,reek %as the socially predominant lan")a"e and c)lt)re. Altho)"h a lar"e proportion of the He%ish pop)lation %as Aramaic speakin", ,reek almost al%ays %as )sed as the official lan")a"e for inscriptions and doc)ments.P@1Q ,reek %as every%here tied to those elements of a)thority %ithin the comm)nity %ho had the financial a!ility and the %illin"ness to e8press that po%er %ithin the comm)nal space. (his seems an o!vio)s and direct concl)sion. B)t if %e state the relationship !et%een a)thority and medi)m in another %ay, %e reveal more n)anced %e!s of si"nification. Amon" He%ish con"re"ations of the coastal area in the si8th cent)ry eastern =editerranean, ,reek %as the lan")a"e in %hich po%er %ithin the comm)nity %as demonstrated. Po%er %as represented on a minimal level as economic a!ility-to afford mar!le over stone. Po%er %as also linked %ith a specific ed)cation and kno%led"e of literat)re %ritten in ,reek, rather than Aramaic.P@TQ (his ed)cated a)thority had the a!ility to command the lan")a"e and script and oversee its fine e8ec)tion. Clearly s)ch an ed)cation represented a kno%led"e !roader than familiarity %ith te8ts directly related to He%ish comm)nal life.P@#Q *o% then do %e assess the patterns presented !y officially sponsored %ritin" in Aramaic and in He%ish script B*e!re% lan")a"eC> +!vio)sly the a)thority si"nified !y the %ritin" in Aramaic %as less po%erf)l Bless financially a!le, or less %ell ed)catedC in the activities of the society as a %hole and %ithin the He%ish comm)nity than that represented !y the other t%o officially sponsored %ritin"s. Clearly it did not co)ld not even s)stain the vi"ilance necessary to ")arantee a finely e8ec)ted and properly spelled Aramaic script. 1e co)ld ar")e that mosaicists and stone and mar!le carvers %ere more )sed to prod)cin" %ritin" in ,reek than Aramaic, and that alone mi"ht acco)nt for poorly e8ec)ted script. 1hile that may indeed !e an acc)rate assessment of the skills of the artists, I still %o)ld ar")e for )nderstandin" the poor <)ality of the inscriptions as representin" the lack of po%er Bfinancial or ed)cational differencesC to s)stain the necessary vi"ilance, !eca)se the %ritin" of *e!re% in He%ish script %as )niformly fine. /ince many mosaicists %ere Christian, no need e8isted %ithin their o%n sectarian comm)nities for them to kno% either lan")a"e. And, perhaps more si"nificantly, the alpha!ets and letters of these t%o lan")a"es are similar. 1hat is kno%n as He%ish script-%hat most people today %o)ld call *e!re% letters-developed in the 9oman period from the Aramaic alpha!et. P@&Q (h)s any artist a!le to render the letters of one alpha!et Blan")a"eC co)ld easily render those of the other. (he inscriptions in *e!re% evoked an a)thority in the middle "ro)nd !et%een the t%o. (he constancies in the <)ality of the inscriptions in all the He%ish sectarian spaces thro)"ho)t these ten cities represented an a)thority %ith s)fficient po%er Bed)cation or socialC to maintain s)ch )niformity. (he constancy in the <)ality of the script also comm)nicates a social practice %here the maintenance of a )niform alpha!etic si"n %as important. 1e cannot for"et that officially sponsored %ritin" in *e!re% %as a si"n of the Book of all of the He%ish comm)nities, %hereas the other t%o alpha!ets Blan")a"esC %ere not. *e!re% %as the lan")a"e of the Book.!ased !elief. ,reek, on the other hand, had a %ide and common c)rrency. \ \ \

Re#erentia& F*n'ti"n
I have ar")ed that the "ro)p.specific alpha!et, as a familiar em!lem, f)nctioned primarily to mark the space as specific to the !eholderSs sectarian "ro)p. At the same time, of co)rse, the style of the %ritin",

sit)ated in the social patterns of aesthetic val)es %ithin the !roader social system and %ithin that of the specific sectarian "ro)p, comm)nicated a)thority and evoked for vie%ers n)anced )nderstandin"s of social, political, and economic hierarchies. +fficially sponsored %ritin" f)nctioned in these %ays %hether !eholders 6read7 the %ritin" for its semantic content or not. +f co)rse, %hen !eholders 6read7 the %ritin" for its semantic content, it si"nified meanin"s that !oth reinforced and a)"mented those conveyed !y the other f)nctions of officially sponsored %ritin". B)t %e s)""est that the referential dimensions of %ritin" remained secondary to the other t%o dimensions in conveyin" meanin" to "ro)p a)diences. ,iven o)r evidence that the social practice of the sectarian comm)nities in the eastern =editerranean %as e<)ivalent, %e are prepared for the pattern that emer"ed from analy4in" the semantic content of the officially sponsored %ritin" in sectarian spaces and p)!lic spaces. (he referential !ases of the officially sponsored %ritin" of all of the "ro)ps %ere also e<)ivalent. (he semantic content of the %ritin" %as dra%n !asically from only t%o evocational cate"ories: one !ased in the %ritten Book of the "ro)p, and the other, !ased partially in %ritten so)rces other than the Book, and partially in a restricted code of names, dates, places, and phrases important only to the "ro)p. In this latter confi")ration %e classify the follo%in": the names of people %ho !eca)se of their social rank or their activities had an importance %ithin the referent system of the "ro)p Br)lers !oth past and present, %ealthy or holy persona"es, prophets, martyrs, artists, saints, even enemiesCM the names of places or str)ct)res important to the "ro)pM dates important in the history of the "ro)p or the specific comm)nitySs life, calc)lated !y the calendar system of the "ro)p, or !y references to an earlier event common to the "ro)pM and common aphorisms or phrases. =aterials from these t%o evocational cate"ories %ere not presented in an )nvaryin" order in the official %ritin"s. 5or e8ample, officially sponsored %ritin" did not al%ays !e"in %ith %ords from the "ro)pSs Book and end %ith the patronSs name and date. B)t %ritin"s taken from certain evocational cate"ories %ere more likely to !e placed in some areas of sectarian spaces rather than others. In the social practices of all of the "ro)ps, %ritin"s !ased on the %ritten Book %ere more likely to appear !oth on the %all and in the focal area of the str)ct)re than else%here. Do sectarian comm)nity placed %ritin"s from the comm)nal Book on the floor. /o placed, %ritin"s from the Book in mos<)es and ch)rches Bno evidence e8ists for syna"o")esC framed depictions. In no e8tant instance do the %ritin"s from the Book directly e8plain the ima"e they frame. 9ather, they have to !e )nderstood as appropriate A)8tapositions, similar to those ,ra!ar noted in /elA)k pottery and in contemporary Christmas cards %here the "reetin" does not al%ays e8plain or directly relate to the ima"e on the front of the card.P@FQ 5or e8ample, in the *a"ia /ophia in /alonika, the %ritin"s from the Psalms do not e8plain the ima"e of the ;ir"in and Child enthroned %hich they frame, nor do the len"thy passa"es from the R)rSGn in the Jome of the 9ock e8plain the depictions of hy!rid plant forms or of royal Ae%elry %hich they s)rmo)nt. 1ritin" !ased in the second evocational cate"ory %as more likely to appear on o!Aects, on the floors of the str)ct)res, on lintels or door frames. (hese are the locations %here %e )s)ally find donor or patron information, or information commemoratin" events of the "ro)p. A fe% e8amples %ill s)""est the )!i<)ito)s nat)re of this practice. 5irst consider that on the mosaic floor of the syna"o")e in ,a4a the follo%in" inscription appears, 6=enahem and Kesh)a the sons of the late Isses, %ood merchants, as a si"n of respect for a most *oly Place have donated this mosaic in the month of 0oos F'9.7 P@'Q An inscription of similar content is fo)nd on the choir door in the Coptic ch)rch of al.Adra in Jeir al. Baram)s %here 6the !lessed Patriarchs =ar Cosmas and =ar Basil7 are mentioned.P@@Q +n the lintels of t%o of the inner entrance doors of the Jome of the 9ock first the Umayyad Caliph EA!d al.=Glik and later the A!!asid Caliph al.=aSmLn placed their names as patrons.P@8Q +!Aects, s)ch as !asins fo)nd in syna"o")es and in mos<)es, also displayed donor information: for instance, the !asin

inscri!ed in ,reek fo)nd in the syna"o")e at ,a4a,P@9Q and the one inscri!ed in Ara!ic %ith the name of Umm HaEfar, da)"hter of EA!d al.5adl HaEfar, son of the Caliph al.=ansOLr %ho donated it for =)slim pil"rims.P8$Q (his pattern %as not a ri"id one, of co)rse. +ften patron or donor information and datin" %as placed at the end of the inscription from the comm)nal Book in the focal area of the comm)nal space. /)ch %as the practice in the Jome of the 9ock %here EA!d al.=Glik added his name and date. In fact, in one nota!le e8ception, the patron, 6o)r sceptered H)stinian,7 p)!lici4ed himself and his r)le in the inscription of the focal area in /ts. /er"i)s and Bacch)s as m)ch as he did the honoree Bfi". 1'C: +ther soverei"ns, indeed, have honored dead men %hose la!or %as )seless. B)t o)r sceptered H)stinian, fosterin" piety, honors %ith a splendid a!ode the servant of Christ, Creator of all thin"s, /er"i)sM %hom nor the !)rnin" !reath of fire, nor the s%ord, nor the constraints of trials dist)r!edM !)t %ho end)red for the sake of ,od Christ to !e slain, "ainin" !y his !lood heaven as his home. =ay he in all thin"s ")ard the r)le of the ever. vi"ilant soverei"n, and increase the po%er of the ,od.cro%ned (heodora %hose mind is !ri"ht %ith piety, %hose toil is )nsparin" efforts to no)rish the destit)te.P81Q 1hat %ere the meanin"s these referential dimensions conveyed to !eholders> =ostly they s)pported and specified the meanin"s conveyed !y the territorial and aesthetic dimensions of the officially sponsored %ritin". Ket %e !elieve there %as a critical difference in the accessi!ility of meanin"s !et%een those conveyed !y the territorial and the aesthetic dimensions on the one hand, and the referential on the other. Dot only did the !eholder have to !e conte8t)ally literate, and %ithin some "ro)ps the mechanisms for ens)rin" this %ere minimal, !)t had to )nderstand the "ro)p.specific conte8t of the te8t to derive its meanin" from its referential f)nction. In li"ht of these o!servations, I cannot a"ree in this instance %ith s)ch scholars as ,ra!ar, %ho s)""est that the semantic content of the R)rSGn.!ased inscriptions in the Jome of the 9ock %as meant to missioni4e, to invite people to s)!mit.P8TQ Instead, I s)""est that the lan")a"e of the R)rSGn, a hi"hly speciali4ed %ritten lan")a"e, %as addressed to sectarian !elievers. 1ho else %o)ld )nderstand its semantic frame%ork> 1ho else %o)ld !elieve that it %as the %ord of ,od and th)s )nderstand its importance> Impressin" to missioni4e and to entice %as the task of the aesthetic f)nction, and to a lesser e8tent the territorial one. (he aesthetic f)nction offered readily accessi!le socio.economic messa"es %hich sit)ated a "iven officially sponsored inscription %ithin a !road social practice. (his dem)r e8tends also to semantic content not !ased in the comm)nal Book. 1ho else !)t a sectarian !eholder co)ld )nderstand the implications of the semantic content of the Coptic inscription that "ives the date of the death of Papa /tephanos as 6tenth month after the passin" a%ay ofW7>P8#Q 1ho is this person> 1hy %as he important> 1hat does the title mean> 1hen is this> (hat =enahem or Umm HaEfar donated somethin" is p)!licity that is meanin"f)l for the social conte8t of the sectarian "ro)p. (o non."ro)p !eholders these names, dates, places, and titles lack a meanin"f)l poi"nancy and immediacy. (he core of %hat %e have tried to effect in this chapter is an )nderstandin" of the practices of %ritin" si"ns d)rin" the cent)ries !efore the 5atimid con<)est of 3"ypt in 9'9. Parado8ically, the f)nctions of %ritin" %ere sim)ltaneo)sly cohesive and differentiatin". All the comm)nities %ithin the society )sed %ritin" si"ns in similar %ays, the traditions of cent)ries, to mark territory, to reference the Book, and to commemorate people and places. /tyles of script %ere analo"o)s, and the comm)nities shared a hierarchy of materials and technolo"y. (he comm)nities also shared a ran"e of )ses for s)ch %ritin": most prominently, markin" the interior of sectarian spaces. /)ch contin)ity of f)nctions and ran"e of )ses of %ritin" si"ns only stren"thened the a!ility of these si"ns to !e comprehended !y those %ithin and %itho)t a "iven comm)nity. (he appearance of a "ro)p.specific alpha!et-or a com!ination of alpha!ets-reaffirmed for the "ro)p in that space %ho they %ere, and !y the a!sence of other

alpha!ets, %ho they %ere not. (hat alpha!ets %ere )sed !y comm)nities as vis)al si"ns of differentiation in a shared system of %ritin" si"ns is critical to kno% !eca)se they %ere amon" the most effective vis)al si"ns si"nallin" difference !et%een comm)nities in a vis)al c)lt)re that %as lar"ely shared. 1hile ima"ery, and not %ritin", dominated the vis)al c)lt)re of )r!an life in the eastern =editerranean, a point )nderscored !y Peter Bro%n in demonstratin" the constancy and reiteration of classical themes,P8&Q it %as %ritin" in the alpha!et of the comm)nity that stron"ly differentiated that ima"ery, orientin" it to its a)dience-for e8ample, the mosaic floors mentioned a!ove. (his chapter also serves as a mise en scAne for the a)"mented ran"e of )ses of %ritin" si"ns the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p effected. (heir chan"e in the traditional )ses sketched a!ove alerts )s to ne% kinds of choices made in that society and to the political and ideolo"ical interests %hich imposed them.

N"tes
1. A "ood te8t to cons)lt is /chick, 6(he 5ate of Christians in Palestine.7 T. /ee %4,, vol. 1, pt. T, &8#?8&. #. (he location of the Dea cathedral and its comple8 are kno%n and have !een e8cavated, altho)"h they are minimally p)!lished. Dahman Avi"ad, .isco)ering Cerusalem BDashville, Camden, De% Kork: (homas Delson P)!lishers, 198$CM =eir Ben.Jov, 2n the Shadow o! the Tem&le, trans. Ina 5riedman BDe% Kork: *arper [ 9o%, 198TC. 9econstr)ctions of the Dea have !een dra%n from the fo)ndation remains, !)t %e cannot reconstr)ct its ornamentation. (he Dea %as descri!ed !y Procopi)s in "eneral la)datory terms %itho)t the kind of specificity needed for this st)dy. A tabula ansate containin" an inscription in ,reek %as fo)nd, Avi"ad, .isco)ering Cerusalem, T&T?&F %ith plates. &. Here 0. Bacharach, 6Administrative Comple8es, Palaces, and Citadels: Chan"es in the 0oci of =edieval =)slim 9)le,7 in The <ttoman it# and 2ts Parts, ed. Irene A. Bierman, 9ifaEat A. A!o).3l. *aA, and Jonald Pre4iosi BDe% 9ochelle: A. J. Carat4as, 1991C, 111?T8. F. (he %alls of most ch)rches that contin)ed in )se, for instance, %ere si"nificantly altered in the Cr)sader period or later. '. Berton Je ;ries, 6Ur!ani4ation in the Basalt 9e"ion of Dorth Hordan in 0ate Anti<)ity: (he Case of Umm el.Himal,7 in Studies in the 3istor# and ,rchaeolog# o! Cordan 22, ed. Adnan *adidi BAmman: Jepartment of Anti<)ities Hordan, 198FC, T&9?F', %here he points to this need for e8planationM 9o!ert A. Co)"heno)r, 6(he 5ifteen Ch)rches of Umm el.Himal,7 in The -mm el-Cimal %xca)ations, ed. Berton Je ;ries B+8ford: British Archaeolo"ical 9eports, forthcomin"C, %here he post)lates that the ,hassanids %ere the tri!e most likely to !e the sponsors of these ch)rches and, in fact, to !e the occ)pants in Umm al.Himal in the si8th cent)ry. Umm al.9asOsOGs is another to%n %ith almost as many ch)rches. @. =any of these small mos<)es still e8ist. (he most accessi!le overvie% is ,eoffrey 2in", C. H. 0en4en, and ,ary +. 9ollefson, 6/)rvey of By4antine and Islamic /ites in Hordan /econd /eason 9eport,7 ,nnual o! the .e&artment o! ,nti'uities Cordan T@ B198#C: #8F?&#'. (he mos<)e at Umm al. 1alId, %hich had a minaret, is the type of early mos<)e %here the mihra! proAected from the 'ibla %all Blike the mos<)e at 2han al.NOahid, no% vanished !)t p)!lished !y Br)nno% and von Jomas4e%ski, one at Rasr Ha!al /ays, one east of Rasr *alla!at, and one, still )np)!lished, north of *ammGm al. /arakhC. 8. /yro.Palestinian Aramaic Balso vario)sly called Christian Palestinian Aramaic and Christian Palestinian /yriacC is a form of 1estern Aramaic in /yriac type characters that appears to have served a

Christian comm)nity-that is, the placement and content of inscriptions on Christian sectarian !)ildin"s pl)s the e8istence of a "ospel lectionary and vario)s parchment doc)ments in that alpha!et and lan")a"e indicate its )se !y a Christian comm)nity. 5or an article disc)ssin" the vario)s sites %here inscriptions are fo)nd, and map of the sites, see A. Jesre)ma)s, 6(he Birth of a De% Aramaic /cript in the Bilad al./ham at the end of the By4antine Period,7 in The 3istor# o! the "ilad al-Sham during the -ma##ad Period, ed. =. Adnan Bakhit and 9o!ert /chick, &th International Conference of the *istory of Bilad al./ham, 198@ BAmman: University of Hordan and Karmo)k University, 1989C, T'? #'. 9. =any te8ts catalo")e the milestones alon" the 9oman roads. +ne that offers interestin" interpretations of the social practices is BenAamin Isaac and Israel 9oll, 5oman 5oads in Cudea 2: The ;egio-Sc#tho&olis 5oad, BA9 International /eries 1&1 BBA9: +8ford, 198TC. 1$. (he t%o, possi!ly three, milestones kno%n from the Umayyad period are revie%ed !y ,. 9e8 /mith, 6/ome Umayyad Inscriptions of Bilad al./ham-Palaeo"raphic Dotes,7 in The 3istor# o! the "ilad al-Sham, ed. Bakhit and /chick, 18F?9&. A fe% have !een fo)nd in Ara!ia. 11. Altho)"h some%hat o)tside the "eo"raphical area covered here, A!!asid r)lers p)t %ritin" on the "ates of the capital, Ba"hdad. Do comm)nal str)ct)re directly sponsored !y the A!!asids from the ei"hth thro)"h the tenth cent)ries is e8tant in the eastern =editerranean. (hey did, ho%ever, maintain and repair earlier important str)ct)res like the Jome of the 9ock. 1e incl)de them here !eca)se they r)led a si"nificant portion of the territory %e are disc)ssin". 1T. 5or Constantinople cons)lt C. =an"o, 6(he By4antine Inscriptions of Constantinople: A Bi!lio"raphic /)rvey,7 ,merican Cournal o! ,rchaeolog# FF B19F1C: FT?''M for A<a!a, Jonald 1hitcom!, 63vidence of the Umayyad Period from the A<a!a 38cavations,7 in 3istor# o! the "ilad alSham, ed. Bakhit and /chick, 1'&?8&. 1#. (%o scholarly %orks s)pply easy access to the se<)encin" of inscriptions of the By4antine period: Parker, 5omans and SaracensK and =an"o, 6(he By4antine Inscriptions of Constantinople.7 1&. (he most recent st)dy of these forts in the eastern =editerranean is Parker, 5omans and Saracens, %here he details the )ses of these forts into the rei"n of H)stinian. +f partic)lar interest are chaps. 1?F, %here Parker notes the care taken to )pdate the inscriptions from 9oman to By4antine )se. 1F. Philip J. C)rtin, ross- ultural Trade in World 3istor# BCam!rid"e and De% Kork: Cam!rid"e University Press, 198&C, %here he s)""ests that trade in kind prevailed over payment in coin. 1'. (he first solely epi"raphic dinar or "old coin %as minted in '9'?9@ C.3.M the first silver coin, or dirham, in '98?99. =any interpretations of the early coina"e of =)slim r)lers have !een advanced over the years, !)t the most pers)asive %as detailed !y ,eor"e C. =iles, 6=ihra! and EAna4ah: A /t)dy in 3arly Islamic Icono"raphy,7 in ,rchaeologica <rientalia in 4emoriam %rnst 3erz!eld, ed. ,eor"e C. =iles B0oc)st ;alley: H. H. A)")stin, Inc., 19FTC, ##?&9. =ore recent st)dies have analy4ed the early chan"es in li"ht of the specific historical chan"es %ithin the empire. In partic)lar, the st)dies of P. ,rierson, 6(he =onetary 9eforms of EA!d al.=Glik,7 Cournal o! the %conomic and Social 3istor# o! the <rient # B19'$C: T&1?'&M =ichael Bates, 6Islamic D)mismatics,7 4iddle %ast Studies ,ssociation "ulletin 1T, no. T B19@8C: 1?'M 1T, no. # B19@8C: T?18M 1#, no. 1 B19@9C: #?T1M 1#, no. T B19@9C: 1?9M and =ichael 0. Bates, 6*istory, ,eo"raphy and D)mismatics in the 5irst Cent)ry of Islamic Coina"e,7 5e)ue Suisse de Bumismati'ue 'F B198'C: T#1?'#, have s)""ested more historically specific st)dies of coins and mints and an )nderstandin" that coins are more than the depictions on their s)rface. Part of their meanin" lies in their %ei"ht and the system of %hich that %ei"ht is a part. 3miko (erasaki, 6(he 0ack of Animal and *)man 5i")ral Ima"ery in the P)!lic Art of the Umayyad Period,7 B=asterSs thesis, UC0A, 198@C, s)""ested )nderstandin" certain of the icono"raphic chan"es

in the Umayyad period as related to intra.=)slim politics. I %ant to thank especially Here Bacharach and =ichael Bates %ho, %hile not responsi!le for my interpretation, have patiently ans%ered my <)estions and freely shared the insi"hts of their n)mismatic research. 1@. 5or the iss)e of %ei"hts of these reform coins, see ,rierson, 6=onetary 9eforms,7 T&@?F$. 18. =)ch has !een %ritten a!o)t EA!d al.=GlikSs p)ttin" %ritin" on te8tiles BA. ,rohmann, 6(ira4,7 %nc#clo&aedia o! 2slam, 1st ed. B0eiden: 3. H. Brill, 191#?#'CM Irene A. Bierman, 6Art and Politics: (he Impact of 5atimid Uses of Tiraz 5a!rics,7 PPh.J. diss., University of Chica"o, 198$QC, !)t these te8tiles had no official )se that is tracea!le. If one looks caref)lly at the %ritin" on the fe% te8tiles that do remain from the Umayyad or early A!!asid period one can )nderstand %hy the ceremonial impact of the %ritin" Bits form and materialityC on these te8tiles co)ld not !e "reat. (he aesthetic dimensions of the %ritin" %ere )ndeveloped. In A!!asid practice, the Caliph and those s)rro)ndin" him %ore plain )npatterned !lack. /ee *ilGl i!n al.=)hOassin al./OG!iS, 5us(m dr al-@hil!ah BBa"hdad: =at!aSat al.EAni, 19'&C, @#?8&. 19. 3)se!i)s even commented on the plainness of the o)tside of By4antine str)ct)res. H. 1. Cro%foot, %arl# hurches in Palestine B0ondon: +8ford University Press, 19&1C, 1$8?1$, <)otin" 3)se!i)s. T$. (his practice is in contrast %ith ho% "ro)ps %ithin U./. society often )se the presence of specific alpha!ets today %here %ritin" on the o)tside of str)ct)res is a si"n of the socio.reli"io)s nat)re of the comm)nal f)nctions takin" place in the interior. A !)ildin" near UC0A displays a si"n that reads =alino% and /ilverman 5)neral *ome a!ove an ima"e of a flame in %hich *e!re% %ritin" appears. 1hat confirms or re.marks for the vie%er the "ro)p.specific or sectarian adherence of the f)neral services performed %ithin the !)ildin" is the presence of *e!re% letters in the si"n. (o those %ho can identify the letters they see as *e!re% letters Band many %ithin the society can do that-may!e most people %ho %o)ld pass !y at this locationC, the mere presence of those letters conveys s)fficient meanin" to indicate that this is a He%ish f)neral home !eca)se %ritin" in *e!re% letters is )sed mainly !y this "ro)p. 1e %a"er that most people %ho pass !y this si"n cannot read the content of the messa"e in *e!re%, yet the main messa"e of this si"n has !een conveyed-He%ish f)neral home. T1. (hese inscriptions, their history and !i!lio"raphy, %ere detailed in %4,, vols. 1 and T. TT. 5or Achtamar see /irarpie Jer Dersessian, ,rmenian ,rt B0ondon: (hames and *)dson, 19@@C, 8$? 81. 5or the (hree Joor =os<)e, see %4, T: #TF?T'. T#. (he tenth.cent)ry By4antine Book of Ceremonies, %hich contains prescriptions and descriptions of ceremonies, has !een preserved. H. H. 9eiske, or&us Scri&torum 3istoricum "#zantinorum, T vols. BBonn: 18T9?#$C. /ee also A. (oyn!ee, onstantine Por&hr#ogennetos and 3is World B+8ford: +8ford University Press, 19@#C. /econdary analysis of By4antine ceremonial is e8tensiveM see partic)larly Averil Cameron, 6(he Constr)ction of Co)rt 9it)al: (he By4antine Book of Ceremonies,7 in 5ituals o! 5o#alt#: Power and eremonial in Traditional Societies, ed. Javid Cannadine and /imon Price BCam!rid"e and 0ondon: Cam!rid"e University Press, 198@C, 1$'?#'M C. =an"o and I. /evcenko, 6A De% =an)script of the Je Cerimoniis,7 .umbarton <a@s Pa&ers 1& B19'$C: T&@?&9M 9. 0. Delson, 6/ym!ols in Conte8t,7 Studies in hurch 3istor# 1# B19@'C: 9@?119M and P. =a"dalino and 9. Delson, 6(he 3mperor in By4antine Art of the (%elfth Cent)ry,7 "#zantinische Forschungen 8 B198TC: 1T#?8#. Also, /a!ine =acCormack, ,rt and eremon# in ;ate ,nti'uit# BBerkeley: University of California Press, 1981C. J)rin" the many cent)ries in %hich e8tensive ceremonial %as developed and )sed, %ritin" did not play a systematic and e8tensive role in the display. I am almost tempted to s)""est that oral )tterances dominated. A!!asid ceremonial is detailed in *ilGl i!n al.=)hOassin, 5us(m dr al-@hil!ah. +ne edited

edition Bfrom the Ba"hdad ms.C has !een p)!lished, ed. =ikhGSil EA%ad BCairo: al.Aini Press, 19'&C. An 3n"lish translation %ith notes Bof the Cairo ms.C has !een p)!lished !y 3lie A. /alem, 5us(m dr al-@hil!ah/ The 5ules and 5egulations o! the *,bbasid ourt BBeir)t: American University Press, 19@@C. Al.=aSmLn %ore "reen %hen he entered Ba"hdad in 819 T$&, !)t restored !lack as the color follo%in" s)""estions of his advisors. Al./OG!iS, 5us(m dr al-@hil!ah, @#. Umayyad ceremonials)ch as it %as-can only !e vie%ed thro)"h an a""re"ate of acco)nts, all of %hich s)""est that no formal ceremonial e8isted in the sense meant here. Also see +le" ,ra!ar, 6Dotes s)r les c:r:monies Umayyades,7 in Studies in 4emor# o! $aston Wiet, ed. =yriam 9osen.Ayalon BHer)salem: Instit)te of Asian and African /t)dies, *e!re% University of Her)salem, 19@@C, F1?'$. 5atimid ceremonial is detailed !y Pa)la /anders, 5itual/ Politics/ and the it# in Fatimid airo BDe% Kork: /UDK Press, 199&C. T&. *)"h ,. 3. 1hite, The 4onasteries o! the Wadi *B Batrun, =etropolitan =)se)m 38pedition, 8 vols. BDe% Kork: (he =etropolitan =)se)m of Art, 19##C, vol. 8. TF. (hese floors are )s)ally p)!lished in distinct cate"ories: He%ish Art, Armenian Art, or Christian Art. +nly one article, !y Avi.Konah, !rin"s them all to"ether: =ichael Avi.Konah, 6Une :cole de mosaZ<)e V ,a4a a) si8iYme siYcle,7 ;a mosaI'ue greco-romaine 22, IIe Collo<)e International po)r lS:t)de de la mosaZ<)e anti<)e, ;ienna, 19@1 BParis: A. [ H. Picard, 19@FC, #@@?8#, and rep)!lished in ,rt in ,ncient Palestine, collected papers BHer)salem: =a"nes Press-*e!re% University, 1981C, #89?#9F. Avi.Konah ar")es that a school of mosaicists e8isted in the area of Palestine !eca)se of the formal and technical similarities in these mosaics. *e does not take )p the iss)e of the presence of %ritin" in these mosaics, and in fact, the plate he )ses of the floor in the Armenian Ch)rch is so cropped as to eliminate the %ritin". =ore recent st)dies that treat 6inha!ited vine7 depictions and %hich offer interestin" hypotheses contradictin" Bin partC traditional notions a!o)t presentational formats and traditional notions of center and periphery are: Cla)dine Ja)phin, 6De% =ethod of /t)dyin" 3arly By4antine =osaic Pavements Bcodin" and a comp)ted cl)ster analysisC %ith /pecial 9eference to the 0evant,7 ;e)ant 8 B19@'C: 11#? &9, esp. 1T$?T#, 1#$?#1M and Cla)dine Ja)phin, 6Jevelopment of the Inha!ited /croll, Architect)ral /c)lpt)re and =osaic Art from 0ate Imperial (imes to the /eventh Cent)ry A.J.,7 ;e)ant 19 B198@C: 18#?T1T. T'. /ome of these formal feat)res are present in other mosaics, altho)"h they are often smaller in format. (he mosaic of one of the syna"o")es displays in addition a menorah flanked !y t%o lions. T@. /ee A. ,ra!ar, 6Un thYme de lSicono"raphie Chr:tienne: 0Soisea) dans le ca"e,7 ahiers ,rch?ologi'ues 1' B19''C: 9?1'M A. ,ra!ar, 69echerches s)r les so)rces A)ives de lSart Pal:ochr:tien,7 ahiers ,rch?ologi'ues 1T, no. F B19'TC: 1T&, 1TF, and fi". 8M +. *Aort, 60Soisea) dans le ca"e: 38emples medi:va)8 V 9ome,7 ahiers ,rch?ologi'ues 18 B19'8C: T1?#1M ,a!rielle /ed.9aAna, ,ncient Cewish ,rt B/eaca)c)s, D.H.: Chart%ell Books, n.d.C: 11@?18. T8. (he standard %ork on coins of this period has !een Hohn 1alker, , atalogue o! 4uh+ammadan oins in the "ritish 4useum, vol.1, ,rab-Sassanian oins B0ondon: British =)se)m, 19&1C, and vol. T, ,rab-"#zantine and Post 5e!orm oins B0ondon: British =)se)m, 19'FC. 9ecent )nderstandin"s of early coina"e-and th)s ne% cate"ori4ations-have !een p)t for%ard especially in the follo%in" %orks: =ichael ,. =orony, 2ra' a!ter the 4uslim on'uest BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 198&C, esp. #8?F1M Bates, 6*istory, ,eo"raphy and D)mismatics,7 T#1?'#. (he coins specifically mentioned here are disc)ssed especially on pp. T&#?F&. T9. %4, 1:'9. #$. 3ttin"ha)sen, 6Ara!ic 3pi"raphy,7 T9@?#11.

#1. 5or a co"ent syntactic e8position of these iss)es, Um!erto 3co, 65)nction and /i"n: (he /emiotics of Architect)re,7 in Signs/ S#mbols and ,rchitecture, ed. ,eoffrey Broad!ent, 9ichard B)nt, and Charles Henks BChichester and De% Kork: Hohn 1iley [ /ons, 198$C, 11?@$. #T. Cro%foot, %arl# hurches in Palestine, esp. chap. &M %4,, vols. 1 and TM ,ra!ar, 6Umayyad Jome of the 9ock.7 ##. Ale8ander ;an =illi"en, "#zantine hurches in onstantino&le/ Their 3istor# and ,rchitecture B0ondon: =ac=illan, 191TC, 9&?1$1. (he mosaic section completed d)rin" the rei"n of H)stinian is detailed on pp. 9&?9F. #&. ;an =illi"en, "#zantine hurches, 'T?@&. (he mosaic pro"ram is no lon"er e8tant, !)t the %ritin" e8ists. #F. Charles Jiehl, =. (o)rnea), and *. /aladin, ;es monuments hr?tiens de Saloni'ue BParis: 3rnest 0ero)8, 1918C, 1#'?&#M and Charles Jiehl, 60es mosaZ<)es de /ainte./ophie de /aloni<)e,7 in ,cad?mie des inscri&tions et belles-lettres mnuments and m?moires BParis: 5ondation Piot, 19$9C, #9? '$. #'. %4,, vol. 1, chaps. & and F. #@. %4,, vol. 1, chaps. @ and 8 B!)ildin"sCM =ar"aret van Berchem, %4,, vol. 1, chap. 1$ BmosaicsC. #8. 4,%, vol. 1, chap. &. #9. /ee details in van Berchem, %4,, vol. 1. &$. C. =an"o, "#zantine ,rchitecture BDe% Kork: A!rams, 19@'C, 98, fi". 1$'. &1. Cro%foot, %arl# hurches in Palestine, 11'?&F. &T. I!id., 11'. &#. =yriam 9osen.Ayalon in a salva"e e8pedition in 9amla fo)nd a mosaic floor depictin" an arch %ith %ritin" in Ara!ic. /he eval)ated the remains of the str)ct)re as a ho)se. *o% the specific area %here the mosaic %as fo)nd f)nctioned in the )se pattern of the %hole str)ct)re is )nclear. 6(he 5irst =osaic Jiscovered in 9amla,7 2srael %x&edition Cournal T' B19@'C: 1$&?11. &&. (his )ni<)e !ron4e polycandelon is sho%n in 5ro%ald *)ettenmeister and ,ottfried 9ee", .ie ,nti@en S#nagogen in 2srael, T vols. B1ies!aden: 9eichert, 19@@C, 1:TF'?F8M and in /teven 5ine, 6/yna"o")e and /anctity: (he 0ate Anti<)e Palestinian /yna"o")e as a E*oly PlaceS7 BPh.J. diss., *e!re% University, 199#C, 1&'. &F. Charles Jiehl, onstantino&le BParis: *. 0a)rens, 19T&C, T&T?#&T. &'. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat, 1:F$@, %here he <)otes al.5GkihI and lists the latterSs record of inscriptions he had seen in =ecca on parts of vario)s fra"ments of old 2aE!a coverin"sM more "enerali4ed material can !e fo)nd in 9. B. /erAeant, 6=aterial for a *istory of Islamic (e8tiles )p to the =on"ol Con<)est,7 ,rs 2slamica 9 B19&TC: F&?9TM 1$ B19&#C: @1?1$&M 11?1T B19&'C: 98?1&FM 1#?1& B19&8C: @F?11@M 1F? 1' B19F1C: T9?8'. &@. =eyer /chapiro, 6/tyle,7 ,nthro&olog# Toda# B19'9C: T@9?#$#M and 0echtman, 6/tyle in (echnolo"y,7 #?T$. &8. An e8ception can !e fo)nd in the ortho"raphy of the %ord 6Allah7 %here the da""er ali! of the %ord ilhun is %ritten a!ove, %hich in certain 2)fic scripts fashioned in stone and st)cco is represented as an ornamental "raph in the center. 5or f)rther details, see Bierman, 6Art of the P)!lic (e8t,7 esp. T8F.

&9. /ee especially Hoseph Daveh, %arl# 3istor# o! the ,l&habet/ ,n 2ntroduction to West Semitic %&igra&h# and Paleogra&h# BHer)salem and 0eiden: =a"nes Press, *e!re% University and 3. H. Brill, 198TC, %here he sho%s that this )se of a sin"le formal alpha!et %as not pec)liar to the cent)ries st)died here as the 6comm)nity7 sta"e, !)t that s)ch practice %as common for an e8tended period in the eastern =editerranean !efore the cent)ries )nder disc)ssion here. F$. In the instance of the "ro)ps iss)in" coins, this formal association incl)ded the coins and sometimes official seals. F1. (hese terms for the script in %hich the *e!re% lan")a"e %as %ritten are taken from Daveh, %arl# 3istor# o! the ,l&habet, 1'T?@$, %ho distin")ishes the Aramaic.!ased medieval formal script from older *e!re% letters for *e!re% lan")a"e. By the =iddle A"es the )se of the old *e!re% alpha!et for the *e!re% lan")a"e had stopped. FT. (he st)dies of man)script %ritin" styles and officially sponsored %ritin" scripts are <)ite copio)s for %ritin" in ,reek. =any of the %orks, like those detailed a!ove for Ara!ic, are compendi)ms, !)t some are synthetic and take )p iss)es of the relationships of styles to the political sit)ation mainly !et%een the 3astern and 0atin Ch)rches. =ost nota!le of these st)dies is /tanley =orison, Politics and Scri&t B+8ford: +8ford University Press, 19@TC. F#. Cristel 2essler, 6EA!d al.=GlikSs Inscription in the Jome of the 9ock: A 9econsideration,7 Cournal o! the 5o#al ,siatic Societ# B19@$C: 1?1&, esp. 1$, and n. 1'. F&. I!id., 1#. *ere she notes that the inscriptions on the Umayyad milestones had similar characteristics. FF. Dot all %ritin" in this period follo%ed a linear format. In fact the formats for displayin" %ritin" are most inventive %hen the %ritin" is not officially sponsored. 5or e8ample, on %hat are kno%n as 6incantation !o%ls,7 %ritin" sometimes spirals in%ard from the rim, sometimes o)t%ard from the center, sometimes in radiatin" patterns. I %ant to thank =ichael =orony for sharin" his contin)in" research on these !o%ls. F'. All of the topics of =orison, Politics and Scri&t, the collection of the 0yell 0ect)res =orison delivered in 19F@, concern a)thority and script style, !)t chaps. 1?# are %here he s)""ests theolo"ical and historical implications for the styles of 0atin and ,reek %ritin". F@. Daveh, %arl# 3istor# o! the ,l&habet, 1'F?@$. F8. (hese kinds of chan"es in officially sponsored %ritin" seem in tandem %ith chan"es in the man)script hand in %hich the comm)nal te8t %as %ritten. Ket, as %e mentioned a!ove, the evidence is far too inconcl)sive to e8pand these "eneral o!servations. 1e do not possess, for e8ample, comm)nal te8ts from each sectarian "ro)p that represent the same date, place, and sponsorship as the officially sponsored %ritin" in the sectarian space. 1ith the discovery of the R)rSGn man)scripts in /anaEa %e are seein" a "reater ran"e of %ritin" styles and <)alities than previo)sly. (hese pa"es are !e"innin" to !e p)!lished: =uwait Bational 4useum/ 4asahi! Sana* B2)%ait, 198FCM *ans.Caspar ,raf von Bothmer, 6=eister%erke islamischer B)chk)nst: 2oranische 2alli"raphie )nd Ill)mination im *andschriftenf)nd a)s der ,rosse =oschee in /anaa,7 Cemen/ 9777 Cahre =unst und =ultur des glLc@lichen ,rabien, 1@@?8#. I %ish to thank Ursala Jre!hol4 and =arilyn Henkins for sharin" their kno%led"e and slides of these pa"es. F9. Cro%foot, %arl# hurches in Palestine, 118, <)otin" the code8 of (heodosi)s. /)ch la%s !e"an to !e prom)l"ated as early as the fifth cent)ry. '$. =)hOammad i!n Bahad)r NarkashI, 2>lm al-sGid bi-ah+@m al-masGid BCairo: n.p., 1#8&*C, %as a"ainst the %ritin" on the 'ibla, and adornment in "eneral, ##F?#8M KLs)f i!n EA!d al.*OadI, Thimr

al-masGid ! dhi@r al-masGid, ed. AsEad (alas BBeir)t: n.p., 19&#C, 1'', 1@$. '1. %4,, vols. 1 and T. 'T. /ome recent papers !y +le" ,ra!ar and /heila Blair are s)""estin" an alteration of this date, !)t the precise date is not "ermane for this ar")ment. '#. +f this latter !)ildin" pro"ram s)!stantial Umayyad material remains only in the ,reat =os<)e in Jamasc)s, and of that e8tensive mosaic %ork less than 1F percent of the ori"inal is e8tant. '&. (his conversation is reported in AlI i!n EA!d Allah al./amh)di, =huls+at al-wa!> bi-a@hbr almus+ta!a Bal.RGhira: 1#9T*C, #@$. 'F. (he ar")ments of %here the %orkmen %ho completed the mosaics came from are most accessi!le in van Berchem B%4,, vol. 1C %hose %ork relied heavily on al.BalGdh)rI BFut(h+ al-"uldnM, al. KaE<L!I BTar@hC, and al.(Oa!arI Bal-Tar@hC. 1ide e8panses of mosaics represented al.1alIdSs command of money and reso)rces, incl)din" the skills of the !est %orkmen %hether they %ere Copt or /yrian or possi!ly from %ithin By4antine territory. ''. (he te8t thro)"h %hich these kinds of details are most readily availa!le is Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, %here the syna"o")es in the ten cities of the coastal re"ion are detailed on pp. 1&9?9&. Jetailed !i!lio"raphies are incl)ded. '@. SIsfiya is so)theast of *aifa. Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 1F8?'1M =. Avi.Konah and =. =akho)ly, 6A /i8th.Cent)ry /yna"o")e at SIsfiya,7 Quarterl# .e&artment o! ,nti'uities Palestine III B19##C: 118?#1M 9achel *achlili, 6(he Nodiac in Ancient He%ish Art: 9epresentations and /i"nification,7 "ulletin o! the ,merican School o! <riental 5esearch TT8 BJecem!er 19@@C: '1?@@. '8. Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 1F#?F8M =. Avi.Konah, 6(he Ancient /yna"o")e at Caesarea: Preliminary 9eport,7 "ulletin 5abinowitz # B19'$C: &&?&8M and especially /ch%a!e, 6/yna"o")e of Caesarea,7 &##?&9. '9. /ee note '@ a!ove. @$. /imilar patterns in the display of officially sponsored %ritin" are fo)nd in the syna"o")es in other areas, e."., the ,alilee, %here /amaritan is often present. Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 19?1&8. @1. 5or a disc)ssion of the role of ,reek amon" Christian comm)nities see /chick, 6(he 5ate of Christians in Palestine,7 1F?1', '98?@$T. @T. (hese types of iss)es are taken )p !y modern lin")istic st)dies )s)ally in the frame%ork of oral. %ritten di"lossia, !)t these same st)dies provide data for )nderstandin" the link !et%een performance in %ritin" and class str)ct)re. A synthetic %ork that takes )p these iss)es in partic)lar is ,oody, The 2nter!ace, esp. chap. 11. =ore specific st)dies that inform these <)estions are Clanchy, From 4emor# to Written 5ecordK and /cri!ner and Cole, The Ps#cholog# o! ;iterac#. @#. /ee chap. 1 and relevant notes for f)rther e8plication of the role of ,reek. @&. Daveh, %arl# 3istor# o! the ,l&habet, 11T?T&. @F. +le" ,ra!ar, 6Pict)res on Commentaries: (he Ill)strations of the 4a'amat of al.*Oariri,7 in Studies in the ,rt and ;iterature o! the Bear %ast in 3onor o! 5ichard %ttinghausen, ed. Peter H. Chelko%ski B/alt 0ake City: =iddle 3ast Center, University of Utah, 19@&C, 8F?1$&. @'. Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 1@'. @@. 1hite, 4onasteries #:18@, plates F8, F9.

@8. =a8 van Berchem, 2,, part T, S#rie du SudK vol. T, Cerusalem: 3aram, TT&?T8, T&8?F1. @9. Chiat, 3andboo@ o! S#nagogue ,rchitecture, 18F. 8$. 9C3A, vol. 1, no. 8@. 81. ;an =illi"an, "#zantine hurches, @#?@&. 8T. ,ra!ar, 6Umayyad Jome of the 9ock,7 @'?@@. 8#. 1hite, 4onasteries, 19&. (his inscription is partially dama"ed so that the name of the second person %ho died is no lon"er e8tant. 8&. Peter 9. 0. Bro%n, 6Art and /ociety in 0ate Anti<)ity,7 in The ,ge o! S&iritualit#, ed. 2)rt 1eit4mann B=etropolitan =)se)m of Art and Princeton University Press, 198$C, 1@?T8.

+. T!e Fatimi( P*,&i' Te-t an( t!e Sign "# Isma.i&ism

Fr"m t!e Reign "# Ca&i/! a&01*.i22 t" t!e A//"intment "# Wazr Ba(r a&03am4&5 697+819:+;+<18<==>
(he key to )nderstandin" the 5atimid )se of %ritin" si"ns as a p)!lic te8t is the reco"nition that the 5atimid r)lers %ere IsmGEIlI =)slims, a sect of /hIEI Islam. 5rom the time they declared their Caliphate in Dorth Africa in 91$ T9@P1Q )ntil the end of the dynasty in 11@1 F'@, they r)led over a pop)lation predominantly /)nni =)slim.PTQ (heir position as leaders of empire %as f)ndamentally different from that of the other maAor contemporary =)slim r)lers, the A!!asid Caliph in Ba"hdad and the Umayyad Caliph in Cordo!a. (his difference %as not simply a matter of n)m!ers of adherents to different sectarian positions %ithin Islam. It %as, rather, that the 5atimid IsmGEIlI r)ler f)nctioned in a d)al role: !oth as Caliph to all those %ithin his empire Ball =)slims, He%s, and ChristiansC, and as 0ivin" ImGm to Believers BIsmGEIlIsC. As Caliph, the 5atimid r)ler e8ercised the same prero"atives of office as other =)slim r)lers: his name %as read in the @hutba Bthe sermon at the 5riday midday prayerC in the mos<)es of his realmM coins %ere minted in his name Bsi@@aCK and te8tiles %oven at "overnment esta!lishments BtirzC displayed his titles. *o%ever, only to Believers %as the 5atimid r)ler a divinely ")ided and infalli!le ImGm, vested %ith )ltimate a)thority to interpret the R)rSGn in his lifetime.P#Q *is a!ility to interpret rested on his kno%led"e of the tr)e reality fo)nd in the esoteric dimension BbtinC !ehind the literal or o!vio)s Bz+hirC %ords of the R)rSGn. *is a!ility to f)nction as interpreter %as traced to his direct descent from the Prophet =)hOammad thro)"h his da)"hter 5GtOima and son.in.la% EAli. 5or 5atimid IsmGEIlIs, interpretation Bta>wlC %as a s#stem of alle"orical or sym!olic )nderstandin". It %as the vehicle for reachin" the dimension of the esoteric from that of the e8oteric. (his system %as !oth %ritten do%n and passed on orally. Ultimate interpretation %as the prero"ative of the ImGm. *e %as the final a)thority, after the Prophet =)hOammad, for interpretin" ,odSs la%s, and the prom)l"ator of r)les of social cond)ct. Believers came to kno% the ta>wl, and th)s the dimension of the esoteric, thro)"h formal and "rad)al trainin" or initiation. (he 5atimid r)ler, the ImGm, esta!lished instit)tions in Cairo s)ch as the dr al-*ilm or dr al-h+i@ma B*o)se of 0earnin" or 1isdomC in a part of their palace %here s)ch instr)ction took place. (he 5atimid ImGm %as the head of the or"ani4ation, or da*wa, of reli"io)s di"nitaries esta!lished to help initiate Believers. (he core of inner !eliefs %as revealed only to those properly initiated. In fact, IsmGEIlI missionaries Bd*, sin"., du*t, pl.C traveled from the ed"es of the empire, even into northern India, to properly initiate Believers.P&Q

As the fore"oin" s)""ests, the position of the 5atimid ImGm.Caliph involved an especially comple8 inter%eavin" of roles. As Caliph, like r)lers every%here, he %as the center of socio.economic po%er. (hose %ho %ere mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p participated in the !enefits that s)ch a stat)s conferred. (he 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p incl)ded /)nni =)slims, /hIEI =)slims BIsmGEIlI and ImGmIC, Coptic and Armenian Christians, and He%s. B)t the 5atimid r)ler %as the infalli!le ImGm only to Believers. +ri"inally, Believers constit)ted a si"nificant proportion of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p, especially as mem!ers of the army. *o%ever, over the co)rse of the t%o h)ndred years the 5atimids r)led from Cairo, the n)m!ers of IsmGEIlIs, %ithin !oth the r)lin" "ro)p and the pop)lation, "reatly diminished. 5rom the point of vie% of the a)dience, or pop)lation, and especially the =)slim pop)lation in the 5atimid empire, this Caliph.ImGm role of the r)ler, and all the net%orks of associations related to each role, created "ro)ps %ith different !ases for perceivin" the la%s, !)ildin" pro"rams, comm)nal actions, and so forth of the r)ler.PFQ (he important iss)e here is that 5atimid p)!lic te8ts-that is, %ritin" si"ns placed prominently in the p)!lic space-%ere vie%ed !y a !road "eneral a)dience. B)t the meanin"s those si"ns conveyed depended on the differin" percept)al A)d"ments of the varyin" "ro)ps %ithin this a)dience. +f co)rse, d)rin" the t%o cent)ries the 5atimids r)led from Cairo, these d)al roles of ImGm.Caliph %ere not static, nor %as the composition of the r)lin" "ro)p sta!le, nor %ere the socio.economic conditions contin)ally prospero)s. +!vio)sly, many factors contri!)ted to makin" the social sit)ation in Cairo partic)larly receptive to the )se of %ritin" si"ns as p)!lic te8ts. B)t all that the d)al nat)re of 5atimid IsmGEIlI r)le entailed %as certainly primary amon" them. Accordin"ly, the 5atimid creation of the p)!lic te8t is descri!ed in terms of the actions of the ImGm.Caliphs in the first cent)ry of 5atimid r)le, and primarily in terms of the activities of the wazrs, in the second one h)ndred years. \ \ \

T!e Sign "# Isma.i&ism? C"n'entri' Cir'&es an( C"ins

(he first e8ample of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t %as the display of %ritin" in the format of concentric circles Bfi". 19C on ne% coins minted in Ifri<iya.P'Q (he choice to display %ritin" in this format %as a !rilliant strate"y, one that came to !e )sed not only on coins, !)t on precio)s o!Aects and on !)ildin"s thro)"ho)t 5atimid r)le, especially in their Cairene capital. 1hat made the choice of the concentric circle format a vehicle )sef)l in s)pportin" 5atimid r)le %as the referential f)nction of that format. (o those %ho sa% the concentric circle format, it %as a si"n of 5atimid r)le and la%. (o IsmGEIlIs amon" them, it %as that and more. It %as a si"n of IsmGEIlI ideolo"y.

5i". 19a. Jinar, al.=)Ei44 B1$$T.1.11@8 Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". 19!. Jinar, al.=)Ei44 B1$$T.1.11@8 Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC (hat ideolo"y may !e said to have !een %ritten lar"e in the circ)lar city that ImGm.Caliph al.=ansOLr Br. 9&'?F# ##&?&1C ordered to !e !)ilt o)tside Rairo%an in 9&8. (ho)"h today it s)rvives only as an archaeolo"ical site, evidence reveals that the city %as circ)lar in desi"n, and even more important for my ar")ment here, the ImGmSs palace %as in the center.P@Q =oreover, al.=ansOLriya %as a %holly IsmGEIlI city. 9esidence %as limited to the IsmGEIlI mem!ers of the "overnment, the army, and the chief IsmGEIlI <adi. 5or IsmGEIlIs there, the str)ct)re of the city provided a template for 5atimid r)le and la%M

they all kne% that the ImGm.Caliph lived at the center of their lives. It remained for ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 Br. 9F#?@F #&1?'FC, the son of al.=ansOLr, to impose the concentric circle format on his coins in order to em!lemati4e IsmGEIlI r)le and la% as %ell as ideolo"y. P8Q By adoptin" the format of %ritin" in concentric circles on his coins, al.=)Ei44 made it possi!le for all to distin")ish coins of the 5atimid IsmGEIlI realm from those of the A!!asid lands. Al.=)Ei44 iss)ed these coins thro)"ho)t the remainder of his rei"n. In the first year, there %as %ritin" %hich displayed a forthri"ht, a""ressively IsmGEIlI messa"e in the inner concentric circles on the coins.P9Q In all s)!se<)ent coins for the ne8t t%enty.three years B9F#?@F #&T?'FC that central space contained only a raised dot Bfi". 19C. Al.=)Ei44 reinforced these references on coins !y chan"es in the aesthetic dimensions, specifically the p)rity of "old in the dinar. (he )se of the format not only on coins, !)t also on o!Aects and !)ildin"s related to 5atimid patrona"e, stren"thened the linka"e !et%een format and 5atimid IsmGEIlI r)le. (he years of ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44Ss r)le B9F#?9@FC, spannin" the con<)est of 3"ypt and the fo)ndation of the royal city of Cairo Bal-QhiraC, also %itnessed the %orks of t%o maAor scholars, the philosopher and d*, A!L KaEkL! al./iAistGnI Bd.c. 9@1C,P1$Q and the A)rist RGdOI al.D)EmGn Bd. 9@&C. P11Q (hese t%o scholars made maAor contri!)tions to the disco)rses %ithin IsmaEilism of that time. Al. /iAistGnISs %ritin" %ere part of the disco)rse of metaphor,P1TQ the esoteric dimension. RGdOI al. D)EmGnSs %ritin"s %ere s)!stantial in !oth disco)rses, !)t his position %ithin the 5atimid "overnment as 'adi, provided him %ith a ven)e for makin" lastin" contri!)tions in la% B!i'hC.P1#Q It is his contri!)tions to the disco)rse of la%, the e8oteric Bz+hirC dimension, that are relevant here.P1&Q Both scholars )sed concentric circle dia"rams %ithin their te8ts as %hat can !e called memory devices. P1FQ (hey appear to !e the first IsmGEIlI scholars to )se s)ch memory devices, one copied !y later IsmGEIlI %riters s)ch as al.2irmGnIP1'Q and DGsOir.i 2h)sra%P1@Q in the eleventh cent)ry. (he memory devices )sed in each of these t%o disco)rses, %hile sharin" the !asic typolo"y of concentric circles, %ere nevertheless "eometrically different. 0ike%ise, the a)diences these te8ts and memory devices reached, %hile overlappin", %ere different. 1hen this essential form-that of concentric circles-%as )sed not as a memory device in an intellect)al disco)rse !)t as an element of an appropriately placed p)!lic te8t, it %as intended to !e apprehended !y vie%ers %ho %ere IsmGEIlI as referrin" to a %hole system of associations specific to IsmGEIlI !elief. (o =)slims %ho %ere not IsmGEIlI, and to non. =)slims, this same form %as perceived in a variety of other, different conte8ts.P18Q 38plorin" the relevant %ritin"s of al./iAistGnI and RGdOI al.D)EmGn allo%s )s to e8plore the differin" net%orks of references in %hich the concentric circle memory device f)nctioned for its varyin" a)diences. As )sed !y al./iAistGnI %ithin the disco)rse of the btin, the disco)rse of metaphor or tr)ths Bha'>i'C, the concentric dia"ram related to the mode of e8plication !y analo"y. In his =itb al-#nab* B(he 1ellsprin"s of 1isdomC, al./iAistGnI )ses fo)r different concentric circle dia"rams.P19Q (he concentric circle dia"rams are )sed intentionally to help the reader perceive at a "lance the correspondences amon" the dimensions of the )niverse. (hey f)nction to sta!ili4e, fi8, and order se<)ences, oppositions, and relationships, and in so doin" aid the memory in the mindSs intellect)al Ao)rney to%ard the central tr)ths. (he esoteric realm itself formed a system !ased on a cyclical interpretation of hierohistory and a cosmolo"y. In that system, time is a limitless pro"ression of cycles %ithin seven maAor cycles. 3ach of the seven cycles Bof varyin" d)rationC is !e")n !y a /peaker.Prophet Bnti'C %ho anno)nces a revealed messa"e constit)tin" the e8oteric reli"io)s la% of that period. Adam, Doah, A!raham, =oses, Hes)s, and =)hOammad, in t)rn, %ere the /peaker.Prophets %ho !e"an the first si8 cycles. In each era, the prophet %as s)cceeded !y a /pirit)al 0e"atee Bwas+C, also kno%n as a 5o)ndation BassC or /ilent +ne Bs+mitC, %ho interpreted the esoteric meanin" of the revelation. 5or e8ample, Aron %as the was+ Bs+mit or assC of =oses, /imon Peter that of Hes)s, and EAlI of =)hOammad. 3ach was+ in t)rn %as follo%ed

!y seven ImGms, or a series of heptads of ImGms, %ho maintained the revelations and the la%s in !oth their z+hir and btin dimensions. 1e live in the pen)ltimate cycle for %hich =)hOammad is the Prophet, as the 5atimid IsmGEIlIs did then. (he cosmolo"y in this disco)rse involves a heptad of letters B2UDI.RAJ9C relatin" to created thin"s as %ell as the cycles of hierohistory.PT$Q 3ach letter of this heptad stands for a /peaker.Prophet Bnti'C: 2 for Adam thro)"h 9 for the nti' !e"innin" the seventh era. /imilarly, the physical realm is analo"i4ed !y important letters s)ch as those makin" )p the %ord 6Allah7-a.l.l.h Bali!/ lm/ lm/ hC. PT1Q In The Wells&rings o! Wisdom, for e8ample, ha, the final letter in the %ord 6Allah,7 descri!ed as shaped in the form of a circle, relates sym!olically to the ,sas Bor the ImGmC, to ta>wl, and to the earth. (he second lm corresponds to the nti' and to %ater, and so forth in a comple8 inter.relationship.PTTQ In addition, every %ord and letter of the shahda Bthe profession of faithC-la ilh illa allah B6no ,od !)t (he ,od7C-as %ell as the ne"ation and affirmation of its "rammatical str)ct)re-%ere hi"hly sym!olic. Its letters and sylla!les, like those in 2UDI and RAJ9 and in Allah, corresponded to n)m!ers %hich in t)rn related to hierohistory, nat)re, and the creation of the cosmos. 0ookin" at one of al./iAistGnISs dia"rams helps e8plicate ho% the dia"ram f)nctioned as a memory device for the comple8 realms of the esoteric dimension. (his device dia"rams the thirty.fo)rth 6%ellsprin"7 %hich disc)sses the perfect n)m!er si8.PT#Q (he te8t e8plains in detail %hat is compressed here into very a!!reviated form. /i8 is )nderstood as a perfect n)m!er !eca)se the s)m of its divisors e<)als itself, that is, #]T]1^'. /i8 indicates that there are si8 /peaker.Prophets. ,od created the %orld in si8 days. Dat)re has si8 po%ers-motion, rest, prime matter, form, place, and time. (he effects of these po%ers a!ide in si8 directions-a!ove, !elo%, ri"ht, left, front, and !ack. (he h)man form has si8 mem!ers-t%o hands, t%o le"s, a !ack, and a !elly. /i8 also represents the hierarchy of /peaker.Prophets Bnti'C, ImGms, and AdA)ncts, a total of t%enty.one. (his n)m!er is reached !y addin" to"ether the n)m!ers 1]T]#]&]F]'. (he dia"ram fi8es the correspondences of these realms. 3ach of the si8 is represented in its o%n sphere. (he elements of the spheres move co)nterclock%ise aro)nd the circle, a direction dictated !y the decision to have the center !e the vie%in" point for readin" the %ritin".PT&Q (he center circle indicated !y %ords %ritten in lines is the fi8ed center of the )niverse: ,od and the seventh, final ImGm or =ahdi. 3ach of the elements in each realm also corresponds to a specific element in the other realms, and each is also fi8ed in the dia"ram in its appropriate %ed"e. (his str)ct)ral patternin" serves as an aid to memory. Concentric circle dia"rams %ith typolo"ical e<)ivalencies to the one disc)ssed a!ove are presented !y al./iAistGnI in t%o other sections of The Wells&rings o! Wisdom-one in the section disc)ssin" the <)alities of the Intellect,PTFQ and t%o in the section disc)ssin" the manner in %hich mankind %orships the +ri"inator.PT'Q In the second of the t%o latter dia"rams, the profession of faith, the phrase la-ilh/ illa allah, is metic)lo)sly related !y letter and sylla!le to the intellect and cosmos. 3ach of these dia"rams help the Believer make an intellect)al Ao)rney, tho)"h they are not maps in the modern sense of that %ord. (hey do not re&resent, that is, stand for, either the %ords or concepts in the te8t or a model of the real )niverse. 9ather, they are devices to remem!er %ith, %hich IsmGEIlIs as a "ro)p %ere trained to )se %hen they tho)"ht a!o)t the realities Bha'>i'C of the %orld. As s)ch, they %ere a comm)nity memory device, the si"n of IsmaEilism. (he concentric circle dia"ram %as )sed at the same time in the disco)rse of the e8oteric. RGdOI al. D)EmGn )sed this same !asic form to ill)strate an important point a!o)t the relationship of Belief B2mnC to Islam in his %idely disseminated te8t (he Pillars of Islam B.a*>im al-2slamC.PT@Q In this te8t, RGdOI al.D)EmGn e8po)nds the !asic tenets of Be.lief BIsmaEilismC: 38pression, Attestation, and 1ork. 38pression is minimally f)lfilled !y )tterance of the shahda. Attestation is reco"nition of ,odSs

messen"ers and 2no%led"e, and the reco"nition of the ImGm of the (ime B2mm al-N+amnC, at this time, ImGm al.=)Ei44. 1ork is doin" all that ,od commands Bza@t/ s+awm/ Gihd, etc.C as %ell as o!eyin" and acceptin" the %ords and actions of the ImGm of the (ime. Islam is also characteri4ed in this te8t, altho)"h less space is devoted to its e8plication than to Belief B2mnC. RGdOI al.D)EmGn presents Islam, as the title of the !ook s)""ests, in terms of the pillars, salat/ za@at/ sawm/ h+aGG/ Gihd, and in the metaphors of the marria"e contract, r)les for inheritance, and settlement of fe)ds. RGdOI al.D)EmGn reports that A!L HaEfar Ban earlier ImGmC first dre% on the palm of his hand a circle representin" Belief BImGnC, and then he dre% aro)nd that another circle sho%in" the relation of Islam to Belief Bfi". T1C. (his second, o)ter circle is e8oteric, and its ran"e is more constricted. It incl)des many elements !)t not Belief.

5i". T1. Jia"ram, from the .a*>im al-2slam of RGdOI al.D)EmGn RGdOI al.D)EmGn characteri4es the inner circle as btin !eca)se it involves reco"nition of the ImGm of the (ime and 2no%led"e of historical revelation. /)ch a reco"nition %as an ackno%led"ment that the 5atimid r)ler, at that moment al.=)Ei44, %as more than simply a Caliph %ith the po%er to collect ta8es: he %as the ImGm, the final interpreter of the R)rSGn. Ackno%led"in" the r)ler as the ImGm of the (ime %as an act of IsmGEIlI Believers only, and !oth in Ifri<iya %here this te8t %as %ritten, and later in 3"ypt %here the =)slim pop)lation %as over%helmin"ly non.IsmGEIlI, the interface !et%een IsmaEilism and the rest of the =)slim pop)lation %as an important iss)e !oth for the "overnment and for those %ho lived %ithin the society. In addition to the description of A!L HaEfar dra%in" these circles on the palm of his hand to demonstrate to his a)dience ho% these relationships are vis)ally manifest, RGdOI al.D)EmGn dre% concentric circles in the te8t of his man)script, represented in all kno%n copies !y a central dot.circle and another, o)ter circle. Do %ritin" is incl)ded in this memory device. B)t no %ritin" %as necessary, not simply !eca)se the dia"ram ostensi!ly indicated the correspondence of only t%o elements, Belief and Islam, !)t primarily !eca)se of the )se ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 Band s)cceedin" 5atimid r)lersC made of the te8t in %hich it %as em!edded. (hey made the te8t and its dia"ram accessi!le to a !road a)dience !y the sponsorship of its readin". 0on" after RGdOI al.D)EmGnSs death it %as read to those %ho came to learn a!o)t IsmaEilism in the al.A4har and al.*OGkim mos<)es in Cairo, and the mos<)e of EAmr in 5)stOGtO. It %as also read in Cairo at the sessions of the maGlis al-h+i@ma %here IsmGEIlI doctrine %as ta)"ht. *eld on (h)rsdays and 5ridays, these sessions and those in the mos<)es %ere important for conveyin" IsmGEIlI kno%led"e.PT8Q (hese sessions %ere performative. 9eaders at the sessions read the te8ts o)t lo)d and e8plicated them. +ne phrase in The Pillars partic)larly associated %ith the dra%in" of the concentric circles reinforced the dia"ram of the circles dra%n on the hand, and helped to fi8 the key element in the memory of the hearer. H)st !efore dra%in" the t%o circles on his hand, A!L HaEfar is reported as sayin": al-imn #ashri@ al-islm wa>l islm la #ashri@ al-imn BBelief em!odies Islam %hile Islam does not em!ody BeliefC. (his phrase is repeated in The Pillars Band in other %ritin"s of RGdOI al.D)EmGnC almost as a refrain %henever the relationship !et%een Islam and Belief is disc)ssed. In fact, this phrase is repeated so often in The Pillars that it is impossi!le not to %onder %hether it %as spoken in a special voice. Perhaps it %as chanted. In addition to its repetition, the po%erf)l association of its ver! #ashri@, translated here as 6em!odies,7 immediately relates this phrase to R)rSGnic )sa"e, %here it refers to those %ho associate others %ith ,od, a ne"ative reference.PT9Q Usin" the ver! first in the positive and then in the ne"ative, a kind of "rammatical constr)ction that echoes the shahda itself, stron"ly emphasi4es the sense of association

and then of disassociation of the t%o parts, Belief and Islam. Belief em!odies Islam, that is, a Believer BIsmGEIlIC is a =)slim, !)t Islam does not em!ody Belief, that is, a =)slim is not BnecessarilyC a Believer. ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 )sed this concentric circle format on coins-a p)!lic te8t-not !y replicatin" the dia"rams in either of the t%o disco)rses of IsmGEIlI %ritin"s Beither btin orz+hirC, !)t !y strate"ically creatin" a three.dimensional si"n consistin" of the salient vis)al feat)res of each: concentric circles and central dot.circle. At the same time, he maintained the commonly )sed 2)fic style for the %ritin" %ithin this ne% si"n. In this %ay, ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 chan"ed the format on his coins from one that imitated Umayyad.A!!asid traditions to one that em!lemati4ed IsmGEIlI ideolo"y. ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 f)rther melded the aesthetic and referential dimensions of the ne% coin in s)pport of the r)le and ideolo"y !ehind it, !y makin" the "old in his dinars more p)re than that in the coins of nei"h!orin", competitive a)thorities.P#$Q 5atimid dinars came to !e val)ed in the market for their p)rity and that p)rity ")aranteed that the coins %o)ld pass readily into nei"h!orin" as %ell as distant lands. (hen as %ell as no%, so)nd coina"e stron"ly s)""ested a so)nd economy and a stron" "overnment. (he content of the %ritin" on the ne% coins presents the relationship of Belief to Islam, and as s)ch relates to RGdOI al.D)EmGnSs te8t, The Pillars o! 2slam, and its intent. (hat te8t %as aimed at e8pressin" the interface of IsmaEilism and Islam !oth to IsmGEIlI a)diences and to others !eyond the IsmGEIlI comm)nity. It %as )sed as the te8t in the introd)ctory level class !eca)se it dealt %ith the reli"io)s la% accordin" to the system of the IsmGEIlIs. Intended as a primer, its messa"e reached a !road a)dience. 5rom the o)ter to the inner circle, on !oth the o!verse and reverse of this ne% coin, the se<)ence of the reference !ases relates the "eneral or o!vio)s to the more specific, recallin" the differences !et%een Islam and Belief and z+hir and btin.P#1Q All the referents of the %ritin" are fo)nd %ithin IsmGEIlI ta>wl, e8cept for the date and mint site. (he o)ter rin"s contain the mint name and date Bo!verseC and a R)rSGnic verse BreverseC. (his R)rSGnic verse, 9:##, has a !i.valent referent. (he verse, 6=)hOammad is the Prophet of ,od. *e sent him %ith ")idance and the tr)e reli"ion to prevail over all other reli"ions,7 is meanin"f)l to all =)slims !eca)se it is a <)otation from the R)rSGn, and as s)ch !elon"s in the realm of the z+hir. (o IsmGEIlIs, in addition, the verse is one specifically referred to in ta>wl. In RGdOI al.D)EmGnSs interpretation it relates to the RGSim B9i"hteo)s ImGm %ho ended a cycleC and the tri)mph of IsmaEilism over other reli"ions.P#TQ (he inner rin"s contain the name of the ImGm Bo!verseC and the shahda BreverseC.P##Q (h)s, on !oth sides of this coin, the inner circle relates to the ImGm and the +ri"inator Bor ,odC, A)st as the central core of the dia"ram. In lookin" at the format as a %hole, %ith all of the %ritin" presented in a circ)lar format so that it has to !e t)rned to !e read, one is tempted to s)""est that this format resonates also %ith the IsmGEIlI cyclical vie% of history.P#&Q (hat all the specific aspects of the 5atimid ideolo"y e8pressed !y the chan"e in the format and in the content of the %ritin" on these coins %as )nderstood !y everyone is clearly do)!tf)l. IsmGEIlIs vie%in" these coins )ndo)!tedly reco"ni4ed the referent of the concentric circles. A portion of the "eneral p)!lic in "reater Cairo %ho attended the readin"s and disc)ssions of RGdOI al.D)EmGnSs %ritin"s-a si4a!le n)m!er doc)mented into the early decades of the eleventh cent)ry-%o)ld have !een made a%are of the em!lematic aspects of the concentric circles.P#FQ (e8ts, s)ch as the %ritin"s of al./iAisOtGnI and RGdOI al.D)EmGn, as %ell as those of al.2irmGnI and DGsOir.i 2h)sra% many decades later, carried the kno%led"e to scholars and to advanced st)dents !eyond the empire. In addition, ample evidence confirms that the circ)lar format on coins itself %as reco"ni4ed as a part of the p)!lic te8t in the service of 5atimid r)le, and some s)""ests that the format %as vie%ed specifically as an em!lem of /hiEism. 1hen the =irdasid r)ler of northern /yria, /OGlihO i!n =irdas Br. 1$T#?T9 &1&?T$C, reco"ni4ed the

po%er of the 5atimids, he str)ck dinars in Aleppo imitatin" the desi"n.P#'Q 0ike%ise, %hen A!L al. *Oarith ArslGn al.=)4Oaffar al.BasGsIrI Br. 1$F8?'$ &F$?F1C revolted a"ainst the /elA)ks in Ira< in s)pport of the 5atimids, he str)ck coins in Ba"hdadP#@Q %ith concentric circles and %ritin". (hese represent a !reak %ith mintin" coins in the Umayyad.A!!asid format. (%o B)yid r)lers, themselves /hIEI !)t not IsmGEIlI, str)ck a 6!)lls.eye7 type coin as a silver dirham.P#8Q \ \ \

Im4m0Ca&i/! a&01*.i22 an( t!e Cit% "# Cair"

ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44Ss armies led !y the "eneral Ha%har con<)ered 3"ypt in 9'9 #F8. (hat con<)est ended Ikhshidid r)le in 3"ypt that had lasted only three decades B9#F?'9 #T#?F8C. Ha%har !e"an at once to make overt)res to the con<)ered pop)lations in the e8istin" )r!an areas, and at the same time he )ndertook constr)ction of a %alled, royal )r!an center, )ltimately kno%n as al-Qhira BCairoC, 6the ;ictorio)s7 Bmap TC.

=ap T. Cairo, early 5atimid period 9'9?1$@# (he e8istin" pop)lations lived in a series of )r!an centers !)ilt on the east side of the Dile.P#9Q 5)stOGtO, the so)thernmost section, had ori"inally !een !)ilt as a "arrison to%n for the con<)erin" =)slim armies in the mid.seventh cent)ry, and e8panded from that time for%ard. (he pop)lation, initially comprisin" soldiers, their retainers and families, soon !e"an to incl)de Christians Bmainly CoptsC and He%s %ho had lived in the areas in the pre.=)slim times. By the tenth cent)ry, this area ho)sed a lar"e He%ish and Christian pop)lation, as %ell as =)slims, mainly /)nni.P&$Q (he central foc)s for the =)slims of this area %as the mos<)e of EAmr i!n al.EAs, named after the con<)erin" "eneral. (he mos<)e %as located close to the channel B@halGM of the Dile %hich served as the %estern !o)ndary of this city Bmap 1C. Dorth of 5)stOGtO another )r!an center, kno%n as al.RatOGSiE,, %as !)ilt d)rin" the r)le of the (OLlLnid "overnors B8'8?9$F TF&?9TC. It %as the site of the lar"est mos<)e in the area named after its patron, the "overnor AhOmad i!n (OLlLn Br. 8'8?8& TF&?@$C. (he administrative seat Bdr al-imra, literally 6ho)se of the princes7C %as attached to the mos<)e, formin" the locale for m)ch of the administrative !)siness d)rin" the ninth cent)ry. (he p)!lic treas)ry for the =)slims Bba#t al-mlC, nevertheless, remained to the so)th, in 5)stOGtO, in the mos<)e of EAmr i!n al.EAsO. Do %alls separated these parts of the )r!an area from each other, altho)"h in the in)ndation season some depressions thro)"ho)t the area "athered %ater, %hile still others held %ater almost year ro)nd. 9ather than creatin" !o)ndaries, these areas, kno%n as bira@, !ecame recreational ma"nets !rin"in" pop)lations from all areas for !oatin", !athin", and parties on the %aterSs ed"e. =i8ed pop)lations, mem!ers of the provincial r)lin" "ro)ps, as %ell as merchants and traders, "lassmakers, tanners, potters, and the like lived in !oth these areas. It also appears that nei"h!orhoods %ere mi8edM =)slims, He%s, and Christians lived in the same areas and even in the same apartment comple8es.P&1Q /ocial considerations did shape this pattern, ho%ever. He%s lived close to their syna"o")es. B)t the main mos<)e comple8es, servin" the maAor portion of the pop)lation, dominated the areas spatially and socially, reflectin" the administrative activity. (he practices of Islam shaped the pace of the days and the year. (he adhan or call to prayer, form)lated accordin" to /)nni practice, %as heard five times a day thro)"ho)t !oth areas. (hese t%o areas-5)stOGtO and al.RatOGSiE,-%ere kno%n collectively as =isOr, altho)"h some later %riters called it =isOr.5)stOGtO. (he inha!itants e8pressed preferences for prime locations %ithin these linked

areas.P&TQ Dorth of these areas stretched plains dotted %ith monasteries and retreats %here the more leis)red "ro)ps often h)nted. Dorth %as also the area of a"ric)lt)re and "ardens, and fresh air, as the prevailin" %inds come from that direction. 1hen Ha%har con<)ered 3"ypt he dealt %ith the e8istin" pop)lations reasona!ly and %ith "reat care. *e allo%ed them to contin)e the call to prayer in their o%n fashion, and allo%ed them privile"es that eased the transition to the ne% r)lers of the area.P&#Q (hat this predominantly reasona!le relationship on several social levels %as s)stained thro)"ho)t the r)le of ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 is attested to !y the pa"es of the 3istor# o! the PCopticQ Patriarchs.P&&Q At the same time, Ha%har %as preparin" a %alled royal enclos)re north of these pop)lation centers for the ImGm.Caliph, his family, retainers, and army. It %as an )r!an area for Believers BIsmGEIlIsC. Altho)"h a se"re"ated city,P&FQ this ne% area of Cairo had %alls that %ere permea!le like those of the central core in A!L HaEfarSs dia"ram as sho%n in RGdOI al.D)EmGnSs te8t. CairoSs %alls %ere sym!olic, indicatin" a !o)ndaryM they %ere not defensive. It is almost possi!le to s)""est that at this moment the )r!an "eo"raphy of the area resem!led a %ed"e taken from that concentric circle dia"ram and laid alon"side the Dile, narro% end or core pointin" to the north. In the north %as the core, the royal city %here the ImGm.Caliph and the Believers lived. (o the so)th, and lar"er in si4e, %as the rest of the pop)lation, primarily =)slim. 3choin" the phrase, 6Belief em!odies Islam %hile Islam does not em!ody Belief,7 those in the north %ere IsmGEIlI =)slimM in the so)th, =)slims %ere not IsmGEIlIs. (he royal city of Cairo %as a rectan"le oriented to the northeast, and divided almost in the center len"th%ise !y a street kno%n as the ,reat /treet Bshri*a al-a*z+amC.P&'Q In the so)th the street met the do)!le.arched "ate%ay, the BG! N)%aylaM in the north the street !ranched Bmap TC. (he main path contin)ed to the "ate pop)larly kno%n as the BG! al.5)tLhO, and a !ranch %ent northeast to a second "ate, the BG! al.DasOr. 1ithin this lar"e enclos)re, some%hat north of center, on the east side of the ,reat /treet, a palace %as !)ilt for the ImGm. /ome years later, across this street, on the %est side, a second palace %as !)ilt. (o"ether these t%o palaces framed the ,reat /treet, makin" an area !et%een them kno%n as 6!et%een the t%o palaces7 Bba#n al-'as+ra#nC. /o)th of the 3astern Palace, across an open area BrahbaC, and off to the east of the ,reat /treet, the mos<)e kno%n as al.A4har Bthe shinin"C %as !)ilt. (his mos<)e, also called the mos<)e of Cairo, %as relatively small in si4e and primarily served the IsmGEIlI pop)lation of the royal city, altho)"h as mentioned a!ove, lect)res and readin"s of IsmGEIlI %ritin"s dre% interested mem!ers of the pop)lation from o)tside the royal city.P&@Q (he call to prayer from this mos<)e incl)ded the form)la 6come to the !est of %orks7 Bha## *ala @ha#r al-*amalC, a /hIEI form)la. Dorth, o)tside Cairo at the BG! al.DasOr %as a mus+alla Ba defined open spaceC )sed for prayer d)rin" Islamic holidays. (he maAor part of the 5atimid troops %ere also stationed o)tside, and north of Cairo. ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 came to this city in 9@1 #'T from his capital in Ifri<iya, /a!r al. =ansOLrIyya, in procession and !earin" the !odies of his ancestors, the first three 5atimid ImGms. (hey %ere interred in the so)thern section of the 3astern Palace %hich !ecame the ma)sole)m for s)!se<)ent 5atimid ImGms. Beyond his coina"e and its ne%ly devised si"n of IsmaEilism, ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 appears to have )sed %ritin" !oth territorially and referentially in more conventional %ays. An anecdote disc)ssed !elo% reveals contemporary reco"nition of the ran"e of his practice in re"ard to the p)!lic te8t. In conformity %ith the practice contin)in" over many cent)ries in the eastern =editerranean, he p)t inscriptions over the main thresholds or "ates into Cairo. *e )sed %ritin" to frame depictions inside the mos<)e of al.A4har.P&8Q As in earlier practice, that %ritin" %as smaller in scale and less vis)ally prominent than the depictions it framed. Its referential !ase %as the R)rSGn. (he medi)m of !oth the %ritin" and the depictions %as st)cco, contin)in" the aesthetic practice of the capital area. H)d"in"

from some aspects of the archaeolo"ical remains, it is possi!le that he p)t the si"n of IsmaEilism in this mos<)e.P&9Q 1hat is reported clearly, ho%ever, is that the year after he came to Cairo, 9@# #'T, ImGm. Caliph al.=)Ei44 displayed a "ift for the 2aE!a prominently in his palace.PF$Q (his "ift did display the si"n of IsmaEilism. Al.=a<rI4I descri!es this "ift, a shamsa Bs)n, ornament, or collarC, %hich ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 raised on hi"h so that it co)ld !e seen !oth from inside the palace and from the street. Close attention to the description indicates that the desi"n of this ornament and the se<)ences of references on it-from the inner to the o)ter rin"s-!oth have e<)ivalences %ith those on the coina"e, and the dia"ram of A!L HaEfar. 5)rther, in descri!in" the shamsa, al.=a<rI4I reco)nts that on a !ack"ro)nd of red !rocade, t%elve spans in each direction, an open.%ork "olden !all %as displayed inside a circle of %ritin" in Ara!ic. Inside the central "olden circ)lar !all %ere pearls the si4e of doveSs e""s and red, yello%, and !l)e precio)s stones. (he %ritin" aro)nd this center displayed the s(rat al-h+aGG %ritten in emeralds. /t)ffed %ith m)sk "ran)les, the %hole "ave off a costly perf)me. IsmGEIlIs %ho sa% this precio)s o!Aect )ndo)!tedly %o)ld relate its concentric circle format to that of the coins and the dia"ram. +thers sa% it simply as a precio)s "ift, a fact that al.=a<rI4I records.PF1Q +n this shamsa, the "olden or! st)ffed %ith pearls and "ems can !e )nderstood to f)nction as an aesthetic metaphor for the ImGm, resonatin" %ith the center raised dot.circle on ImGm.Caliph al. =)Ei44Ss coins. (his readin" of the metaphoric center is pla)si!le in the conte8t of ImGm.Caliph al. =)Ei44Ss e8perience %ith his early iss)e of coina"e in Ifri<iya and %ith the intended destination of this "ift. (he coina"e on %hich ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 first placed names and titles directly and e8cl)sively relatin" to IsmaEilism mi"ht have dra%n "reat protests from the /)nni pop)lation in Rairo%an, the pop)lation center near his capital in Ifri<iya, or, for other reasons, ne"ative reaction from the IsmGEIlI pop)lation in al.=ansOLriya. 5or %hatever reason, he chose to alter the references of the inscriptions to ones %hich %o)ld !e accepta!le to all =)slims, altho)"h he chose ones %hich %o)ld carry meanin"s in the dimension of the btin for IsmGEIlIs.PFTQ It %as clearly appropriate for al.=)Ei44 as Caliph to "ive a costly "ift to the 2aE!a. B)t, on a "ift intended for the 2aE!a at =ecca for the pil"rima"e month %hen all =)slims %o)ld "ather, reference to his role as ImGm %o)ld most effectively !e metaphoric. /ome sense of ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44Ss attit)de to%ard p)!lic te8ts can !e "athered from an anecdote in I!n al.=)<affaESs 3istor# o! the Patriarchs. (he anecdote s)""ests ho% the contemporary pop)lation )nderstood the r)lerSs po%er to play %ith the p)!lic te8t. 1ritten from the point of vie% of the Christian inha!itants of =isOr, it also "ives )s insi"hts into the role of p)!lic te8ts on impermanent materials, here a siGill, or decree, %ritten on paper. (he story is as follo%s.PF#Q Caliph al.=)Ei44 is reported as havin" occasion to "ive the pop)lation of =isOr a test. *e commanded that a lar"e roll of paper Blike that )pon %hich a siGill %as %rittenC !e rolled )p %itho)t !ein" %ritten on and sealed. *e then sent the !earer of this roll, alon" %ith the to%n crier and a tr)mpeter, to =isOr to present the 6decree,7 and sent tr)st%orthy spies to report !ack. (he tr)mpeter played and the crier called the local inha!itants to "ather aro)nd !eca)se the siGill of the Caliph %as to !e read. /ome inha!itants %anted to hear the siGill, !)t others said not to !other !eca)se the decree %as !lank. (he ne%s that the inha!itants kne% the siGill had no %ritin" on it %as !ro)"ht !ack to the Caliph %ho marveled e8ceedin"ly. (he story presents the Caliph as playin" a trick %ith the te8t.ness of the siGill. (he aesthetic dimensions of a siGill %ere present: the roll of paper, the tr)mpeter, the crier. B)t the local residents %ere not pers)aded !y the aesthetics of this p)!lic te8t %itho)t its %ritin". (he story s)""ests p)!lic te8ts s)ch as siGills convey their meanin" primarily thro)"h their %ritin", the close link of %ritin" and a)thority,

the referential dimension. (his story provides a contrast to the ar")ment made in chapter T. (here, the referential !ases of the %ritin" on the interior of the imperial sectarian spaces in the eastern =editerranean of all "ro)ps %as e<)ivalent. I ar")ed then that the aesthetic dimensions of the %ritin"-"old and "lass mosaics the most costly-%ere the primary conveyors of meanin" !y s)ch 6e8pected7 sectarian te8ts. (his story recorded !y a mem!er of the local pop)lation portrays that society as smart-!eca)se it is a te8t.!ased and literate society. In s)ch a society even if many cannot read, the actions of the ed)cated elite !y their %ritin", !y their kno%led"e of %hat is %ritten and %hat that %ritin" can effect in society, serve as a ")arantee or proof that a)thority is vested in %ritin". (he local pop)lation demonstrated that they kne% that %here there %as no %ritin" there %as no po%er and a)thority. \ \ \

Im4m0Ca&i/! a&0@A4Bim an( t!e P*,&i' Te-t

ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim %as the r)ler %ho si"nificantly a)"mented the %ay officially sponsored %ritin" %as )sed in the )r!an social net%ork. *e )sed %ritin" in the )r!an areas of Cairo and =isOr as a vis)al si"n that defined and re.defined his relationship-as an ImGm and as a Caliph-to the pop)lation he r)led. *e )sed it to define his a)thority as ImGm to certain a)diencesM he )sed it to e8press his po%er to all !eholders. In hi"hly vis)al %ays, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkimSs )ses of %ritin" si"ns %ere part of 5atimid shapin" and )sin" the ne% capital area, !oth the royal city, Cairo, as %ell as the adAacent )r!an area. In the early part of his rei"n, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim )sed %ritin" in the p)!lic space in dramatically ne% %ays in each of the t%o 4ones of the capital city. Dorth of Cairo, in the royal enclos)re, he placed %ritin" on the o)tside of the minarets and on the mon)mental portal of the mos<)e he completed %hich had !een !e")n !y his father ImGm.Caliph al.EA4I4 in 99$ #8$ Bfi". 1C.PF&Q (his mos<)e %as kno%n !y its location A)st o)tside the BG! al.5)tLhO, and also as the al.An%ar Bthe li"htsC mos<)e, altho)"h it later %as named after ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim %ho completed it. (he minarets and portal of this mos<)e remain tan"i!le archaeolo"ical evidence for this display of %ritin". In contrast, in the so)th, in =isOr, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim placed at a!o)t the same time %ritin" in "old letters and colors on the o)tside and inside of all the mos<)es and =)slim tom!stones, and on the doors of the ho)ses and of the !a4aars.PFFQ Al.=a<rI4I records this official act %here!y %ritin" %hich c)rsed the companions of the Prophet =)hOammad and the first three Caliphs %as placed on all these str)ct)res in 1$$&.PF'Q 1e are told specifically that this %ritin" %as e8ec)ted in "old pi"ment and color, !)t not the style of the script. 1e are told a!o)t its semantic content-not its specific %ords. 5or this display of %ritin", ho%ever, no archaeolo"ical evidence e8ists. (hese t%o )ses of officially sponsored %ritin", on the mos<)e of al.*OGkim and on the mos<)es, ho)ses, and !a4aars in =isOr, can !e seen as s)ccessive messa"es conveyin" vario)s aspects of 5atimid r)lin" po%er, %hile at the same time s)pportin" certain permanent val)es of maintainin" social order in a mi8ed pop)lation.PF@Q (hese t%o )ses of %ritin" are different parts of the same ideolo"y, !oth related to each other and to the nat)re of 5atimid a)thority and r)le in 3"ypt. (he t%o different pop)lations and 4ones %ithin the )r!an social net%orks to %hich they %ere addressed to"ether made )p the %hole of the )r!an environment. It !ecomes clear from o!servin" ho% %ritin" in p)!lic space-p)!lic te8ts -%as )sed, that those %ho orchestrated it %ere conscio)s of actively shapin" the )r!an social net%orks of the capital to esta!lish varyin" relationships of the parts )nder the re")lation of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p.PF8Q Both these initial sets of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkimSs officially sponsored %ritin"s Bon the al.*OGkim

mos<)e in the north, and on the mos<)es, ho)ses, and stores in the so)thC %ere officially sponsored %ritin" occ)pyin" the p)!lic space, vis)ally accessi!le to the %hole ran"e of the pop)lation. (he referential !ases of these %ritin"s, e8tracted from Islamic evocational fields, %ere addressed only to =)slims and not to Christians and He%s. Clearly, in =isOr, the %idespread display of the "olden c)rses m)st have sat)rated the vis)al environment for all inha!itants, !)t they %ere not p)t on ch)rches and syna"o")es. (he semantic content of the %ritin"s on the minarets and door%ay of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim %as !ased primarily in the R)rSGn. B)t on the mos<)es, ho)ses, and stores in the pop)lation centers of =isOr so)th of the royal city, the referential !ase of the %ritin" %as IsmGEIlI =)slim practice.PF9Q (his practice of c)rsin" the Companions of the Prophet and the first three Caliphs, altho)"h sometimes %ritten, %as very m)ch an oral practice coeval %ith al.*OGkimSs p)!lishin" or makin" the c)rses vis)al. P'$Q In attackin" the leadership %ithin the early =)slim comm)nity %ho took political a)thority a%ay from the EAlI immediately after the death of the Prophet =)hOammad in '#T, it m)st !e reco"ni4ed that these c)rses attacked those =)slims in =isOr %ho !elieved le"itimate a)thority in the =)slim comm)nity follo%ed from the s)ccession of the 9ashid)n Caliphs to the Umayyads and A!!asids, th)s !ypassin" the linea"e of EAlI. Primarily then, these c)rses %ere aimed at the /)nni =)slims, and the r)lin" a)thorities %ho derived their le"itimacy from s)ch a linea"e-for e8ample, the Umayyads in /pain and the A!!asids in Ba"hdad, the primary =)slim rivals of the 5atimids. Clearly ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim made these officially sponsored c)rses f)nction territorially !y markin" only certain places %ithin a specific 4one of the "reater )r!an comple8. By markin" them )niformly %ith officially sponsored c)rses %ritten in "old letters, he !o)nd them to"ether vis)ally. 1hile other color pi"ments %ere also )sed to inscri!e the c)rses, "old, !eca)se of its costliness, dre% attention !oth to the importance of the messa"e and to the economic position of the ImGm sponsorin" the %ritin". (he "olden medi)m and the c)rse.filled messa"e also dre% attention to the nat)re of the po%er and a)thority of the r)ler %ho in that society %as a!le to %rite s)ch si"ns on !)ildin"s and make that %ritin" last, in this case for some t%enty.si8 months. It sho)ld !e noted in s)pport of the interpretation here, that al.=a<rI4I transmitted these c)rses !eca)se he )nderstood them as creatin" a !o)ndary that %as spatial and a territorial 4one that %as socio. political. *e )nderstood the act as an action aimed a"ainst /)nni =)slims.P'1Q *imself a /)nni =)slim, al.=a<rI4I sa% the 5atimid period Bsome three h)ndred years !efore his timeC as an interl)de of r)le !y o)tsiders. It seems that in the early years of the eleventh cent)ry, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim %as very conscio)s of maintainin" this socio.spatial !o)ndary distin")ishin" north from so)th, IsmGEIlI from non.IsmGEIlI, in the )r!an area. Another acco)nt of his actions relates other %ays in %hich he vis)ally reinforced that !o)ndary, even as it demonstrates A)st ho% dynamic %ere his )ses of p)!lic te8ts, !y creatin" s)ccessive messa"es that s)pport the primary permanent val)e of maintainin" the r)lin" "ro)p in po%er. After the defeat of the almost s)ccessf)l re!el, A!L 9ak%a, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim had A!L 9ak%aSs head displayed on a manzara B!elvedereC o)tside the royal city, on the so)th side, facin" the pop)lation centers.P'TQ (he placement of this re!elSs head !et%een the royal city and the pop)lation centers vis)ally reinforced the separation of "ro)p spaces %ithin the )r!an comple8 that the previo)s %ritin" had already demarcated. By this action, Caliph al.*OGkim and the r)lin" "ro)p in the north, displayed to the others-the r)led in the so)th-the conse<)ences of revolt. (his re!el and his severed head-in the sense that the latter indicated his defeat-are important for the reconstr)ction of the dynamic aspects of ho% the p)!lic te8t f)nctioned d)rin" this period of ImGm. Caliph al.*OGkimSs rei"n. It is ironic that this very re!el ca)sed the socio.spatial !o)ndary marked !y his head to !e"in !reakin" do%n. /imply p)t, the defeat of A!L 9ak%a, %ho claimed the title of Caliph thro)"h Umayyad linea"e, %as e8traordinarily costly to ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim !oth in monetary

o)tlay and troops killed. ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim needed all the "ood%ill and s)pport he co)ld "enerate from the pop)lation of the entire capital area. As al.=a<rI4I reco)nts, in makin" rapprochement to the /)nni =)slims, he %as compelled, in 1$$@, to erase the very "olden c)rses he had p)t )p on the mos<)es in the so)th.P'#Q 5)rther, he appointed /hGfiEI and =GlikI scholars to the dr al-*ilm %ithin the royal city. By this act, more =)slims from the so)thern areas had official reason to !e in the northern royal enclos)re, and access to the northern 4one !ecame some%hat easier. +!vio)sly this e8ample of a p)!lic te8t disappeared in the %ake of A!L 9ak%aSs revolt. B)t the %ritin" on the mos<)e o)tside CairoSs BG! al.5)tLhO remained. P)nct)atin" this northern space, it addressed all =)slims, not dividin" a)diences alon" sectarian "ro)nds, in the commonly accepted reference of the %ords of the R)rSGn. 0ike the "olden %ritin", it e8cl)ded He%s and Christians !y markin" territory that %as =)slim. (he mos<)e of al.*OGkim, as far as %e can reconstr)ct, %as the only mos<)e in the entire capital area, as %ell as in the northern 4one, that displayed vis)ally prominent %ritin" on its e8terior Bfi". 1C.P'&Q (his %as not the only distinctive feat)re of the mos<)e. (o any pedestrian, this str)ct)re %as strikin"ly different from any other sectarian str)ct)re in Cairo or =isOr, especially any other mos<)e. It had t%o differently shaped minarets, one on each corner of its facadeM other mos<)es had only one Bfi". TTC. It had a mon)mental door%ayM other mos<)es had none. Its facade %as constr)cted of stoneM others %ere of !rick and st)cco. (his display of officially sponsored %ritin" may have seemed at first to !e only another difference in constr)ction practice. B)t his s)!se<)ent )se of %ritin" on the !astions of this mos<)e is f)rther indication of ho% central %ritin" %as to his political pra8is and role of Caliph as %ell as to his role as ImGm.

5i". TT. Al.*akim mos<)e In the early years of the eleventh cent)ry, the mos<)e and the ro)te in front of it %ere not the common "ro)nd for the "eneral pop)lation. (his mos<)e and the %ay in front of it %ere the central area for only some mem!ers of the social order, mainly those havin" official !)siness %ith the r)ler in the royal city %ho entered thro)"h that door. 0ocated in the northern part of the northern 4one, it %as almost as far a%ay as possi!le from the old centers of pop)lation in the so)th. Ket altho)"h the maAor part of the pop)lation of the capital area did not have reason to pass this spot daily, the mos<)e occ)pied a p)!lic location. It %as o)tside the BG! al.5)tLhO, a "ate of the royal city, and th)s access to it %as not physically limited !y %alls.P'FQ As to the con"re"ation of this mos<)e, %ritten acco)nts indicate that the ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim and his ento)ra"e from the royal city attended this mos<)e e8itin" the city thro)"h the BG! al.5)tLhO. (hey did this on ceremonial occasions, and often at the start of processions. Ji"nitaries visitin" the palace in the royal city of Cairo passed !y this mos<)e !eca)se they c)stomarily entered the city thro)"h the BG! al.5)tLhO, near the palaces, %hich served as a formal, official threshold.P''Q And %e ass)me that the re")lar con"re"ation of this mos<)e %as the 5atimid army %hich %as mostly settled in the north, the direction from %hich the military threat %as "reatest Be."., A!L 9ak%aSs maAor foray %as in the JeltaC. (he si4e of this mos<)e alone s)""ests the army as a con"re"ation !eca)se it %as the only mos<)e of considera!le si4e in the northern 4one.P'@Q (he mos<)e of Cairo, al.A4har, %as small in comparison and lar"e n)m!ers of troops %o)ld overflo% it. Indeed, for an army %hose vario)s contin"ents %ere )neasy cohorts, a mos<)e o)tside the %alls of the royal city offered distinct safety advanta"es to the r)ler. (he "eni)s of the p)!lic te8t on the mos<)e of al.*OGkim rested in the choice of its semantic content

and in its aesthetic stran"eness. 1ritin" %ith a semantic content from the R)rSGn %as the one si"n of po%er aro)nd %hich all =)slims co)ld rally !eca)se of its prof)ndity. (o all =)slims the R)rSGn is the %ord of ,od, and it makes possi!le varyin" levels of si"nification defined !y the e8e"esis and interpretation of each "ro)p. Unlike the "olden c)rses, %hich came from specific sectarian practice, the semantic content of this officially sponsored %ritin" e8pressed permanent val)es for all =)slims. As Pa)la /anders points o)t, the %ritin" from the R)rSGn in this mos<)e m)st !e analy4ed for its meanin" in !oth its z+hir Be8otericC and btin BesotericC dimensions.P'8Q (he analysis she has done points to the rationale !ehind the choice of the a#as BversesC on the part of the IsmGEIlI patron, and for the impact of the semantic content on IsmGEIlI !eholders. It is important not to let the kno%led"e of a specific IsmGEIlI meanin" mask the fact that the semantic content of this %ritin" %as directed to a =)slim "ro)p a)dience in a p)!lic space. (his messa"e, then, %as permanently accessi!le to all =)slims, %hether IsmGEIlI or non.IsmGEIlI, %ho %o)ld have )nderstood it thro)"h ta!sr, or ta>wl or some%hat later, thro)"h asbb al-nuz(l.P'9Q In fact, the very choice of %ritin" !ased in the R)rSGn %as pro!a!ly the only f)ndamental reference that %o)ld rally all =)slims of the r)lin" "ro)p to"ether, as %ell as =)slims %ithin the pop)lation at lar"e. Introd)cin" and )sin" s)ch an em!lem %as in itself an important decision especially in the rei"n of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim. *e had to maintain the 5atimid po%er !ase %hich demanded !alancin" the vario)s =)slim elements, incl)din" vario)s /)nni amrs %hose stren"th %as land !ased and %hose po%er pre.dated the 5atimid con<)est of 3"ypt, as %ell as the ne% elements of the army %hich ImGm. Caliph al.*OGkim, himself, %as s)pportin" and introd)cin". ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim reinforced the chan"es in the composition of the army !e")n !y his father, ImGm.Caliph al.EA4I4, %hich so)"ht to !alance, really to )ndermine, the po%er of the maghariba, or Ber!er Dorth African forces Bliterally, 6%esterners7C %ho had !een part of the con<)erin" force of 3"ypt. (hey %ere =)slims, and more specifically, IsmGEIlIs.P@$Q (hey !elieved in the ImGm as the a)thority %ho preserved the permanent tr)ths Bha'>i'C of the R)rSGn and the relationships in the )niverse, in addition to their s)pport of his r)le. (he ne%ly recr)ited troops, mainly ()rks, Jaylami, and mashri'i#a, or 3asterners, %ere mostly non.IsmGEIlI =)slims. (hey s)pported and enforced the political r)le of the ImGm.Caliph, !)t did not reco"ni4e Caliph al.*OGkim as ImGm. All of the army, of co)rse, and the mem!ers of the !)rea)cracy Bmany of %hom %ere non.=)slimsC, %ere mem!ers of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p. All these "ro)ps so)"ht their o%n interests in a system headed !y a 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGm and the ImGm, in t)rn, preserved his po%er !y !alancin" these vario)s factions, as %ell as the factions %ithin the palace str)ct)re itself. 1hen this a)dience passed !y the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, they sa% officially sponsored %ritin" !ased in the R)rSGn not only placed prominently, !)t displayed in an innovative assem!la"e.P@1Q In addition, this innovative assem!la"e incl)ded the si"n of IsmaEilism. 5rom the evidence presented in chapter T, %e kno% that many of these formats %ere ne% to the p)!lic space. 5rom the vie%in" stance of the pedestrian, the %ritin" most readily visi!le on the northern minaret %as displayed in t%o si"ns of IsmaEilism, t%o concentric circle medallions Bfi". 1C. 9ather than adoptin" ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44Ss format for these medallions, one that com!ined the vis)ally salient feat)res from the dia"rams in the disco)rses of !oth the btin and z+hir, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim )sed a format %ith the salient feat)re of the dia"ram from only one disco)rse-that of the btin, fo)nd in al. /iAistGnISs %ritin"s, and reinforced in his o%n time !y ones )sed in the d* al.2irmGnISs %ritin" in the same disco)rse.P@TQ (hose dia"rams, as the medallions on this mos<)e, displayed a center filled %ith a line Bor linesC of %ritin", fi8in" an orientation for the concentric circles. (his is the format for the si"n of IsmaEilism that ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim also adopted for his coina"e, and one that s)!se<)ent r)lers maintained for a n)m!er of decades Bfi". T#C.

5i". T#a. Jinar, al.*OGkim 5i". T#!. Jinar, al.*OGkim In the center of the small medallion closest to the street, the %ord 6Allah7 is displayed in very clear, )nadorned 2)fic Bfi". T&C.P@#Q (his appears to !e the first time that the %ord 6Allah7 framed in this manner, hi"hly visi!le and easily reada!le, only ' feet BT m.C from the "ro)nd, is displayed in a p)!lic space.P@&Q In a society %here Christians and He%s %ere also )sin" Ara!ic, the %ord 6Allah7 B(he ,odC %as also )sed !y them to refer to the /)preme Bein". It is, for e8ample, fo)nd in ch)rches and on Christian o!Aects from this period. 5ramin" it as a sin"le %ord for display is tracea!le in =)slim )se to 5atimid practice. (he %ord 6Allah,7 and the letters and the sylla!les of the %ord, have ela!orate si"nificance in IsmGEIlI ta>wl, even as they are important to every =)slim. Al./iAistGnI records the importance of this %ord in five sections of The Wells&rings o! Wisdom, one of %hich is perhaps most relevant here.P@FQ In the first chapter the letters of the %ord are related to %hat they resem!le in the physical %orld, to the e8altation of ,od, the elements and the /peaker.Prophets, as %ell as to the n)m!ers fo)r, ten, seven, and ei"ht. (hese serve to )nderscore the importance of placin" this %ord in the concentric circle format closest to the pedestrian, a concentric circle format %here points alon" the circle relate to si"nificant n)m!ers. (he ne8t %ritin" on this same minaret also appears %ithin a si"n of IsmaEilism. *ere the reference to the dia"ram and to the format on ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkimSs coins is rendered lar"e in scale, almost 1 meter B#.T8 ft.C in diameter Bfi". TFC.P@'Q R)rSGn F:FF is displayed in the o)ter circle, and in the center the R)rSGnic phrase 6from the shado%s into the li"ht7 is %ritten in t%o lines.P@@Q (he choice of this R)rSGnic phrase a!o)t li"ht relates directly to IsmGEIlI )nderstandin" of creation, %hen ,od made the sin"le command, 6Be7 B@unC and ,od made darkness li"ht. (his form)lation from al./iAistGnI %as reinforced !y the d* A!L EIsa al.=)rshid, %ho %rote at that same time, ela!oratin" that ,od prod)ced o)t of li"ht a creat)re.P@8Q Indeed the centrality of this conception is )nderscored !y the %ritin"s of d* al.2irmGnI, a contemporary of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim. In his te8t, 5hat al. Ea'l, one of the dia"rams displayin" only t%o concentric circles relates to this concept Bfi". T'C. (his attention in IsmGEIlI disco)rse relates to the several mentions in the R)rSGn of the specific phrase 6from the shado%s into the li"ht,7 and of li"ht in "eneral.

9o)ndel displayin" %ord 6Allah7, after 5l)ry 9o)ndel, mos<)e of al.*OGkim Bdra%n !y *ampikian after photo !y Cres%ellC Al.2irmGnI, memory device rahat al-*a'l (he se<)ences of references of the %ritin" in the concentric circle medallion parallel those on the coins. In the o)ter rin", a#a BF:FFC, 6only ,od is yo)r 5riend and *is messen"er and those %ho !elieve, those %ho keep )p prayer and pay the poor.rate and they !o% do%n7 can !e )nderstood as relatin" to Islamic practice.P@9Q (he inner circle, %ith its direct relation to IsmGEIlI ta>wl, fi8es the position of IsmaEilism in the center as the more encompassin" element.

A!ove the medallion on the minaret, %ritin" displayin" #as from the R)rSGn frames fo)r %indo%s Bfi"s. 1, T@C. In aesthetic terms, ho% the %ritin" %as placed aro)nd these %indo%s serves to hi"hli"ht ho% closely the %ritin" in the medallion they s)rmo)nt replicated the si"n of IsmaEilism. In the medallion, the %ritin" in the o)ter circle, like that on the coins and in the dia"rams, r)ns co)nterclock%ise contin)ally aro)nd in a circle. (he %ritin" at the !ottom of the circle, therefore, is )pside do%n to the vie%er. +n the %indo%s, ho%ever, the inscription !e"ins on the lo%er ri"ht.hand side of each %indo%, and r)ns co)nterclock%ise )ntil the !ottom frame of the left.hand side of the %indo%, %here the direction is reversed and the phrases are prod)ced )pri"ht to a !eholder in the street. (he a#as BT&: #'?#@C chosen to s)rro)nd these %indo%s also refer to li"ht, and to prayer. (hey are taken from the surat al-n(r, or the chapter on li"ht in the R)rSGn. Placed aro)nd the %indo%s they relate !oth to the physical li"ht that comes in the %indo%s li"htin" the stair%ell of the minaret as %ell as to IsmGEIlI hierohistory as related !y RGdOI al.D)EmGn.P8$Q

Dorthern minaret, after Cres%ell, 4uslim ,rchitecture o! %g#&t, vol. 1 5)rther a!ove, a !and of %ritin" in lar"e letters B'8 cm. T&.8 in.C displays the name and titles of the ImGm.P81Q (his !and %as partic)larly hi"hly visi!le for reasons %hich %e can kno%, !)t %hich %o)ld not have !een o!vio)s to the !eholder in the street, namely, that the !and cants sli"htly o)t%ard.P8TQ (h)s the %ritin" %as intentionally made more visi!le to a pedestrian than it %o)ld have !een had the !and of %ritin" !een kept parallel to the minaret as %as that on the medallions. (he %estern minaret, different in shape from the northern one, also displayed %ritin" in a different pattern, altho)"h the references of the inscriptions %ere e<)ivalent Bfi". T8C. Do si"n of IsmaEilism appears on this minaret. (he name and titles of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim, and the year and the month are displayed at "reater distance from the "ro)nd, !)t lar"er in scale Balmost 1 m. #.T8 ft.C 1hile this !and %as not canted, the mo)ldin" a!ove it proAects more than any other mo)ldin", and co)ld have served as a kind of a%nin" in the direct s)nli"ht, "ivin" some shado% to the %ritin" %hich is carved deeply into the limestone.P8#Q Belo% this !and is another one displayin" R)rSGn 9:18, and altho)"h partially effaced, the name of al.*OGkim. (his, too, is a proofte8t from RGdOI al.D)EmGn. (he %ritin" in the !ands of the t%o minarets can !e )nderstood as reinforcin" each other and offerin" vis)al and semantic s)pport for al.*OGkimSs claims to place 6this mos<)e in the hierarchy of mos<)es, and reiterate the link !et%een this mos<)e and the IsmGEIlI mission Bda*waC.7 P8&Q *e f)rther reinforced these claims made to an IsmGEIlI a)dience !y the %ritin" in !ands !y placin" the si"n of IsmaEilism on this mos<)e. (o other =)slims, and to all others %ho !eheld the lar"e concentric circle medallion on the northern minaret, its resem!lance to al.*OGkimSs coina"e m)st have !een o!vio)s. (he mon)mental door%ay of the mos<)e also displayed %ritin" in 2)fic Bfi". T9C.P8FQ H)st ho% m)ch %ritin" %as displayed, and its layo)t in ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkimSs time, %e cannot no% reconstr)ct. Pres)ma!ly, ho%ever, there %as m)ch more than s)rvived into the early t%entieth cent)ry %hen all that remained %as a part of a 2)fic inscription B#:199C on the north side of the mon)mental "ate%ay.

5i". T8. 1estern minaret, after Cres%ell, 4uslim ,rchitecture o! %g#&t, vol. 1 5i". T9. =on)mental door%ay, mos<)e of al.*OGkim Bdra%n !y *ampikianC 1hat has !een stressed in the a!ove is primarily the referential f)nction of the %ritin" on the o)tside of

the mos<)e of al.*OGkim, and to some de"ree its aesthetic f)nctions. +ther %ays can !e reconstr)cted to indicate ho% this %ritin" f)nctioned to convey meanin" to its primary a)dience, the r)lin" "ro)p. (he formal distinctiveness of the assem!la"e of %ritin" on the e8terior of this str)ct)re called attention to the str)ct)re itself and its location. Ket, despite the distinctiveness of the %hole, some additional elements-!eyond those disc)ssed a!ove-did relate to other social patterns for displayin" officially sponsored %ritin" %ithin 5atimid society at that time. 5irst of all, the %ritin" itself %as in a !asic "eometric styleM all of it %as 2)fic. As the evidence in chapter T indicates, the traditional script for s)ch %ritin" %as a "eometric one. 38cept for the si"ns of IsmaEilism, the remainder of the %ritin" on !oth minarets and the door %as displayed in !and format familiar to all !eca)se, as noted a!ove, it %as the common format %ithin sectarian spaces. (he semantic content of this %ritin" %as the most accessi!le to the !eholder, in addition to the sin"le %ord 6Allah7 on the north minaret. (he accessi!ility of the semantic content %as d)e, in part, to the linear format, %hich lends itself more readily to !ein" read than %ritin" aro)nd a %indo% frame, or )pside do%n in a concentric circle. 1hat co)ld !e read in these !ands %as more than #as from the R)rSGn. =ore space in these !ands %as allocated to the name of the ImGm al.*OGkim, his titles and date, than to %ords from the Book.P8'Q (his difference in semantic content is tied to a difference in aesthetic content of the %ritin". 1hile the !asic style of the script in these !ands %as also "eometric, vines and floral terminations e8tr)de from vario)s letters and fill the !ack"ro)nd. (his is especially apparent in the topmost !and on each minaret Bfi"s. #$, #1C. (his a)"mented aesthetic display %as an innovation that separated the %ritin" in these !ands from the traditional script of officially sponsored %ritin"M moreover, it !roke the traditional linka"e !et%een officially sponsored %ritin" and the Book hand.

5i". #$. Inscription, northern minaret, mos<)e of al.*OGkim 5i". #1. Inscription, %estern minaret, mos<)e of al.*OGkim H)d"in" calli"raphic practice from R)rSGns of the period, letters formin" the %ords of s(ras BchaptersC %ere )nela!orated.P8@Q 3la!oration %as reserved for s(ra headin"s, and for the f)nctional devices that aided recitation %hich %ere )s)ally presented in the mar"in, altho)"h some %ere placed interte8t)ally. Until this time, officially sponsored %ritin" %as scripted in the same )nadorned manner as the %ritin" in the Book. Undo)!tedly the ela!oration of the innovative.lookin" %ritin" in the !ands served to call the !eholderSs attention to the %ritin", attractin" people to read and th)s to kno% that: 6ImGm al.*OGkim !i Amr Allah, Commander of the Believers, may the !lessin"s of ,od !e on him and on his p)re ancestors, ordered to !e done in the month of 9aAa! of the year #9#.7 (h)s in these !ands the aesthetic dimensions of %ritin" served to emphasi4e the semantic content. Ket the link !et%een this stylistic ela!oration of the %ritin" and its semantic content displayin" the name and titles of the ImGm may have evoked another level of associations to IsmGEIlI !eholders that f)rther inde8ed the a)thority of the ImGm. 1hat s)""ests this association is the even more ela!orated %ritin" on the interior of this mos<)e that permanently framed ImGm al.*OGkim Band those that s)cceeded himC %hen he visited this mos<)e on ceremonial occasions Bfi". TC.P88Q (he mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p %ho entered this lar"e prayer space on s)ch occasions entered a mos<)e %here the ImGm prayed, delivered the @hutba, and sat on the minbar at the 'ibla %all, in %hich position he %as revealed to the con"re"ation. (he mos<)e of al.*OGkim, in partic)lar, %as a sho%case for the ImGm.Caliph in an IsmGEIlI =)slim conte8t. As the lar"e mos<)e o)tside the %alls of the city closest to the ImGmSs palace, it %as a space %here prayers, sermons, and lect)res %ere cond)cted accordin" to IsmGEIlI form)la. =oreover, as /anders has pointed o)t, to IsmGEIlIs, the mos<)e and especially this mos<)e, as

)nderstood thro)"h its btin dimensions, %as the initiation ho)se Bba#tC into the IsmGEIlI mission.P89Q *ere ImGm al.*OGkim %as s)rro)nded !y %ritin" that %as especially vis)ally prominent, accessi!le, and ela!orate. In this mos<)e, %ritin" did not frame depictions, as in conventional practice or even earlier 5atimid practice. 9ather, it %as a solitary feat)re, lar"er in scale than previo)s %ritin" in sectarian spaces, almost t%o feet B'$ cm.C hi"h. In addition, efforts %ere made to facilitate the vis)al accessi!ility of this %ritin", especially in the central aisle )nder the dome %here the ImGm.Caliph sat on the minbar. (here, a"ain, %ritin" %as canted o)t at the top.P9$Q =em!ers of the con"re"ation %ho sa% the ImGm on the minbar, sa% him framed !y R)rSGnic <)otations, the real tr)ths Bha'>i'C of %hich only he himself co)ld f)lly reveal. In s)ch a settin", the presence and a)thority of the ImGm and o!edience to him %as vis)ally linked %ith the %ords of ,od and o!edience to them.P91Q Ket despite this linka"e of ImGm and the Book, created !y spatial pro8imity, the e8traordinarily ela!orated style of the %ritin" of the R)rSGnic <)otations even f)rther distanced the direct relationship that traditionally e8isted !et%een the Book hand and %ritin" in sectarian spaces. It seems pla)si!le to s)""est that this distance created !y the ela!orated script style %as intended to emphasi4e the role of the IsmGEIlI ImGm as sole kno%er of the f)ndamental tr)ths of the Book. (his messa"e %as directed at IsmGEIlI =)slims. (o non.IsmGEIlI =)slims ela!orated 2)fic script %as )nderstood as a distinctive si"n of the 5atimid ImGmSs patrona"e of this mos<)e. As in the case of the "olden c)rses, even these officially sponsored %ritin"s on the minarets of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim %ere temporary si"ns of po%er. (hey %ere seen for !arely seven years. In /Oafar &$1 B/eptem!er?+cto!er 1$1$C, !astions Bar@nC %ere added aro)nd the minarets, completely coverin" the %ritin", and they remain in place today Bfi"s. TT, ##C.P9TQ (hey are composed of t%o stacked c)!es, %ith the lo%er one the same hei"ht as the %alls of the mos<)e. 1hy these !astions %ere added %as not addressed directly !y the medieval %riters, nor !y Cres%ell %ho )ndertook the architect)ral e8amination of the inner minarets. +ne o!vio)s spec)lation is that the minarets themselves proved str)ct)rally )nso)nd and the !astions %ere cond)cted to s)pport them. Certainly the only reason that %e today have any se"ments of these minarets is that the !astions protected them in the severe earth<)ake of 1#$# @$T %hich destroyed all the other minarets of the 5atimid mos<)es on this a8is of Cairo.P9#Q

5i". ##. Bastion Bar@nC, al.*OGkim mos<)e B)t %hatever prompted ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim to add these !astions, they added a more solid, almost military, aspect to this lar"e str)ct)re. =oreover, %hat has occ)rred to me more than once in %alkin" alon" the main north.so)th a8is !et%een the al.*OGkim mos<)e and that of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn, especially %hen approachin" the latter from the so)th%est, is that the additions of these !astions !ro)"ht the silho)ettes of the minarets of al.*OGkimSs mos<)e more in conformity %ith that of the minaret of AhOmad i!n (OLlLnSs mos<)e, %hich %as visited !y the ImGm on official occasions. +n these !astions officially sponsored %ritin" %as displayed m)ch less innovatively and prominently than on the minarets %hich they s)rro)nd. At least that is so on the %estern one, !eca)se only that %ritin" and o)ter coverin" is the ori"inal. (he northern !astion also ori"inally displayed %ritin" in the same manner as the %estern one, if Cres%ell is correct in s)""estin" that Badr al.HamGlI )sed the mar!le from the northern !astion for his inscription on the BG! al.5)tLhO.P9&Q (he !astions co)ld have !een left plain, or %ritin" co)ld have !een carved into the stone itself as it had !een on the minarets. B)t on the !astions the %ritin" is carved in mar!le and in letters some 1@ inches B&# cm.C hi"h. (he mar!le !and is placed appro8imately half%ay )p and r)n aro)nd the !astions.P9FQ (he difference !et%een the mar!le !ands and the stone !astion called attention to the %ritin", e8ec)ted

in an ela!orated 2)fic style. Certainly there is a clear distinction !et%een the style of this %ritin" and any of those on the minarets, and !et%een this %ritin" and that on the interior or on the top !ands of the minarets. /till, vine and floral ela!oration e8tr)de from letters to fill !lank !ack"ro)nd over hori4ontal letters. (he %ritin" itself %as clearly le"i!le to a !eholder in the street, as it is today. (he semantic content of this %ritin" %as also addressed to a =)slim a)dience since it is !ased entirely in the R)rSGn. Ket the verses chosen are not )sed in IsmGEIlI ta>wl. It is diffic)lt, !y any interpretation, to )nderstand most of these ne% <)otations as partic)larly appropriate for indicatin" the f)nctions of a mos<)e.P9'Q +nly the short verse, displayed closest to the mos<)e, mentions 5riday prayer B'T:9C. /till, %ritin" %ith this semantic content %as placed on the !astion of this mos<)e and addressed =)slim !eholders in the p)!lic space. (he <)estion remains a!o)t the likely conte8t of these <)otations "iven the nat)re of the con"re"ation of this mos<)e. (he connection of these verses %ith the HarrGhOid revolt in Palestine is one that /anders has made, altho)"h she has s)""ested that they respond to the ori"inal inscriptions on the minarets.P9@Q 1hile f)lly a"reein" %ith the importance of the conte8t of the HarrGhOid revolt, I %o)ld nonetheless s)""est that they are !etter )nderstood in the li"ht of polemical )ses of R)rSGnic <)otations, %hich %o)ld acco)nt for the totally different tone of these <)otations from the earlier ones on the minarets. /)ch polemical )ses of the R)rSGn %ere at that time en"a"ed in !y al.9ashId li.JIn AllGh, the ne% HarrGhOid anti.Caliph, an Alid Sher! of =ecca, proclaimed leader of the HarrGhOid movement. 1hen he ret)rned to 9amla, his ne% capital, the @hatib recited the first si8 verses of surt al-Qas+as+ B(he DarrativeC in %hich =oses as prophet, and Pharaoh as overly e8alted r)ler, are compared, %ith favor, of co)rse, to the former.P98Q (he ne"ative aspects of the comparison of ImGm al.*OGkim to Pharaoh cannot have escaped ImGm al. *OGkim %ho had !arely recovered from A!L 9ak%aSs revolt Bd. 1$$@C, and %ho %as en"a"ed in a shake )p of hi"h and lo% officials %ithin his immediate "overnment.P99Q (he strident tones of the phrases of the !astion fit %ell %ith a sit)ation in %hich s)ch a revolt %as )nder%ay in Palestine led !y a non. IsmGEIlI /hiEi, and one in %hich ideolo"ical differences %ere !ein" e8pressed in R)rSGnic %ords. (he impact of this revolt %as hei"htened !y ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkimSs reor"ani4ation of the personnel %ithin his "overnment, and the severe meas)res he addressed to%ard the Christians and He%s.P1$$Q (he official te8t on the !astion th)s can !e )nderstood as a stron" %arnin", co)ched in the %ords of ,od, to the =)slims of the r)lin" "ro)p in the northern sector of the city, to remain )nified and committed to o!edience to the ImGm.Caliph. (hese phrases remained Band still remainC on the o)tside of the !astion as ImGm s)cceeded ImGm, and the a)dience and events chan"ed. Beca)se this ori"inal conte8t %as lost, scholars came to <)estion the appropriateness of the semantic content of the inscription. 1hat remained identifia!le is the style of the inscription. 5l)ry, in the early t%entieth cent)ry, identified the "ro)p responsi!le for the inscription !y its style. P1$1Q (he aesthetic dimensions that %ere reco"ni4a!le for him as "ro)p specific %ere the vine and leaf terminations. Ket eleventh cent)ry !eholders %o)ld have !een vis)ally att)ned to reco"ni4e that that specific style %as not the only one in )se at the time, and that the ela!orated style had a specific )se in terms of placement, for it %as a style )sed only on the e8terior of !)ildin"s. \ \ \

Te-ti&es an( t!e P*,&i' Te-t

(he %ritin" on the portal and the !astions of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim remained a p)!lic te8t in Cairo )ntil the end of the dynasty, and !eyond, )ntil today. B)t it %as not the only place people co)ld !e addressed !y the p)!lic te8t.P1$TQ In the r)le of ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir Br. 1$#'?9& &T@?8@C the acco)nts of DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, the IsmGEIlI traveler, indicate that %ritin" %as )sed prominently on

te8tiles in the procession he sa% for the openin" of the canal. ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir processed to the head of the canal for the !reakin" of the dam. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% descri!ed the procession of ten tho)sand horses %ith saddlecloths into %hich the name of the ImGm %as %oven.P1$#Q *is report indicated a vis)ally si"nificant )se of the %ritten name of the ImGm. If not act)ally ten tho)sand, at least many displayed it. Altho)"h processions !e"an in the r)le of ImGm.Caliph al.EA4I4 Br. 9@F?9' #'F?8'C, and contin)ed thro)"h the rei"n of al.NOGhir Br. 1$T1?#' &11?T@C, the clothin" %orn !y the ImGm.Caliph and the co)rt %as sin")larly )nornamented, especially d)rin" the rei"n of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim. 1ritin" on clothin" or animal trappin"s is not mentioned )ntil the rei"n of ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir. (he official %ritin" DGsOir.i 2h)sra% descri!ed %as em!edded in the medi)m of official processions %hich the 5atimid ImGms )sed in a systemati4ed %ay. As /anders has detailed, they made official pro"ress from the royal city of Cairo to the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn and that of EAmr i!n al.EAs on certain occasions !ased on the IsmGEIlI =)slim calendar and, as %ith the ceremony openin" the canal, on occasions important in the economic life of 3"ypt.P1$&Q +fficially sponsored %ritin" th)s appeared in a ne% medi)m, and derived some of its meanin" from the f)nction of the processions themselves. Altho)"h the vario)s 5atimid processions commemorated different events thro)"ho)t the year, and th)s had different immediate "oals, f)ndamentally they %ere vehicles %hich connected the royal, IsmGEIlI center in the north %ith the pop)lation centers of =isOr in the so)th as /anders has so a!ly ar")ed. 1hile more %ill !e said on this point !elo%,P1$FQ these processions %ere all rit)als that 6set )p Pa ran"e ofQ visi!le p)!lic definitions,7 fi8in" p)!lic meanin"s that classified the %hole )r!an pop)lation as %ell as sta!ili4ed the relationships of vario)s "ro)ps %ithin it.P1$'Q (hese processions %ere str)ct)res linked to conscio)s social intentions of the r)lin" "ro)p. (h)s %hile the processions fi8ed the connection !et%een the northern and so)thern sectors of the city, they e<)ally contin)ally emphasi4ed the separation !et%een the participants and the a)dienceM the r)lers and the r)led. (hose %ho %atched kne% their place in part thro)"h the location of their vie%in" position, %here alon" the ro)te they stood, and ho% close they co)ld come to the ImGm himself. (hose ridin" and marchin" kne% their place %ithin the r)lin" "ro)p thro)"h their position in the rit)al.P1$@Q (here is "reat concern, for e8ample, to maintain proper position %ith respect to the ImGm.Caliph. H)d"in" from DGsOir.i 2h)sra%Ss eff)sive report, these rit)al processions %ere hi"hly effective !eca)se of their display of costly "oods. In this conte8t of fi8in" p)!lic meanin"s thro)"h rit)al, officially sponsored %ritin" played a role that associated the name of the ImGm.Caliph %ith the a!ility to cons)me e8trava"ant "oods. It seems fair to ass)me that it %as the medi)m in %hich the %ritin" %as em!edded and not the style of the %ritin" itself, or its specific semantic content, that evoked the primary meanin" to DGsOir.i 2h)sra%. Altho)"h he tells his readers a!o)t the content of the %ritin", he does not "ive the e8act %ords, nor does he mention the style of the script. 1hat he does disc)ss is the <)ality of the medi)m. Po%er to him %as displayed !y e8trava"ant cons)mption. (he choice of the "oods displayed, as part of the contin)ed rit)al, created a pattern of discrimination that he reco"ni4ed as makin" availa!le to the ImGm, and those %ho reinforced his r)le, %ealth in s)ch prodi"ality that it invited <)antitative and <)alitative eval)ation. (he assem!la"e, rather than a specific discrete part, %as %hat conveyed the meanin". DGsOir.i 2h)sra% certainly en"a"ed in the activity of eval)ation and seems to have %ell )nderstood the social p)rposes of the rit)al. *e reported that ten tho)sand horses displayed 6saddlecloths of By4antine !rocade and b('alam(n %oven seamless to order.P1$8Q In the !orders of the saddlecloth are %oven inscriptions !earin" the name of the /)ltan of 3"ypt.7 P1$9Q By these %ords DGsOir.i 2h)sra% conveyed to his readers very specific eval)ations a!o)t the e8traordinary a!)ndance the ImGm.Caliph commanded as his name la!el made clear. (he horses of the r)lin" "ro)p %ere distin")ished !y the display not only of imported By4antine !rocade !)t By4antine !rocade that had !een made to order and imported. /ince DGsOir.i

2h)sra% descri!ed the cloth as seamless, %e can ass)me that %as his %ay of notin" that the si4e of the saddlecloths %as %ider than the standard loom %idth, so that %itho)t commandin" special order, the re<)isite %idth for the saddlecloth co)ld have !een achieved only !y se%in" pieces to"ether. (his ImGmSs procession did not display "oods that had to !e pieced. =oreover, the special order incl)ded the %eavin" in of the ImGmSs name. (he 5atimid ImGm %as a!le to command the By4antine %eavers, not only to %eave the ImGmSs name, !)t to %eave it in Ara!ic. By this description DGsOir.i 2h)sra% distin")ished %hat he vie%ed as the command of %eavin" in a forei"n land, from the less masterf)l alternative of addin" the ImGmSs name on an imported l)8)ry fa!ric !y em!roiderin" it locally in Cairo. DGsOir.i 2h)sra%Ss eval)ation did not stop there. (he official %ritin" on By4antine !rocade %as itself em!edded in still f)rther e8trava"ance. Camels, m)les, and horses displayed reins st)dded %ith Ae%els and saddles of "old. (ho)sands )pon tho)sands of soldiers %alked or rode in rank, follo%ed !y contin"ents of princes from forei"n lands and of scholars and literati %ho %ere maintained on stipends at co)rt.P11$Q He%eled %eapons and m)sical instr)ments a!o)nded. (o DGsOir.i 2h)sra% the meanin" of this procession had less to do %ith the openin" of the dam on the canal than %ith the eval)ation of the ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir, %ho %as the ImGm of the (ime B2mm al-N+amanC for him. *e did, of co)rse, descri!e the ImGm thro%in" a spear at the dam, and the men %ho then <)ickly set to %ork !reakin" the dam so that the flood%aters of the Dile %ere opened into the fields, !)t he "ave that part of the procession minimal treatment. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% %as <)ick to )nderstand ho% this display of a!)ndance co)ld !e mis)nderstood !y his readers. *e caref)lly noted that the tho)sands )pon tho)sands of soldiers !ea)tif)lly o)tfitted %ere paid !y the ImGm and that no "overnmental a"ent or peasant %as ever tro)!led !y the army.P111Q (his is indicative of a refrain that is part of his description of 3"ypt. (he ImGm.Caliph %ho displayed his po%er thro)"h effective rit)als involvin" material thin"s did so even tho)"h he paid f)ll meas)re to the %eavers, the peasants, and the merchants. (o DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, ImGm al.=)stansOir, %hose name he sa% in procession passin" to the head of the dam, %as a !eneficent r)ler to all his s)!Aects. DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, of co)rse, %as a partisan, that is, an IsmGEIlI. 1e can ass)me that his vie% %as shared !y many in the a)dience, and he notes the n)m!er of IsmGEIlIs and /hiEis he sa%. (hat other non.IsmGEIlI mem!ers of the a)dience of these processions %o)ld have seen the "oodness alon" %ith the po%er of the ImGm from this display cannot !e ass)med. (he p)!lic te8t displayed on cloth in this manner %as part of a more intensely social process than that displayed on !)ildin"s. It %as an intensified spatial and temporal display that evoked meanin" !y its repetition rather than its permanence. (hat the name of the ImGm.Caliph %as associated a"ain and a"ain %ith s)ch a!)ndance conveyed to the !eholders and reass)red the participants that the social order or social !o)ndaries %ere maintained despite the fl)ct)ation in the cate"ories of that order that %ere severely challen"ed at that time. +ne f)rther o!servation that DGsOir.i 2h)sra% made a!o)t movement %ithin the city of Cairo needs to !e mentioned here. It relates not to %ritin" directly so m)ch as to a format for %ritin", namely, the si"n of IsmaEilism, and th)s !rin"s )s f)ll circle to %here this chapter !e"an. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% makes special reference to the one tho)sand ")ards that s)rro)nd the palace of the ImGm.Caliph Bthe 3astern PalaceC. 5ive h)ndred ")ards are mo)ntedM five h)ndred on foot. (hey form t%o rin"s and contin)ally circle the palace. After evenin" prayer %hile contin)in" this circ)lar procession, they play tr)mpets and dr)msP11TQ )ntil mornin". 1e are left to %onder %hether DGsOir.i 2h)sra% reco)nted this circlin" !eca)se he reco"ni4ed the relationship !et%een the performance of concentric circles aro)nd the palace of the ImGm and the concentric circle dia"rams in IsmGEIlI disco)rse. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% himself contri!)ted several vol)mes to IsmGEIlI ta>wl, in %hich he )sed concentric circle dia"rams as memory devices.P11#Q

It is ironic that %e are left DGsOir.i 2h)sra%Ss report of harmonio)s social order and economic sta!ility on the eve of the most severe economic crisis of 5atimid r)le, %hich compelled the wazr Badr al. HamGlI to stop these processions, and to alter the )r!an social and spatial order of Cairo.=isOr drastically.

N"tes
1. Proclaimed in the @hutba on 5riday, T1 9a!IE II T9@, Han)ary 91$. T. =ainly =GlikI in Dorth Africa and /hafIEI in 3"ypt. #. +n this iss)e see: 5arhad Jaftary, The 2sm*ls: Their 3istor# and .octrine BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 199$C, esp. chap. &, 65atimid IsmaEilism7M /. =. /tern, 6Cairo as the Centre of the IsmGEIlI =ovement,7 Collo<)e International s)r lShistoire d) Caire BCairo: =inistry of C)lt)re of the Ara! 9ep)!lic of 3"ypt, n.d.C, &#@?F$. &. /. =. /tern, 6IsmGEIlI Propa"anda and 5atimid 9)le in /ind,7 2slamic ulture T# B19&9C: T98?#$@. F. (he iss)es revolvin" aro)nd the social )ses of %ritin"-%hat kinds of messa"es %ere p)!lished in %hat %ays in the society-have not &er se !een disc)ssed for the medieval Islamic period, !)t the iss)e of %ritin", mainly in !ooks, and its social effects has !een provocatively considered !y Hack ,oody and Ian 1att, 6(he Conse<)ences of 0iteracy,7 om&arati)e Studies in Societ# and 3istor# F, no. # B19'#C: #$&?&F, esp. #11?T'M and Hack ,oody, 61ritin", 9eli"ion and 9evolt in Bahia,7 Hisible ;anguage T$, no. # B198'C: #18?&#, %here he disc)sses the role of Bconte8t)alC literacy in Ara!ic in the Kor)!a =)slim slave revolt in Bra4il in the first half of the nineteenth cent)ry. '. A readily availa!le reference for this coina"e is ,eor"e C. =iles, Fatimid oins in the ollection o! the -ni)ersit# 4useum/ Philadel&hia/ and the ,merican Bumismatic Societ# BDe% Kork: American D)mismatic /ociety, 19F1C. =ichael Bates disc)ssed the chan"es in 5atimid coina"e in, 6/hIEI Inscriptions on B)yid and 5atimid Coins7 Bpaper delivered at the Ann)al =eetin" of the =iddle 3ast /t)dies Association, Chica"o, Dovem!er 198#C. *e "enero)sly has sent me this )np)!lished paper, in %hich he tentatively s)""ests that the format mi"ht have related to the IsmGEIlI cyclical %orld vie%. Jo)" Dichol, %hose maAor catalo")e of 5atimid coina"e is forthcomin", has ")ided me in )nderstandin" the chan"es in 5atimid coina"e over time. /ee also /tanley 0ane.Poole, atalogue o! ,rabic $lass Weights in the "ritish 4useum BParis: 9ollin, 1891C, for coin %ei"hts %ith a similar format. @. Personal comm)nication from Jr. =o)rad 9ammah. Cons)lt also the forthcomin" st)dy !y Jr. I!rahim Cha!!o)h on 6(he (hree 5atimid Cities.7 8. 5or the rei"n of al.=)Ei44, see: al.RGdOI A!L *OanIfah al.D)EmGn i!n =)hOammad, ,l-4aGlis wa>lmus#art, ed. Al.*a!I! al.5G<I, I. /ha!!LhO, and =. al.KaEla%I B()nis: n.p., 19@8CM EArif (Gmir, al4u*izz li-.n ,llah al-Ftim BBeir)t: JGr al.AfG< al.Hadida, 198TCM and 5arhat Jachrao)i, ali!at Fatimide au 4aghreb B()nis: n.p., 1981C. 9. =ichael Bates "enero)sly shared his research notes %ith me on this topic. (he %ritin" on the first sta"e coins incl)ded s)ch phrases as: wa *,l ibn ,b T+lib was+## al-ras(l wa al-n>ib al-!ad+(l wazawG al-zahr> al-batl BEAlI is the desi"nee of the Prophet and the representative of the most radiant vir"inC and muh+ sunnat 4uh+ammad sa##id al-murs+aln wa-writh maGd al-a*imma al-mahdi##in B9evivifier of the sunna of =)hOammad, pre.eminent of the messen"ers, and heir of the ri"htly ")ided imams.C /ee also A. 0a)nois, 6Catalo")e des monaies 5atimites entr:es a) Ca!inet des =:dailles dep)is 189',7 "ulletin d>Dtudes <rientales T& B19@1C: 19?F#. 1$. (he date of al./iAistGnISs death is still a matter of disc)ssion. /ee especially Pa)l 1alker, The

Wells&rings o! Wisdom B/alt 0ake City: University of Utah Press, 199&C, 1F?1'. 11. 5or !oth RGdOI al.D)EmGn and al./iAistGnI, see the individ)al entries in Ismail Poona%ala, "iobibliogra&h# o! 2sm*l ;iterature B=ali!): Undena P)!lications, 19@@C. 1T. 5or al./iAistGnISs contri!)tions to IsmGEIlI tho)"ht, see: *)sain 5. al.*Oamdani, 6/ome Unkno%n IsmGEIlI A)thors and (heir 1orks,7 Cournal o! the 5o#al ,siatic Societ# B19##C: #F9?@8M *enry Cor!inSs introd)ction Bin 5renchC to his edition of al./iAistGnISs =ash! al-mahG(b B(ehran: Instit)t 5ranco.Iranien, 19&9C: F?TFM and more recently, 1alker, The Wells&rings o! Wisdom, %here he disc)sses the %ritin" of al./iAistGnI, and offers an annotated translation of =itb al-#anb*, %hich he translates as 61ellsprin"s of 1isdom.7 3arlier a)thors, s)ch as Cor!in, translated the title as 6(he 9oots of 1isdom7 or 6(he Book of /o)rces.7 1#. +n the )se of al.D)EmGnSs te8ts in teachin", see /tern, 6Cairo as the Centre,7 &#@?F$. 1&. 5or iss)es relatin" to the pl)rality of IsmGEIlI disco)rse, see A4im DanAi, 6Bet%een =etaphor and Conte8t: (he Dat)re of 5atimid IsmGEIlI Jisco)rse on H)stice and InA)stice,7 ,rabica #@ B199$C: T#&? #9. 1F. +n the role of memory devices in the 0atin lan")a"e.!ased =iddle A"es, see =ary Carr)thers, The "oo@ o! 4emor#/ , Stud# o! 4emor# in 4edie)al ulture BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 199$C. 1'. (he 5atimid d* *Oamid al.JIn AhOmad i!n EA!d Allah al.2irmGnI, philosopher and prolific %riter, died c. 1$T1 &TT. *e %as most active d)rin" the rei"n of the 5atimid r)ler al.*OGkim. 1@. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% lived and travelled in the mid.eleventh cent)ry. Perhaps !est kno%n for his Sa!arnma, his treatise, =itb-i =h)n al-2@h)n B(ehran: n.p., 19T9C, is most relevant here. It relates in si"nificant %ays to the %ritin"s of al./iAistGnI a cent)ry earlier. 18. /ee Irene A. Bierman, 6Cairo: A Paralla8 of H)d"ment,7 in 2dentities in 4edie)al airo, ed. Irene. A. Bierman, 1orkin" Papers, ,)stav 3. von ,r)ne!a)m Center for Dear 3astern /t)dies B0os An"eles: ,)stav 3. von ,r)ne!a)m Center for Dear 3astern /t)dies, 199FC. 19. 1alker, The Wells&rings o! Wisdom, reprod)ces the one s)ch dia"ram that is present in some of the man)scripts, and recreates the dia"rams that are called for in the man)scripts and for %hich space has !een left. *. Cor!in, Trilogie 2sma?lienne B(ehran.Paris: Jepartment of Iranolo"y, Instit)te 5ranco. Iranian, 19'1C, F?1T@, descri!es the dia"rams, !)t reprod)ces only the one from DGsOir.i 2h)sra%Ss =h)n al-2@h)n as an e8ample, esp. pp. '&, 1$F?'. T$. (he creation of the %orld is likened to ,odSs imperative 6Be7 B@unM. (he t%o letters-@a! and nun -formin" this %ord res)lt in t%o principles, the %ords @uni and 'adar. 1ilfred =adel)n", 6Aspects of IsmGEIlI (heolo"y: (he Prophet Chain and the ,od Beyond Bein",7 in 2sm*l ontributions to 2slamic ulture, ed. /eyyed *ossein DasOr B(ehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1#98 19@@C, F1?FF. /. =. /tern, Studies in %arl# 2sma*ilism BHer)salem: =a"nes Press, *e!re% University, 198#C, esp. chap. 1, 6(he 3arliest Cosmolo"ical Joctrines of IsmaEilism,7 1?T9M and *ein4 *alm, =osmologie und 3eilslehre der !rLhen 2sm*l#a B1eis!aden: 5ran4 /teiner, 19@8C. T1. In al./iAistGnI, =itb al-#anb*, 6Allah7 is an important %ord. It is disc)ssed !oth as an isolated %ord, and as part of the shahda Bthe profession of 5aithC. TT. 1alker, The Wells&rings o! Wisdom, &F?&9. T#. I!id., 98?99. T&. (he co)nterclock%ise direction is not dictated !y the fact that Ara!ic is %ritten from ri"ht to left. It %o)ld have !een possi!le to have the %ritin" 6face7 the o)tside. (hen, the stance for readin" the

%ritin" %o)ld !e o)tside the circles. TF. 1alker, The Wells&rings o! Wisdom, @$. T'. I!id., 8T?8#. T@. RGdOI al.D)EmGn, .a*>im al-islm, ed. Asaf A. A. 5y4ee, T vols. BCairo, 19F1?'1C, 1:1T. Partial 3n"lish translation, Asaf A. A. 5y4ee, The "oo@ o! Faith BBom!ay, 19@&C, 1&, n. @. T8. 5or %hich te8ts %ere read to %hich levels, see /tern, 6Cairo as the Centre.7 /ee also Pa)l 1alker, 6(he Ismaili JaE%a in the 9ei"n of the 5atimid Caliph al.*OGkim,7 Cournal o! the ,merican 5esearch enter in %g#&t #$ B199#C: 1'$?18T, esp. 1'&?'F. T9. R TT:#1M 1':1$$ are t%o of the many references. #$. +f co)rse, r)lers chan"in" their coina"e often re<)ired ta8es and certain kinds of other payments to !e made in their ne% iss)e coins, %ith a fi8ed e8chan"e for the old coina"e. (his type of e8chan"e %as al%ays to the advanta"e of the iss)er of the ne% coins, and took place often. /)ch an e8chan"e took place, in fact, )nder the direction of wazr KaEcL! i!n 2illis, %ho made the previo)sly iss)ed dinar e<)al to only @F percent of 5atimid ImGm al.=)Ei44Ss ne% dinar, and then demanded payment of ta8es in the ne% dinar. AhOmad i!n EAlI al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+al-h+una! bi-a@hbr al-a>immah al-Fatimi#n al@hula!, # vols. BRGhira: n.p., 19'@?@#C, 1:1&'. I thank my collea")e Here Bacharach for constantly remindin" me of this aspect of coina"e chan"e. /till, the p)rity of these coins kept them in circ)lation a lon" time. He%ish merchants, ,oitein informs )s, collected payment in 4u*izzi in 98#, 1$$&, 1$T', and even as late as 1$F@. ,oitein, 4editerranean Societ#, 1:T#'?#@. (hese coins are )nderstood today as 6s)rpassin" the standard of fineness of the !est medieval "old coins,7 Andre% /. 3hrenkre)t4 and ,ene 1. *eck, 6Additional 3vidence of the 5atimid Use of Jinars for Propa"anda P)rposes,7 in Studies in 2slamic 3istor# and i)ilization in 3onour o! Pro!essor .a)id ,#alon, ed. =. /haron BHer)salem and 0eiden: 3. H. Brill, 198'C, 1&'M 1. +ddy, 6(he ,old Content of 5atimid Coins 9econsidered,7 4etallurg# in Bumismatics 1 B198$C: 99?188. #1. (he semantic content, ho%ever, reads from the inner to the o)ter circles. #T. /ee Kves =ar<)et, 60a pens:e philosophi<)e et reli"ie)se d) RGdOI al.D)EmGn V travers ;a 5isala 4udhiba,7 "ulletin d>Dtudes <rientales #9?&$ B198@?88C: 1&1?81, %here he provides a corp)s of R)rSGnic verses cited !y RGdOI al.D)EmGn. ##. /ome phrases on the 5atimid iss)es %ere fo)nd on the coins of their contemporaries. (he le"end, s+alla ,llahu *ala#hi wa *ala lihi B=ay ,od !less *im Pthe Prophet =)hOammadQ and his familyC appeared on 5atimid dinars. /ome scholars consider this an Alid phrase, !)t I )nderstand it, in this medieval conte8t, to !e simply a non.A!!asid statement. (he detailed ar")ments !ehind either stance are not as "ermane here to the main point as is the reality that this phrase appeared on 5atimid coina"e, on the coina"e of the /)nni Ikhshidids !e"innin" in 9&@ #F', and on the coina"e of the ImGmI /hIEI *amdanid, /ayf al.Ja%la, !e"innin" in 9&& ###. 1hat is important is that altho)"h this phrase occ)rred in the %ritin" on the Ikhshidid and *amdanid coins, they maintained the A!!asid format for the display of the %ritin". 5or a provocative disc)ssion of this coina"e, and one %ith %hich I do not f)lly a"ree, see 9am4i Hi!ran Bikha4i, 6(he /tr)""le for /yria and =esopotamia B##$?F8 9&1?'9C As 9eflected on *amdanid and Ikhshidid Coins,7 ,merican Bumismatic Societ# 4useum Botes T8 B198#C: 1#@?@#. #&. /ee note ' a!ove. #F. /ee note T' a!ove. #'. Dorman J. Dicol, 6Islamic Coina"e in Imitation of 5atimid (ypes,7 2srael Bumismatic Cournal 1$

B1988?89C: F8?@$, plates 1$ [ 11. #@. 4adnat al-salm is the mint site. #8. /)ltOGn al.Ja%lahSs Br. 1$1T?T1 &$#?1TC iss)e in &$@ B1$1'C is especially interestin" !eca)se it seemed to straddle the fence. (he desi"n on the o!verse side displayed concentric circles, %hile that on the reverse retained the Umayyad.A!!asid format. #9. Hean.Cla)de ,arcin, 6(yponymie et topo"raphie )r!aines medi:vales V 5)stOGtO,7 Cournal o! the %conomic and Social 3istor# o! the <rient T@ BH)ly 198&C: 11#?#FM 6Po)r )n reco)rs V lShistoire de lSespace v:c) dans lS:t)de de lS3"ypte Ara!e,7 ,nnales %conomie/ Soci?t?/ i)ilizations #$ B198$C: &#@?'FM 1ladysla% 2)!iak, ,l-Fust+t+ 2ts Foundation and %arl# -rban .e)elo&ment B1arsa%: 1yda%n, Universytet) 1ars4a%skie"o, 198TCM Hanet A!L.0)"hod, airo: 6776 Oears o! the it# Hictorious BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 19@1C. &$. Primarily of /hafiEI and =GlikI. &1. /ee especially ,oitein, 4editerranean Societ#, &:1?1$&, %here he details the marria"e ne"otiations in %hich the !ride stip)lated that she %o)ld al%ays reside in 5)stOGtO. (his section also mentions apartment ho)sin" shared !y =)slims and He%s. &T. I!id. (his evidence leads ,oitein to descri!e the area as ho)sin" a !o)r"eois pop)lation. *e disc)sses 4onin" and its implications, esp. pp. 1F?T1. &#. *e did not impose the IsmGEIlI calendar on the pop)lation. *e did s)ppress, ho%ever, the prono)ncin" of the form)la 6Allah) Ak!ar7 B,od is =ost ,reatC after prayer. /ee /anders, Fatimid airo, &F and nn. #T?##. &&. /a%ir)s i!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs o! the %g#&tian hurch, translated and annotated !y Antoine 2hater and +. *. 3. B)rmester, & vols. BCairo: /ociet: de lSArch:olo"ie, 19&#C, vol. T, pt. T. (his vol)me covers the years 88$?1$''. &F. (hat an IsmGEIlI )niformity %as re<)ired is stron"ly s)""ested !y the episodes reported in ,l-=hitat %here men carryin" a /)nni te8t inside the city %ere !eaten and sometimes e8ec)ted. 5or one s)ch incident, see al.=a<rI4I, al-=hitat T:#&1. &'. Cairo %as appro8imately 1 km. T$$ m. 8 1 km. or 1 _ miles 8 ' 1$ mile. /ee 4,%, vol. 1, chap. #, on the fo)ndation of Cairo. &@. /ee note # a!ove. &8. 4,%, vol. 1, chap. & on the mos<)e of al.A4har and related plates. &9. It seems likely that the mos<)e !)ilt d)rin" his rei"n %o)ld have displayed this si"n. 1hat is )n)s)al a!o)t the artic)lation of the %alls on the inner co)rtyard is the presence of a circle motif, ne% in 3"ypt in this mos<)e. 1hen these %ere p)t in the mos<)e is )nclear. 1hat %as in these circles ori"inally is also )nclear. It co)ld have !een concentric circles of %ritin". 1hat is clear, ho%ever, is that %hat fills the circles no% %as chosen !y the Comit: de Conservation. F$. Al.=a<rI4OI, ,l-=hitat 1:1#FM also fo)nd in al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+, 1:1&$?&TM and in I!n =)yassar, ,@hbr 4is+r P,nnales d>%g#&teM, ed. *enri =asse BCairo: Impr. de lSInstit)t franUais dSarch:olo"ie orientale, 1919C: 9&. F1. Al.=a<rI4I transmits the reaction of pil"rims to =ecca B3"yptians, /yrians, and 2h)rasanisC %ho sa% this ornament. (hey fo)nd it "rander than earlier "ifts they had either seen or heard of. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:1#FM and 2tti*z+ 1:1&$?&T. FT. Pa)l Balo", 6=onnaies Islami<)es rare 5atimites et Ayy)!ites,7 "ulletin de l>2nstitut d>%g#&te #'

B19F#?F&C: #T@?&1. F#. I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. T, 1&'?&@ B3n"lishCM 9@?98 BAra!icC. F&. (his mos<)e %as ori"inally !e")n !y the wazr KaEcL! i!n 2illis d)rin" the rei"n of ImGm.Caliph al.EA4I4 %ho said the @hutba in this str)ct)re. In 1$1T?1# &$# vario)s f)rnishin"s in the mos<)e %ere completed !y ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim. /ee 4,%, vol. 1, chap. FM Honathan =. Bloom, 6(he =os<)e of al.*OGkim in Cairo,7 4u'arnas 1 B198#C: 1F?#'. In this same year, ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim completed other mos<)es o)tside the royal city: one at al.=a<s to the north%est of Cairo, and one in 9ashIda to the so)th !)ilt on the Birkat BlakeC al.*Oa!ish. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:1##, T8#?8F. /ince these mos<)es are no lon"er e8tant %e do not kno% %hether any of these !)ildin"s displayed %ritin". (he only mention that I have fo)nd a!o)t %ritin" on mos<)es-other than that %hich is disc)ssed in the te8t-is !y A!L /OGlihO %ho noted that a mos<)e on the ed"e of Birkat al.*Oa!ish Bso)th of 5)stOGtOC had a minaret and that ImGm al.*OGkimSs name %as displayed on it. A!L /OGlihO, al.Armani, hurches and 4onasteries, 1#$. FF. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:#&1. (he te8t is as follo%s: 6In the year #9F slander and monstrosity occ)rred concernin" A!L Bakr and EUmar.WIt %as %ritten in /afar of this year P#9FQ on all of the mos<)es and on the old mos<)e of 5)stOGtO B=isOrC, o)tside and inside, and on all of its sides B%allsC and on the "ates of shops, and rooms and on tom!s, ins)ltin" the ancestors and c)rsin" them. It %as varie"ated and colored %ith colors and "old. And that %as done on the doors of ho)ses and !a4aars. And people %ere forced to PdoQ that.7 F'. /)ch c)rses %o)ld incl)de the 2haraAi, tooM ho%ever, they %ere so fe% and so isolated that they %o)ld not provoke si"nificant ire. At this time, ho%ever, the 5atimid army had defeated an I!adi "ro)p in the central =a"hri!. F@. 5or these iss)es concernin" p)!lic meanin" in architect)re, see =anfredo (af)ri, Theories and 3istor# o! ,rchitecture BDe% Kork: *arper [ 9o%, 19@'C, esp. chap. F, 6Instr)ments of Criticism.7 F8. 5or a provocative disc)ssion of "ro)p space %ithin an )r!an area and the %ays in %hich it %as marked, see Datalie Nemon Javis, 6(he /acred and the Body /ocial in /i8teenth.Cent)ry 0yon,7 Past and Present 9$ B1981C: &$?@$. F9. (his IsmGEIlI practice %as part of the lar"er /hIEI practice. C)rses %ere p)t on the %alls and "ates of masGids in Ba"hdad in 9'# #F. ,. =akdisi, 2bn *,'il et la resurgence de l>2slam traditionaliste au J2A siAcle BJamasc)s: n.p., 19'#C, #1T. 5rom 1$F1?F# &&#?&F "old inscriptions praisin" EAlI and =)hOammad B!)t not directly c)rsin" A!L Bakr and EUmarC %ere p)t on a "ate in 2arkh. I!n al.Ha%4I, ,l-4untaz+am ! tar@h al-mul(@ wa-l-umam, 18 vols. BBeir)t: JGr al.2)t)!, 199TC, 8: 1&9?F$, 1F&, 1F@, 1@T?@#. I %ant to thank =ichael =orony for callin" my attention to these instances. '$. (here %as perhaps more oral c)rsin", !eca)se there are prohi!itions a"ainst c)rsin". '1. Al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ T:F&, 9'. *e also sa% it as an attempt to )r"e people into the IsmGEIlI da*wa. *e mentions ho% effective this policy %as for men and for %omen. /ee also *ein4 *alm, 6Jer (re`hander ,ottes: Jie 3dikte des 2alifen al.*OGkim,7 .er 2slam '# B198'C: 11?@T, esp. #&?#8. 'T. Al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ T:'FM for comments on the revolt as a %hole, see '$?'@. 5or a political interpretation of these events, see (hierry Bian<)is, .amas et ;a S#rie Sous ;a .omination FatimideP9EF8Q1RSE1E867:1M, T vols. BJamasc)s: (he University of Paris, 198'C 1: T@9?8F. '#. Al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ T:9'. '&. 1e are left only %ith A!L /OGlihOSs minimal notation a!o)t the 9GshIda mos<)e %hich ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim !)ilt the same year that he completed the mos<)e o)tside the BG! al.5)tLhO. If %e are a!le

ever to kno% that it did, in fact, display %ritin" prominently on the o)tside, the thesis here is f)rther s)pported. By s)ch an action, ImGm al.*OGkim %o)ld then have s)rro)nded 5)stOGtO %ith %ritin". (he 9GshIda mos<)e %as !)ilt o)tside, and to the so)th of 5)stOGtO, and %as a mos<)e for prayer !y IsmGEIlIs. Al.*akim tore this mos<)e do%n and then re!)ilt it, s)""estin" that it %as far smaller in scale than that o)tside the BG! al.5)tLhO. 'F. In contrast, those attendin" the al.A4har mos<)e o!vio)sly had to first have access to the royal city. (h)s, "enerally speakin", in this period the con"re"ation of the al.A4har mos<)e %ere mainly residents of the royal city. ''. =any e8amples of the )se of the BG! al.5)tLhO e8ist in the 2tti*z+ and the ,l-=hitat. Al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ T:8& is one rather dramatic e8ample. /ee also /anders, Fatimid airo, for procession ro)tes. '@. (he only mos<)e in the entire )r!an area that rivaled the mos<)e of al.*OGkim in si4e %as that of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn. '8. /anders, Fatimid airo, FF?F@. '9. 5or e8ample, it mi"ht !e <)ite possi!le for the surt al-B(r Bthe 0i"htC to have !een placed on the minaret to evoke for IsmGEIlI !eholders the btin dimensions of those verses concernin" the li"ht of the ImGmM as %ell as, as Bloom s)""ested B6=os<)e of al.*OGkim,7 T$C, to imply the f)nction of the minaret and, I sho)ld add, to convey several other )nderstandin"s of these verses in vario)s e8e"etical %orks. ,sbb al-naz(l, literally, 6the ca)ses for the comin" do%n,7 is the collection of acco)nts that doc)ments the conditions or reasons that ca)sed ,odSs messa"es to !e "iven to the Prophet =)hOammad. As s)ch, they served a /)nni pop)lation. @$. 5or a synthetic st)dy of these chan"es, see Kaacov 0ev, 6(he 5atimid Army, A.*. #F8?&T@ 9'8? 1$#' C.3.: =ilitary and /ocial Aspects,7 ,sian and ,!rican Studies 1& B198$C: 1F'?9TM Kaacov 0ev, 6Army, 9e"ime and /ociety in 5atimid 3"ypt #F8?&8@ 9'8?1$9&,7 2nternational Cournal o! 4iddle %ast Studies 9, no. # B198@C: ##@?''M see also Here 0. Bacharach, 6African =ilitary /laves in the =edieval =iddle 3ast: the Case of Ira< B8'9?9FFC and 3"ypt B8'8?11@1C,7 2nternational Cournal o! 4iddle %ast Studies 1# B1981C: &@1?9F. @1. 4,% 1:8F?98, and /. 5l)ry, .ie ornamente der 3a@im-und ,sher-moschee B*eidel!er": Carl 1inters, 191TC. @T. *amId al.JIn AhOmad i!n EA!d Allah al.2irmGnI, d.c. 1$T1 &11, in 5h+at al-*a'l BPeace of =indC, ed. =. 2amil *)ssein and =. =)stafa *ilmy BCairo: JGr al.5i<r, 19F#C, )ses inn)mera!le concentric circle dia"rams as memory aids. All !)t one have lines of %ritin" in the center circle. @#. (he medallion is a!o)t a meter B1 ft.C in diameter. (hese are Cres%ellSs meas)rements. %4,, vol. 1, chap. F. @&. (hese hei"hts are appro8imate !eca)se Cres%ellSs meas)red dra%in"s "ive meas)rements of the parts of the minaret to each other. As a tr)e "ro)nd %as not esta!lished, elevations cannot !e esta!lished. @F. 1alker, The Wells&rings o! Wisdom. (he %ord 6Allah7 is treated specifically in five o)t of the forty %ellsprin"s: %ellsprin"s 1, pp. &F?F$M T#, pp. @9?8FM #$, pp. 91?9#M #T, pp. 9&?9FM #9, pp. 1$@?9. @'. (his si"n of IsmaEilism is a!o)t & b meters B1&.@ ft.C from the "ro)nd. @@. Bloom, 6=os<)e of al.*OGkim,7 #F. @8. /tern, %arl# 2sma*ilism, chap. 1, 6(he 3arliest Cosmolo"ical Joctrines,7 #?T9, relates that al. =)rshid %as a mem!er of the ento)ra"e of Ha%har, and composed a treatise said to !e related !y ImGm al.=)Ei44: 6*e B,odC created a li"ht and prod)ced o)t of this li"ht a creat)re7 Bp. 18, para"raph 1#T in

the Ara!ic te8tC. @9. (he easiest reference for the %ritin" pro"ram on this mos<)e is Bloom, 6=os<)e of al.*OGkim,7 #&? #', %here a )sef)l s)mmary ta!le translates and cites the phrases !oth in the R)rSGn and in their listin" in the 4 2,/ 5 %,, %ith references to plates in the 4,%. 8$. /anders, Fatimid airo, F'. 81. (he inscription is incompleteM the date is missin". 8T. 4,% 1:9#. (his cantin" is still readily visi!le from inside the !astion. 8#. Cres%ell notes the proAection of the mo)ldin", %4, 1:9'. I meas)red the depth of this inscription and that on the )pper re"ister of the northern minaret, and fo)nd that they %ere appro8imately the same, a!o)t fo)r centimeters B1 b in.C. (his depth seems to !e maintained over the minaret s)rface, altho)"h I co)ld not readily check s)rfaces. 8&. /anders, Fatimid airo, F'. 8F. 4,% 1:'8?@1. 8'. 5or the content of these !ands see: 5 %,, nos. T$9$?9TM Bloom, 6=os<)e of al.*OGkim,7 nos. T?&, p. #&. 8@. Irene A. Bierman, 6Dear 3ast ,allery,7 ,rts o! ,sia TT, no. # B=ay?H)ne 199TC: 1T$?T@, esp. 1T$? TT, no. 8&. =artin 0in"s and Kasin *amid /afadi, The Qur>n: atalogue o! an %xhibition o! Qur>n 4anuscri&ts at the "ritish ;ibrar# B0ondon: 1orld of Islam P)!lishin" Co. 0td. for the British 0i!rary, 19@'C, TF, no. 11. Honathan =. Bloom, 6Al.=aSmLnSs Bl)e 2oran>7 5e)ue des Dtudes 2slami'ues F& B198'C: F9?'F. 88. I have )sed the photo"raph from 5l)rySs st)dy of the mos<)e B19$&C rather than a contemporary photo"raph !eca)se the ori"inal %ritin" is more clearly discerni!le there. 89. /anders, Fatimid airo, FF?F@, and nn. 1$&?9. 9$. 4,% 1:8#?8&. (he entire frie4e alon" the 'ibla may also have !een canted. (his cantin" %as preserved in the recent restoration so that it is still possi!le to read the %ritin" in the central aisle easily. 91. /ee D)EmGn i!n =)hOammad, al.RGdOI, Ta>wl al-da*>im, ed. =)hOammad *Oasan al.AE4OamI B=isOr: JGr al.mGEGrif, 19'@C, the sections on ImGmate. 9T. Cres%ell, 4,% 1:F8?9$, "ives a detailed history of the !astions, or salients as he calls them. *is archaeolo"ical architect)ral st)dies ena!led him to clarify that on the northern !astion yet a second o)ter %all %as added in the time of Badr al.HamGlI %hen he !)ilt the ne% northern %all of Cairo B1$8@ &8$C. (h)s the o)ter s)rface %e see today on the northern minaret is one %hich conformed to the !astion of al.*OGkim !)t is different from it. (he %estern !astion is the ori"inal one from the time of al. *OGkim. Bloom, 6=os<)e of al.*OGkim,7 T$?T1, reconfirms Cres%ellSs statements. 9#. (h)s the minarets of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim %ere destroyed a!ove the !astion line %hich is !asically the roof line. (he 5atimid period minarets of the mos<)es of al.A4har, al.A<mar, and (OalGSiE also fell and %ere replaced in the early fo)rteenth cent)ry Band then later in the +ttoman period, and removed !y the 5renchC. /ee Irene A. Bierman, 6Ur!an =emory and the Preservation of =on)ments,7 In The 5estoration and onser)ation o! 2slamic 4onuments in %g#&t, ed. Here 0. Bacharach BCairo: American University Press, 199FC: 1?1T. An ela!orate s)pport system inside the !astions maintained access to the minarets, and an a!ility to see the carved %ritin"s. 9&. 4,% 1:88, %here he remarks that the mar!le from the northern salient %o)ld have provided all !)t a!o)t ten meters of the len"th of the mar!le needed to p)t the inscription over the ne% BG! al.5)tLhO

%hich Badr al.HamGlI !)ilt. 9F. (he inscription r)ns appro8imately fifty centimeters B1F _ ft.C. 4,% 1:8@ lists the verses, R ##:F'M 9: Bpart ofC 1$8M 1&:T'?T8M 'T:9. 9'. (he verses in f)ll are: ##:'F /)rely ,od and *is an"els !less the Prophet. Ko) %ho !elieve call for !lessin"s )pon him and sal)te him %ith an appropriate sal)tation. 9: Bpart ofC 1$@ And those %ho !)ilt a mos<)e to ca)se harm and )n!elief, and to ca)se dis)nion amon" the )n!elievers, and as a ref)"e for him %ho made %ar a"ainst ,od and *is =essen"er !efore. (hey %ill s%ear: %e desired nothin" !)t "ood. And ,od !ears %itness that they are certainly liars. T&:T'?T8 Unclean %omen for )nclean men, and )nclean men for )nclean %omenM "ood %omen for "ood men, and "ood men for "ood %omenM these are declared free from %hat they say. 5or them is for"iveness and an honora!le s)stenance. Ko) %ho !elieve, enter not ho)ses other than yo)r o%n ho)se, )ntil yo) have asked permission and sal)ted those thereinM this is !etter for yo) that yo) may !e mindf)lM B)t if yo) find no one therein, enter them not )ntil permission is "iven to yo)M and if it is said to yo), ,o !ack, then "o !ackM (his is p)rer for yo). And ,od is the kno%er of %hat yo) do. 'T:9 Ko) %ho !elieve, %hen the call is so)nded for the prayer on 5riday, hasten to remem!rance of ,od and leave off traffickin". (hat is !etter for yo), if yo) kno%. 9@. /anders, Fatimid airo, F9?'$. 98. 5or a readily availa!le reference to this incident, see Bian<)is, .amas et la S#rie 1:#$T?#K and s.v. 6 .Garrahid,7 3ncyclopaedia of Islam, ne% ed. B0eiden: 3. H. Brill, 19'$?9FC. 99. =ost wazr wasta %ere e8ec)ted. *e also e8ec)ted EA!d al.EA4I4 i!n al.D)EmGn, the "randson of RGdOI al.D)EmGn. *e e8ec)ted al.5adOl i!n /OalihO, the "eneral %ho led the defeat of A!L 9ak%a, as %ell as *asan i!n EUmar and *O)sayn i!n Ha%har. 1$$. (hese meas)res are %ell kno%n: Christians %ere made to %ear heavy crosses in p)!licM He%s had to %ear !lack !elts and t)r!ans. /ellin" %ine %as prohi!ited as %as the p)!lic cele!ration of Christian festivals. Ch)rches %ere torn do%n Bmos<)es %ere p)t )p in their place, e."., the 9GshIda mos<)e %as !)ilt )pon a Haco!ite ch)rchC, %hich c)lminated in the destr)ction of the *oly /ep)lcher in Her)salem B1$$9?1$C. ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkim later rela8ed these meas)res and permitted ch)rches to !e re!)ilt and the *oly /ep)lcher to !e reconstr)cted. (hese meas)res have to !e seen a"ainst a !ack"ro)nd of the other meas)res he took to%ard shapin" the p)!lic morality: honey and raisins %ere prohi!ited for they co)ld !e )sed to make %ine and !eer. *e prohi!ited eatin" l)pine, %atercress, and mul(@hi##a Ba so)p made from po)nded "reensC as %ell as fish %itho)t scales. =)sic %as o)tla%ed. Do one BmaleC co)ld appear in a p)!lic !ath %itho)t a loin clothM chess %as prohi!ited. 1omen %ere for!idden to "o to cemeteries and to p)!lic !aths and to display Ae%elry in p)!lic. =ost of these meas)re are detailed in al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:T8'?88M I!n al. =)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. T, 1@&?T$9 B3n"lishCM 11T?#@ BAra!icC.

(hese r)les %ere not al%ays enforced, !)t al.*OGkim %o)ld ride o)t on a donkey !oth daily and at ni"ht, often %ith a small retin)e to escape reco"nition, so that he co)ld o!serve daily life. =. A. /ha!an, 2slamic 3istor#: , Bew 2nter&retation ,. .. :F7867FF P,. 3. 6908QQRM, T vols. BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 19@'C, T:T$'?11, s)""ested that these meas)res sho% his ac)te sense of ho% to sta!ili4e a "ro%in" a"ric)lt)ral.economic pro!lem res)ltin" from the ne"lect of the irri"ation system and the shrinka"e of ara!le land. 1hat these meas)res sho% is an attention to p)!lic !ehavior and a hi"hly t)ned normative intent. In this conte8t, the %arnin"s to =)slims in the p)!lic te8t on the !astions seem <)ite appropriate. 1$1. 4,% 1:8@ reco)nts the story of askin" /am)el 5l)ry to identify, !y the style of the inscription, the "ro)p responsi!le for displayin" the inscription !eca)se it did not contain a name or date. 5l)ry decided that the %ritin" !elon"ed to Badr al.HamGlI, altho)"h some stylistic differences e8isted !et%een the presentational mode of this inscription and all others sponsored !y him. 1hat convinced Cres%ell of the date of the inscription-the time of al.*OGkimSs addin" the !astions to the minarets%as the !ondin" and fit of the mar!le into the stone%ork masonry of the !astion itself. 1$T. It seems that the @iswa DGsOir.i 2h)sra% sa% in =ecca that had !een sent !y ImGm al.=)stansOir may have displayed a p)!lic te8t. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% descri!es the @iswa as havin" three arches on each side and !ands. Sa!ar-n ma, 1##. 1$#. I!id., @@?@9. 1$&. /anders, Fatimid airo, esp. chaps. #?F. 1$F. /ee chap. &. 1$'. =ary Jo)"las and Baron Isher%ood, The World o! $oods BDe% Kork: Basic Books, 19@'C, '&?'F. 1$@. 5or an interestin" insi"ht into these perspectives, Janiel Jayan and 3lih) 2at4, 63lectronic Ceremonies: (elevision Performs a 9oyal 1eddin",7 in <n Signs, ed. =arshall Blonsky BBaltimore: (he Hohns *opkins University Press, 198FC, 1'?#T. 1$8. 38actly %hat b('alam(n %as in terms of a cloth is not kno%n. B)t some of the properties are kno%n from a later description !y DGsOir.i 2h)sra% BSa!ar-nma, '&C. *e states that in 6+ld Cairo they make all types of pottery-they make c)ps, !o%ls and platesWand paint them to resem!le the b('alam(n so that different colors sho% dependin" on ho% the article %as held7 BSa!ar-nma, 9#C. Apparently, then, b('alam(n %as a fa!ric that appears to !e a different color %hen the li"ht strikes it differently. 3d%ard =eader s)""ested to me that b('alam(n mi"ht have !een %hat is kno%n today as 6shot.silk7 and %hat in Italy in the eleventh cent)ry and later %as kno%n as 6/aracen silk.7 /ee his 6Cost)mes 1orn !y Christians in =ichelan"eloSs /istine Chapel,7 Il Conve"no Interna4ionale di /t)di =ichaelan"elo, 0a Cappella /istina, =arch 199$ Bforthcomin"C. 1$9. 2h)sra%, Sa!ar-nma, 8T. 11$. I!id., 8T?8@. 111. I!id., ''. 11T. I!id., @9. "u'/ dohol, and @aseh are the instr)ments mentioned. 11#. /ee especially 2h)sra%, =h)n al-2@h)n, 1@8, 18T ff.

<. T!e Fatimi( P*,&i' Te-t in a C!anging P"&iti'a& C&imate

Fr"m t!e R*&e "# Wazr Ba(r a&03am4&5 t" t!e En( "# Fatimi( R*&e 619:+811:1;<==8 7=:>
It is not diffic)lt to reco"ni4e that ne% and different messa"es dominated the p)!lic te8t d)rin" the last one h)ndred years of the 5atimid re"ime and, perhaps more important, that ne% formats !ecame vis)ally prominent !oth in p)!lic and in =)slim sectarian spaces. (hese chan"es appear directly related to a "ro%in" militari4ation %ithin the r)lin" "ro)p as wazrs and the troops that s)pported them "ained po%er and a)thority. As these "ro)ps "ained in po%er, they eroded the a)thority of the 5atimid r)ler as Caliph. (his shift %as reco"ni4ed !y all mem!ers of the pop)lation. (he pa"es of I!n al.=)<affaESs 3istor# o! the Patriarchs provides ample evidence of this a%areness.P1Q 5or the first one h)ndred years of 5atimid r)le, events relatin" to the Christian comm)nity are told in relation to the actions of the ImGm.Caliphs, as s)""ested !y the anecdote related in chapter # concernin" the actions of ImGm.Caliph al.=)Ei44 and the pop)lation of =isOr. +ver the co)rse of the last one h)ndred years, almost %itho)t e8ception, the pa"es tell a!o)t the manner in %hich wazrs and those troops %ho !acked them shaped the lives of the pop)lation. (heir rise and fall, and the troops %ho s)pported them, are intimately !o)nd )p %ith life in the Cairo )r!an area. Concomitantly, the a)thority of the 5atimid r)ler as ImGm %as red)ced in scope. (%o maAor s)ccession disp)tes d)rin" this period red)ced the n)m!er of IsmGEIlIs in the Cairo )r!an area %ho reco"ni4ed the 5atimid r)ler as ImGm. (his red)ced n)m!er of IsmGEIlI Believers %as not translated directly and consistently into a red)ced display of si"ns of IsmaEilism, or of processions in %hich cloth displayed IsmGEIlI phrases. In some decades, %hat appears to !e a !old )se of these si"ns served, as the vis)al often does, to mask the %eakness of the position of the ImGm.Caliph in favor of s)pportin" the social order as a %hole, %hich in t)rn s)stained the ne%ly stren"thened position of the wazr. (hose p)!lic te8ts %hich displayed the rank and title of the wazr indicated stren"th %here the real stren"th e8isted. \ \ \

Cair"01isAr an( Wazr Ba(r a&03am4&5

De% %ritin" si"ns !e"an to !e displayed in Cairo.=isOr in a physical and social environment %hich had chan"ed si"nificantly from the time, a mere t%o decades !efore, %hen DGsOir.i 2h)sra% descri!ed the ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOirSs procession. (his chan"e in the former )r!an str)ct)re %as accelerated in the mid.eleventh cent)ry !y maAor socio.economic crises:PTQ riotsM administrative chaos !et%een ()rkish and Black army re"imentsM attacks !y Ber!ers in the JeltaM relentless famine ca)sed !y s)ccessive years of lo% DileM epidemics and inflationM and /elA)k invasions in /yria and Palestine. (hese crises led ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir to s)mmon Badr al.HamGlI, his commander of the army B,mr al-C(#ushC, from /yria in 1$@# &'F to !e wazr and to restore social order.P#Q Badr al.HamGlISs meas)res to restore order in the capital area altered the composition and distri!)tion of the )r!an pop)lation, partic)larly in Cairo. In the ne% )r!an social order his meas)res shaped, Badr al. HamGlI )sed officially sponsored %ritin" actively to address ne% a)diences %ith ne% messa"es. (he clashes !et%een contin"ents of the 5atimid army and the actions Badr al.HamGlI )ndertook to c)r! the effects of the famine and pla")e all effectively !l)rred the distinctions !et%een the northern and so)thern 4ones in Cairo.=isOr.P&Q Badr al.HamGlI allo%ed the Armenian Christian troops %ho came %ith him from /yria to esta!lish themselves in a <)arter %ithin Cairo.PFQ Beca)se the pla")e had

s)!stantially red)ced the entire pop)lation, 5)stOGtO and al.RatOGSiE, !ein" partic)larly devastated, Badr al.HamGlI permitted those livin" in these areas to take !)ildin" materials from those so)thern 4ones to !)ild in Cairo proper.P'Q By these acts he opened Cairo to the %hole society, even as he e8panded and fortified its %alls and "ates to keep the common enemy o)t Bmap #C.P@Q In time, nota!les from the Christian and He%ish pop)lations also moved into Cairo. +ther wazrs follo%ed and a)"mented this co)rse, especially his son al.AfdOal, and the wazr al.=aSmLn. 1hen conditions permitted, wazrs also moved so)th to =isOr, f)rther !lendin" the pop)lations in the %hole )r!an area.P8Q As a res)lt of these actions, Cairo no lon"er %as simply an IsmGEIlI royal enclos)re. 1hile most areas of Cairo !ecame mi8ed in pop)lation, and ordinary traffic on the ,reat /treet increased, t%o areas %ere vested %ith special character. (he northern half of Cairo retained its 5atimid IsmGEIlI f)nctions. (he r)ler still appeared in the ba#n al-'as+ra#n, the area !et%een the t%o palaces, !efore processions.P9Q (he mos<)e of al.*OGkim %as still visited on occasions that %ere part of the IsmGEIlI and =)slim calendars, and the mus+alla o)tside the BG! al.DasOr still remained a destination for the ImGm.Caliph, even to the last days of the dynasty. (he ,reat /treet, the common central north. so)th a8is, %as e8tended and "iven prominence, openin" the )r!an 4ones into each other Bmap &C. In this chan"ed )r!an conte8t, it !ecame the main thoro)"hfare alon" %hich merchants, as %ell as civilians, di"nitaries, mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p, and official processions travelled.P1$Q

=ap #. Cairo, later 5atimid period 1$@#?11@1 Bdra%n !y Carel BertramC =ap &. 0ater Cairo and the ro)te from BG! N)%ayla to the tom! of ImGm al./hGfiEi Bdra%n !y Carel BertramC 0ater constr)ctions on this street emphasi4ed f)rther its "ro%in" prominence as a thoro)"hfare linkin" !oth the northern and so)thern sections of the )r!an area, Cairo and =isOr. It served as the spine alon" %hich important =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res %ere !)ilt or restored Bmap &C.P11Q In Cairo, facin" the ,reat /treet, A)st north of the 3astern Palace, the mos<)e kno%n as al.A<mar BmoonlitC, %as !)ilt in 11TF F19 !y the wazr al.=aSmLn.P1TQ +)tside the so)thern "ate, the BG! N)%ayla, a mos<)e %as !)ilt in 11'$ FFF that %as kno%n after its patron al.=Glik al./OGlihO (OalGSiE.P1#Q 5)rther so)th, still, on this road, in the area of the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn, tom!s s)ch as those of /ayyida 9)<ayya and /ayyida DafIsa %ere restored and enlar"ed !y Badr al.HamGlIP1&Q and s)!se<)ent mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p Bmap &C. (hese physical and social chan"es !e")n !y Badr al.HamGlI %ere not the only chan"es effected !y him. 1ithin the r)lin" "ro)p itself, he drastically altered the site of po%er, appropriatin" it to himself, %hile maintainin" the formal order of the r)lin" system and th)s al.=)stansOir as ImGm.Caliph.P1FQ *e acted, especially o)tside of Cairo, to maintain the officially sponsored %ritin" si"ns that %o)ld si"nal a stron" 5atimid r)ler. 5or e8ample, t%o years after !ecomin" wazr B1$@F &'@C, he e8erted stron" press)re, in the form of %ritten messa"es and lavish presents, on the sher! of =ecca to pers)ade him to display %ritin" si"ns %ith the name of al.=)stansOir on the *oly /ites in =ecca. (he sher! complied, erasin" the titles of the A!!asid Caliph al.RGSim and the /elA)k /)ltan at the Nem4em, and removin" the coverin" for the 2aE!a sent !y the A!!asid Caliph, replacin" it %ith the %hite dbi' BlinenC @iswa Bcoverin"C %hich displayed the names and titles of ImGm.Caliph al.=)stansOir.P1'Q In 3"ypt, in the "reater )r!an area of Cairo, ho%ever, Badr al.HamGlI )sed officially sponsored %ritin" to proclaim the ne% po%er str)ct)re, %ith himself, the wazr, as the possessor of po%er and a)thority %ithin the social order. *e did this !y displayin" his name and titles to the ne%ly inte"rated )r!an

a)diences on the !)ildin"s he commissioned and reconstr)cted, a co)rse of action paralleled !y the chan"e in form)la in official petitions emphasi4in" his role.P1@Q /ince he )ndertook a lar"e pro"ram to restore the )r!an.infrastr)ct)re as a %hole, as %ell as =)slim sectarian life, in specific, his name and titles appeared in many placesM t%enty.one have !een identified to date.P18Q (hose %ho passed sa% his name and titles displayed on a pla<)e on the zi#da Bs)rro)ndin" %allC of the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn %hich he restored in 1$@@ &@$.P19Q In addition to displayin" his o%n name, he )sed this p)!lic te8t to comment on precedin" events at the site, and, in only a li"htly veiled manner, on the t)r!)lence %ithin the r)lin" "ro)p %hich ca)sed his o%n rise to po%er. After his name and titles is the phrase, 6*e ca)sed the restoration of this portal and %hat s)rro)nds it Pto take placeQ after the fire %hich destroyed it that the heretics let happen.7 PT$Q 1iet has pla)si!ly s)""ested that the heretics Bmri'C referred to %ere the /)nni ()rkish troops %ho attacked the Black troops in 1$'T &F& and pilla"ed the treas)res and the li!rary, %ith the res)lt that the area aro)nd the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn fell into r)in )ntil Badr !e"an to revive it %ith his restoration of the mos<)e.PT1Q A decade later, those passin" into Cairo sa% his name and titles displayed prominently in the %ritin"s on the ne% "ate%ays he constr)cted as part of his effort to fortify the city of Cairo a"ainst its enemies B1$8@ &&$C.PTTQ At the BG! al.5)tLhO, if Cres%ell is correct, he )sed the mar!le sla!s from the northern !astion of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim to complete his inscription, there!y replacin" %hat is pres)med to have !een a R)rSGnic inscription %ith one displayin" names and titles and ranks of the wazr. /hortly after, in 1$89 &8T, he restored the ma)sole)m of /ayyida DafIsa on the ,reat /treet on %hich he also displayed his name and titles.PT#Q 1ith the completion of the fortification of Cairo, Badr al.HamGlI t)rned his attention to 9oda Island. (here he constr)cted a ne% mos<)e, on the e8terior of %hich he prominently displayed his name. +n this mos<)e, a lar"e pla<)e on the %estern facade %hich faced directly onto the main !oat channel of the Dile displayed BadrSs name and titles in letters over t%o feet tall.PT&Q Aimed at the commercial !oat traffic, it reminded vie%ers of his attention to the economic life of the area, and to his concern for the in)ndation of the Dile that s)pported it. An inscription %ith a similar messa"e %as placed over the entrance door%ay, so that those on foot visitin" the island and the mos<)e also vie%ed his name.PTFQ *e also restored the adAacent Dilometer Bmi'#s al-nlC and placed his name and titles inside it. 1hat predominates in all these inscriptions is the rank and titles of Badr al.HamGlI, altho)"h the ImGm. CaliphSs name is mentioned also. It is )sef)l to e8plore these inscriptions in detail !eca)se they f)nctioned as an -r, or ori"inary, te8t for s)!se<)ent po%erf)l military leaders in Cairo-even those r)lin" after the 5atimid period. H. H. =arcel, in recordin" these str)ct)res on 9oda Island for incl)sion in the .escri&tion de l>%g#&te, has left the only vis)al record of them.PT'Q *e %as primarily interested in the semantic content of the inscriptions for their val)e in datin" the !)ildin"s. Conse<)ently he simply recorded the content of the lar"e inscription on the %est %all of the mos<)e, and that over its portal, merely as variants of the inscription on the interior of the Dilometer Bmi'#s al-nlC.PT@Q Choosin" to dra% only the smallest and most compact of the inscriptions, that on the interior of the Dilometer Bfi". #&C, he merely "ave a fe% details a!o)t the aesthetic aspects of the other inscriptions, especially that on the e8terior of the mos<)e.

5i". #&. Inscription from Dilometer of Badr al.HamGlI, after =arcel, .ecri&tion de l>%g#&te *e noted that all these inscriptions %ere carved in %hite mar!le, a medi)m that seems to !ind to"ether all Badr al.HamGlISs e8tant p)!lic te8ts. *e noted also that the form of the letters in the %ritin" on the o)tside, %estern %all of the mos<)e %ere especially remarka!le for their ele"ance, far "reater than that of the other t%o inscriptions, especially that on the Dilometer, the only inscription he dre%.PT8Q

=arcelSs comments leave )s %ith some evidence to concl)de that Badr al.HamGlI paid partic)lar attention to p)!lic te8ts. =ost attention %as paid to the aesthetic <)alities of the %ritin" facin" the traffic on the Dile, %hile less attention %as paid to inscriptions on the interior of the Dilometer, or over the door%ay into the mos<)e. B)t %hile Badr apparently made a)dience considerations the !asis for aesthetic choices in the display of %ritin", the referential content remained !asically the same. It is %ell %orth e8aminin" the inscription on the Dilometer in detail for its referential dimensions. (he amo)nt of space allocated to the component sections of the inscription remained sta!le in all his officially sponsored %ritin", even tho)"h they %ere not displayed in this manner-a pla<)e of thirteen lines. (he inscription !e"ins in standard fashion %ith the form)la, 6In the Dame of ,od, (he =ercif)l, (he Compassionate 7BbasmalaC,PT9Q follo%ed !y verses from the R)rSGn %hich fill the first fo)r of the thirteen lines.P#$Q (he nine remainin" lines "ive first the name of the ImGm al.=)stansOir, and then list in detail the names and titles of the Badr al.HamGlI, the person %ith the real po%er, alon" %ith the date of constr)ction. Badr al.HamGlI is 6the Prince =ost Ill)strio)s, the Commander of the Armies, /%ord of Islam, /)rety of the H)d"es of the =)slims, ,)ide of the =issionaries of the Believers.7 5)rther alon", the inscription mentions his s)ccesses in the ca)se of reli"ion, and %ishes him a lon" life in the service of the Commander of the 5aithf)l B,mr al-4u>minnC, that is, the ImGm.al.=)stansOir, %hose po%er, accordin" to the %ritin", Badr al.HamGlI affirms. (his vis)al display, and the others like it, of Badr al.HamGlISs name and titles in Cairo.=isOr needs to !e eval)ated a"ainst the !ackdrop of the red)ced visi!ility of the name of the ImGm.Caliph and also of his person. 1hile mentioned in all of Badr al.HamGlISs inscriptions, the names and titles of the ImGm. Caliph are so a!!reviated that they !ecame almost a secondary datin" device in addition to that "iven in the hegira calendar. Unlike in =ecca, %here Badr al.HamGlI %orked !ehind the scenes to s)pport the display of the names and titles of only the ImGm.Caliph, in Cairo not only did Badr minimi4e the display of the ImGmSs name !)t he stopped the processions. *e stopped those like DGsOir.i 2h)sra% descri!ed d)rin" %hich the r)ler made himself visi!le to the %hole pop)lation.P#1Q *e also ended those in %hich the ImGm led the IsmGEIlI comm)nity in prayer at the mus+alla.P#TQ (he s)cceedin" wazr, al. AfdOal, BadrSs son, contin)ed these policies. 1ith the red)ced visi!ility of the person and the names of the ImGm, the p)!lic te8t !ecame an especially effective vis)al instr)ment for the wazr, and !y e8tension the troops that maintained him in office, to display his po%er. \ \ \

T!e P*,&i' Te-t an( Wazr a&01aCmDn

Al.=aSmLnP##Q %as wazr for some fo)r years, 11T1?11TF F1F?F19,P#&Q d)rin" the rei"n of ImGm. Caliph al.XmIr Br. 11$1?#$ &9F?FT&C.P#FQ An IsmGEIlI,P#'Q he, like Badr al.HamGlI, had !een a maml)k, and %as an important AmIr in the army %hen he %as appointed wazr. 0ike Badr al.HamGlI !efore him, he !)ilt and restored many str)ct)res on %hich he displayed his name. In 11TT F1' he ordered the constr)ction of the mos<)e of 2GfLrI in the 2GfLr Park %est of the mos<)e of al.A<mar.P#@Q In that same year, he repaired seven ma)solea alon" the ,reat /treet, and ordered mar!le pla<)es p)t on the o)tside of each, displayin" his name, titles, and the date.P#8Q Done of these e8amples of his officially sponsored %ritin"s s)rvives. *o%ever, the mos<)e he !)ilt on the ,reat /treet, A)st north of the ImGm. CaliphSs palace, kno%n as al.A<mar, displayed p)!lic te8ts in a layo)t that %as !rilliant for its s)!tle references to its contemporary vis)al conte8ts, and to al.=aSmLnSs o%n manner of f)nctionin" as a po%erf)l wazr in a "overnmental str)ct)re headed !y an ImGm %hose position %as hi"hly contested Bfi". #FC.P#9Q (hese p)!lic te8ts com!ined wazr al.=aSmLnSs rank and title information, in the tradition of Badr al.HamGlI, %ith a vis)ally prominent display of the si"n of IsmaEilism, and %ith R)rSGnic <)otations.

5i". #F. 5acade, al.A<mar mos<)e (he facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e is divided into three parts, a salient entrance portal %ith a lar"e arch, and t%o recessed side sections %ith smaller arches.P&$Q (his "eneral layo)t is so remarka!ly like al.=)stansOirSs @iswa for the 2aE!a descri!ed !y DGsOir.i 2h)sra% that it is almost as if that coverin" %ere placed over the facade as a !ase. DGsOir.i 2h)sra% descri!ed the coverin" in the follo%in" manner: (he coverin" %ith %hich the ho)se P2aE!aQ %as cloaked %as a %hite coverin" %hich displayed t%o !ands of em!roidered ornaments, each a gaz %ide. (he distance !et%een the t%o !ands %as a!o)t ten gaz.W+n the fo)r sides of the coverin", colored mihra! %ere %oven and em!roidered and em!ellished %ith "old fili"ree. +n each %all there %ere three mihra!, a !i" one in the middle and t%o small ones on either side.P&1Q DGsOir.i 2h)sra% is descri!in" a @iswa he sa% in 1$F$, some seventy years !efore al.=aSmLn !)ilt the al.A<mar mos<)e, !)t the three arch Bor mihra!C elements of its desi"n %ere even at that time present in stone and st)cco on the ,reat /treet.P&TQ (he !asic display of a central lar"e arch and t%o smaller side arches %as already present on the mon)mental entrance of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim Bfi". T9C,P&#Q and in %hat is e8tant today of the 5atimid sections of al.A4har, at the entrance to the prayer hall. It mi"ht also have !een present in the 6 mus+alla %ith three mihra!s7 that wazr al.AfdOal !)ilt for the f)neral service for those in 5)stOGtO.P&&Q +!vio)sly on each the spacin" and placement differs. *o% they compared to the arches on the @iswa DGsOir.i 2h)sra% sa% is, of co)rse, left to o)r ima"inations. 1hat the facade of al.A<mar and the desi"n on the @iswa share that the other arches apparently do not, is the !ands that c)t across them. +n the @iswa %e ass)me they displayed the names and titles of the ImGm. Caliph. +n the al.A<mar mos<)e they display the names and titles of the wazr, al.=aSmLn. Prominently-not once, !)t t%ice-across the entire facade, the t%o !ands of %ritin" display the name and all the titles of wazr al.=aSmLn, the date, and the name of the ImGm.Caliph al.Xmir.P&FQ (his is the referential !ase of the %ide !and of %ritin" r)nnin" alon" the entire facade )nder the cornice. (he same information, in virt)ally the same %ords, !)t in smaller letters, r)ns the %idth of the facade at mid.point. (his referential !ase is e<)ivalent to that of the p)!lic te8ts of Badr al.HamGlI, even to the )se of the ImGmSs name as a datin" device. Do vie%er co)ld have escaped kno%in" that A!L EA!d Allah, 6Commander of the Armies, /%ord of Islam, *elper of the ImGm, /)rety of the H)d"es of the =)slims, and ,)ide of the =issionaries of the Believers,7 sponsored this str)ct)re in F19 B11TFC in the rei"n of Caliph al.Xmir. (his is the %ritin" si"n most vis)ally accessi!le to the vie%er in the ,reat /treet. (he !and format hei"htens its le"i!ility a"ainst its !ack"ro)nd. (he letter si4e in the top !and Bc. 18 in. hi"hC ens)red reada!ility.P&'Q In the second !and the letters are smaller, !)t they are half the distance from the "ro)nd.P&@Q Additional aesthetic properties aid the le"i!ility of the rank and title information of these !ands. (he clearest and most ele"ant letterin", the one that is easiest to read, is in the top !and. 1hile the ela!oration of the !asic 2)fic style letterin" of each !and on this facade differs from the other, the top !and is f)rther distin")ished !y a !ase line for the hori4ontal letters si"nificantly a!ove the !ottom of the mo)ldin" of the !and. In practical terms, letters like r and dl are th)s differentiated !y allo%in" the former to descend sli"htly !elo% the line of the latter. In short, more !asic letter forms are distin")isha!le from each other in this style of 2)fic %ritin" than in the other versions of that script on the facade. As mentioned a!ove, in the 2)fic style script, differentiation of letters aided in le"i!ility. P&8Q 1hile these !ands displayin" the rank and title information of the wazr are hi"hly le"i!le %ritin" si"ns on this facade, the concentric circle medallion over the entrance portal is also immediately reco"ni4a!le

!y IsmGEIlIs as the si"n of IsmaEilism Bfi". #'C. Its si4e, aro)nd & b feet B1.&# m.C in diameter, ens)res its vis)al prominence to all !eholders. A smaller concentric circle medallion is displayed over the flat arch on the left %in" Bfi". #@C.P&9Q In form, the concentric circle medallion over the entrance portal replicates the si"n of IsmaEilism as %e have come to e8pect it in terms of the placement of %ritin" in its concentric circles. (he o)ter circle displays a <)otation from the R)rSGn, part of verse ##:##: 6,od only desires to take a%ay )ncleanness from yo), +h people of the ho)se Bahl al-ba#tC.7 In the center are the names 6=)hOammad7 and 6EAlI.7 /ome important differences e8ist, ho%ever, in the evocational !ase of the %ritin", %hich %ill !e disc)ssed !elo%.

5i". #'. Central concentric circle medallion, al.A<mar mos<)e 5i". #@. /mall concentric circle medallion, al.A<mar mos<)e Under this concentric circle medallion is the only other s)!stantial R)rSGnic <)otation on the !)ildin" facade. +ver the salient door%ay is a !and stretchin" only the len"th of the door%ay itself displayin" t%o verses from the R)rSGn, T&:#'?#@. (hese t%o verses are appropriate to a mos<)e and to the o!li"ations of =)slims: It is in the ho)ses %hich ,od has permitted to !e e8alted in *is name to !e remem!ered therein. (herein do "lorify *im, in the mornin"s and in the evenin"s. =en %hom neither merchandise nor sellin" diverts from the remem!rance of ,od and maintainin" the s+alt and payin" the za@t, they fear a day in %hich the hearts and the eyes %ill t)rn aro)nd. (he %ritin" si"ns on this facade at first "lance mi"ht appear to !e a hi"hly am!i")o)s A)8taposition of referential dimensions aimed at )nclearly defined a)diences. Ket these p)!lic te8ts and their layo)t %ere ast)tely chosen for the intricately %oven conte8ts in %hich they %ere em!edded. Consider first the location of this mos<)e. 0ocated on the ,reat /treet, the facade %as ali"ned to the street, %hich made it partic)larly hi"hly visi!le to the m)lti.ethnic, m)lti.reli"io)s pedestrian traffic that passed. (he hi"hly le"i!le !ands displayin" the names and titles of the wazr %ere addressed to this !roadly !ased p)!lic a)dience.PF$Q (he titles a%arded to wazrs %ere !oth kno%n, disc)ssed, and eval)ated !y mem!ers of the Christian pop)lation of Cairo.=isOr, and they concerned the =)slim pop)lation and mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p. (hese %ritin" si"ns %ere addressed to a =)slim a)dience, especially a 5atimid IsmGEIlI one, %hen the space in front of the al.A<mar mos<)e %as )sed as a stoppin" place for processions and for vie%in" the ImGm.Caliph on ceremonial occasions. (hese occasions %ere many at this time, more than a do4en thro)"ho)t the year.PF1Q (he al.A<mar mos<)e, wazr al.=aSmLnSs ne% constr)ction, s)pplanted the str)ct)res of 6fora"e merchants and the manzara,7 PFTQ or !elvedere, %here in earlier times the ImGm. Caliph had sho%n himself to those assem!led. In wazr al.=aSmLnSs time, the space in front of the mos<)e, as a contin)ation from the 3astern Palace, !ecame hi"hly char"ed in these formal moments %hen the ImGm al.Xmir appeared, and in %hich wazr al.=aSmLn %as also hi"hly visi!le. *ere the processions stopped, so that al.=aSmLn co)ld escort the ImGm.Caliph into his palace at the end of the procession. It %as a stoppin" place %here the wazr sal)ted the ImGm, and %as in t)rn ackno%led"ed. +n the anniversary festivals for the Prophet, EAlI, and the ImGm, R)rSGn reciters lined )p in front of the nei"h!orin" palace and listened to the preacher of the al.A<mar mos<)e deliver a sermon and prayers for the ImGm. (he preachers of the al.*OGkim and al.A4har mos<)es follo%ed after.PF#Q +n these occasions %ithin the IsmGEIlI calendar, it is hard to do)!t that the 5atimid IsmGEIlI a)dience perceived

the si"n of IsmaEilism in the concentric circle medallion and all %o)ld notice the names and title of the wazr %ho s)pported the constr)ction. In restorin" and reinventin" s)ch ceremonies, wazr al.=aSmLn adopted a mode for operatin" %ithin the r)lin" str)ct)re different from that of Badr al.HamGlI.PF&Q (he times demanded s)ch a chan"e, and the specific selection of R)rSGnic verses on the facade s)""ests al.=aSmLnSs sensitivity in dealin" %ith a doctrinal iss)e that came to !e important in e8pressin" the difference !et%een the 5atimid and Di4GrI IsmGEIlIs. 1e can pro!e f)rther into the revolt that threatened the le"itimacy, and th)s the a)thority and sta!ility of 5atimid r)le at this time, !y lookin" !riefly at the disp)te over the s)ccession to the ImGmate after the death of ImGm al.=)stansOir in 1$9& &8@. (he wazr then r)lin", al.AfdOal, Badr al.HamGlISs son, arran"ed to have Di4ar, the son of ImGm al.=)stansOir, e8cl)ded from s)ccession to the ImGmate. Di4ar had !een desi"nated !y his father as havin" Jivine 0i"ht, and th)s the heir to s)cceed him. In his stead, wazr al.AfdOal %as a!le to have a yo)n"er son, AhOmad, s)cceed to the ImGmate %ith the r)lin" title al. =)staEli Br. 1$9&?11$1 &8@?9FC. /)ch a s%itch in the s)ccession ca)sed a maAor split in the IsmGEIlI "ro)p, !eca)se s)ccession and the passin" on of the n(r Bli"htC of the ImGm %ere f)ndamental in esta!lishin" the a)thority of the ImGm in the eyes of the Believers. In 5atimid 3"ypt, the al.=)staEli line Bor %hat this st)dy calls the 5atimid IsmGEIlIsC contin)ed, !)t else%here, especially in /elA)k territories B/yria and Ira<C, IsmGEIlIs reco"ni4ed Di4ar as the ImGm.PFFQ In 11$1, al.Xmir, at a"e five, s)cceeded his father al.=)staEli as 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGm. *e %as helped in this s)ccession !y wazr al.AfdOal, %ho, )nder the circ)mstances of the ImGmSs yo)n" a"e, r)led the 5atimid empire. 1hen al.=aSmLn !ecame wazr, after al.AfdOal %as assassinated in 11T1, Di4GrI activity increased in 3"ypt. Wazr al.=aSmLnSs actions of s)pportin" p)!lic appearances of ImGm al. Xmir made strate"ic sense !oth %ithin the conte8t of the Di4GrI.5atimid IsmGEIlI disp)te, and in terms of rallyin" the "eneral pop)lation and the r)lin" "ro)p !ehind the ImGm.Caliph, even as the n)m!er of 5atimid IsmGEIlI Believers in 3"ypt %as diminishin". (he s)!tlety of al.=aSmLnSs choice of R)rSGnic verses across the door%ay of the al.A<mar mos<)e indicates his sensitivity to e8cl)din" a verse that in fact at that time mi"ht have addressed doctrinal disp)tes amon" IsmGEIlIs. (he verses on the door%ay-R)rSGn T&:#'?#@ <)oted a!ove-are certainly appropriate for a mos<)e, !)t they are not the only verses in the R)rSGn that mention s)ch o!li"ations, nor %ere they the only ones <)oted on 5atimid !)ildin"s. B)t on the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e, these verses are taken from the s(rat al-B(r Bchap. T&, s(ra of 0i"htC %hich %hen displayed on 5atimid !)ildin"s )s)ally incl)ded the immediately precedin" verse B#FC %here ,odSs li"ht is likened to a lamp in a "lass placed in a niche. (his verse is on the al.*OGkim mos<)e Bsee chapter #C, %here ,odSs li"ht relates in the dimension of ta>wl to the ImGm himself. As IsmGEIlIs, !oth the Di4GrIs and the 5atimid IsmGEIlIs shared a similar ta>wl of verse #F, reco"ni4in" the ImGm as an emanation of the Jivine 0i"ht %hich passed from one ImGm to another, linkin" them to"ether. B)t an e8panded Di4GrI e8e"esis of this verse )nderscored a f)ndamental doctrinal difference. (he n(r "ave the ImGm even "reater spirit)al po%er, manifestin" the hi"hest reality, a concept central to the doctrinal differences !et%een these t%o "ro)ps of IsmGEIlIs.PF'Q ,iven s)ch doctrinal differences, and their immediacy for the IsmGEIlIs of the capital, it seems to me hi"hly possi!le that verse #F, appropriate for p)!lic display on the o)tside of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim in 1$$T #9# %hen Cairo and the northern 4one %as an IsmGEIlI area, and the "ro)p of Believers %as !oth lar"er and )nited !ehind the reco"nition of one ImGm, %as no lon"er appropriate in 11TF F19.PF@Q At this later date, the pop)lation of Cairo and the r)lin" "ro)p %ere so diverse in composition, and the recent schism had e8acer!ated this diversity, that the presence of this verse mi"ht have led some IsmGEIlI vie%ers to inopport)ne )nderstandin"s and associations non.s)pportive of the 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGm. (he concerns for sta!ility %ere real, for %ithin five years after this mos<)e %as completed, the

ImGm himself %as assassinated, pro!a!ly !y Di4GrI emissaries.PF8Q ,iven the conte8t, I %o)ld ar")e that wazr al.=aSmLn %o)ld not choose to p)t a verse so reli"io)sly and politically char"ed on display. +f co)rse, that the verses that %ere displayed %ere chosen from the R)rSGnic chapter on 0i"ht Bsurat al-nurC indicates a %ell.chosen all)sion on al.=aSmLnSs part to the schism and the doctrinal disp)te. It may even !e that his all)sion to li"ht and the ImGm %as more clever than simply the act of e8cl)din" a verse. (he lar"e si"n of IsmaEilism over the entrance portal %as aesthetically different from any other e8tant si"n of IsmaEilism in one si"nificant str)ct)ral respect. (he names in the center, as %ell as the rin" separatin" the center circle from the circle displayin" the R)rSGnic verse, are pierced. /)nli"ht passes over them into the vesti!)le of the mos<)e. (he res)lts are that the s)nli"ht daily 6%rites7 the names 6EAlI7 and 6=)hOammad7 in shado% %ithin a circle in the mos<)eSs vesti!)le. (hat this si"n of IsmaEilism %as conscio)sly desi"ned so that li"ht passed over the names and ca)sed them to appear in shado% as all)sion to the ImGm, emanation of Jivine 0i"ht, is s)pported !y the fact that a li"ht screen is )nnecessary in so small a mos<)e %here the vesti!)le is %ell.li"hted from the co)rtyard. 1hile this concentric circle medallion may have looked in all its formal aspects like a si"n of IsmaEilism, it is critical to )nderstand that an important chan"e had occ)rred in one of the f)nctions of the %ritin" it displayed Bfi". #'C. 5rom the time ImGm al.=)Ei44 p)t the si"n of IsmaEilism on coins, to its appearance on the facade of al.=aSmLnSs mos<)e, the evocational field of the R)rSGnic <)otation in the o)ter circle had !een !i.valent. (he t%o evocational fields %ere the R)rSGn and IsmGEIlI ta>wl. 1hile, of co)rse, the %hole R)rSGn is important to all =)slims, only some verses are directly related to IsmGEIlI interpretation. (he verse displayed in the o)ter rin" of this si"n of IsmaEilism, R)rSGn ##:##, is not a te8t in ta>wl. Its specific verse and the %ords ahl al-ba#t Bpeople of the ho)sehold of the Prophet =)hOammadC are )nderstood and honored !y all =)slims. As I have ar")ed else%here,PF9Q to /)nnis the ahl al-ba#t are all of the pro"eny of the Prophet =)hOammad !y all of his %ives, th)s all fo)r of his da)"hters. In contrast, to all /hIEI "ro)ps, the concept is more foc)sed, referrin" only to the descendants of the ProphetSs da)"hter 5GtOima, her h)s!and EAlI, and their t%o sons, *Oassan and *O)sayn. (his chan"e in the evocational !ase of the te8t in the o)ter rin" of the concentric circle medallion %as made diffic)lt for any literate vie%er to discover. 5i8ed in place over the portal, %hat the pedestrian can readily read in the o)ter rin" is basmala, %hich !e"ins at the # oSclock position and r)ns co)nterclock%ise. (he R)rSGnic verse, startin" in the 11 oSclock position, is mostly )pside do%n to the pedestrian. (he "estalt of this si"n of IsmaEilism, its formal or aesthetic <)alities, and not the evocational !ase of its %ritin" is %hat conveys meanin" to those %ho reco"ni4e it. (o all others, as ar")ed a!ove, the concentric circle medallion is one format for %ritin" si"ns )sed !y the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p. \ \ \

T!e Te-t an( Wazrs Ba!r4m a&0Arman5 an( Ri(AE4n i,n a&0Wa&aBs!5
It is %orth reco)ntin" in !rief the strate"y that defeated wazr BahrGm al.ArmanI BBahrGm, the ArmenianC !eca)se it not only tells of the nat)re of the po%er str)""les in the r)lin" esta!lishment, it also reinforces one of the rec)rrin" themes of this st)dy.P'$Q (hat is, it sho%s that the R)rSGn %as the only em!lem that co)ld predicta!ly !rin" all =)slims to"ether, in this case opposin" the po%er of non. =)slims, mainly Armenian Christians. =oreover, it sho%s that =)slims %ere conscio)sly )sin" the R)rSGn in the p)!lic spaces as s)ch a sectarian em!lem. (he incident in <)estion reportedly occ)rred in 11#@?#8 F#T. B)t )nderstandin" the iss)es at stake re<)ires a ret)rn to a !rief disc)ssion of the serio)s level the political insta!ility in Cairo had reached. Another s)ccession crisis that f)rther split the 5atimid IsmGEIlI "ro)p occ)rred in 11#$ FT& after the

m)rder of ImGm.Caliph al.Xmir. 5rom this schism, the (Oayyi!I IsmGEIlIs split from those 5atimid IsmGEIlIs %ho reco"ni4ed al.*OGfi4O as the ne% ImGm.P'1Q (his matter is some%hat more comple8 than the earlier crises. (his ne% crisis ill)strates ho% the diversity of players and "ro)ps in the po%er relations of the r)lin" elite led to a fra"ility in the r)lin" system-and )ltimately to the overthro% of 5atimid IsmGEIlI r)le. Comin" little more than three decades after the Di4GrI schism, this (Oayyi!I crisis involved the m)rder of an infant heir Bal.(ayyi!C, and reached a clima8 %hen the wazr A!L EAlI 2)tayfGt Brelated to !oth Badr al.HamGlI and ImGm al.=)stansOirC a!olished the 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGmate. *e took the po%er in the name of the a)thority of the 38pected ImGm of the ImGmI /hIEI Bor (%elver /hiEismC. Ultimately, %ithin a year, wazr 2)tayfGt %as himself killed !y 5atimid IsmGEIlI adherents, and A!L al. =aAId %as proclaimed ImGm %ith the r)lin" title al.*OGfi4O, even tho)"h he %as not a son of the previo)s ImGm. (he 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGmate and Caliphate, more specifically the *OGfi4O.5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGmate, %as th)s restored, altho)"h, of co)rse, the *OGfi4O.5atimid IsmGEIlI "ro)p %as <)ite small. (he (Oayyi!I schism red)ced the IsmGEIlIs in 3"ypt almost solely to adherents !ased in the palace in Cairo. 3ven after this schism, the 5atimid ImGm.Caliph %as, of co)rse, still head of the 5atimid r)lin" system. B)t he retained that position in even more palpa!le %ays than !efore solely !eca)se the interests of all the "ro)ps %ere !est served !y maintainin" the form of ImGm.Caliphal r)le, rather than !eca)se the 5atimid IsmGEIlIs had the po%er to enforce the r)lerSs position.P'TQ Do%, to ret)rn to the incident %here this section !e"an-the str)""le !et%een wazr BahrGm al.ArmanI and the contender for that position, 9idO%Gn i!n al.1alakshi. In the ens)in" dist)r!ances after ImGm al. *OGfi4O ass)med the throne, the army !ro)"ht BahrGm al.ArmanI to !e confirmed as the wazr.P'#Q As I!n al.=)<affaE notes, as a direct res)lt of wazr BahrGmSs policies the Christians "ained infl)ence and positions in the important dwns of the kin"dom.P'&Q 1hen 6the %ord of the =)slims %eakened,7 as he descri!es it, the =)slims so)"ht to remove BahrGm from office of wazr. =)slim "ro)ps %ithin the army t)rned to one of their o%n, an amr and a /)nni =)slim, 9idO%Gn i!n al.1alakshi, %ho declared a Gihd a"ainst the Christian wazr BahrGm and his troops.P'FQ (he iss)es in this str)""le involvin" vario)s =)slim and Christian "ro)ps %ere ones of economic and political po%er in the 5atimid "overnment. 9idO%Gn, ho%ever, vis)ally em!lemati4ed them in a =)slim sectarian reference that !ro)"ht the =)slim "ro)ps to"ether. In the thick of the !attle, his troops raised the R)rSGn on their lances as a !attle standard.P''Q It %as a "en)inely !rilliant choice. (he =)slims )nderstood the messa"e conveyed !y )sin" the R)rSGn as em!lem, and left the army of BahrGm, %ho fled %ith only his Christian troops.P'@Q 9idO%GnSs raisin" of the R)rSGn as a !attle standard recalled the Battle of /OiffIn B'F@ C.3.C %here =)EG%iya in fi"htin" EAlI ori"inally employed the same tactic. +f co)rse, for /)nni =)slims it recalled an action that led )ltimately to =)Ea%iyaSs "ainin" the title Caliph, !)t the initial ar!itration at the end of the fi"htin" did not take the title a%ay from EAlI. (h)s all =)slim army contin"ents, /)nni B=GlikI, /hafIEI and *an!alIC and /hIEI BIsmGEIlI and ImGmIC, co)ld rally aro)nd that em!lem-the R)rSGn hoisted on a lance. Christians, of co)rse, if %e are to !elieve this %idely reported story, did not. At the approach of the fo)rth decade of the t%elfth cent)ry, the R)rSGn %as !ein" actively )sed to rally all =)slims in the military elements of the r)lin" "ro)p, and to e8cl)de Christians. \ \ \

Wazr a&014&iB a&0SA4&i!A TAa&4Ci. an( t!e P*,&i' Te-t

(OalGSiE i!n 9)44Ik, an ImGmI,P'8Q %as invested as wazr %ith the title al-mali@ al-s+lih+ in 11F& F&9 d)rin" yet another time of tro)!le, %hen the ImGm.Caliph al.NOGfir had !een m)rdered and al.5GSi4 !ecame the ne% ImGm.Caliph. (OalGSiE held the position of wazr thro)"h the si8 years of ImGm al.

5GSi4Ss rei"n into the early days of the rei"n of the last 5atimid ImGm, al.EXdOid Br. 11'$?@1 FFF?'@C. P'9Q 2no%n as avaricio)s, wazr (OalGSiE nevertheless, as the wazrs !efore him, %as "enero)s in s)pportin" =)slim comm)nal life, and )sed p)!lic te8ts to display his name and messa"es. *e !)ilt his mos<)e on the ,reat /treet, like wazr al.=aSmLn !efore him, only he constr)cted it o)tside the BG! N)%ayla Bmap #C.P@$Q *e is said to have re"retted choosin" this location !eca)se in the )nrest in the capital area his mos<)e %as )sed !y ins)r"ents attackin" the so)thern "ates of Cairo proper.P@1Q (his mos<)e, finished in 11F9 FFF a fe% months !efore (OalGSiE died, has three artic)lated facades, on the north, so)th, and %est. (he %est facade facin" the ,reat /treet is the main facade and main entrance. (he !asic layo)t of these facades share %ith that of the al.A<mar mos<)e important elements: !ands of %ritin" that divide a "ro)nd of arches in three places Bfi". #8C. +n the (OalGSiE mos<)e m)ltiple arches of the same hei"ht artic)late the facades vertically, rather than as on the al. A<mar mos<)e, %here the arches %ere of differin" hei"hts. (he three !ands of %ritin" r)n the f)ll len"ths of the three sides. 0ike on the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e, the %idest one is )nder the cornice. +ne is placed a!o)t mid%ay, and one at door hei"ht. (he second !and from the top is !est preserved, and like the one on the facade of al.A<mar, displays the name of the ImGm, here al.5GSi4, and the date. (he maAor portion of the inscription displays the names and titles of the wazr (OalGSiE.P@TQ

5i". #8. 38terior, mos<)e of (OalGSiE 1hat is important to note is that the p)!lic te8t on these three facades consists of rank and title information, %ith <)otations from the R)rSGn over the doors and %indo%s, and in the )pper !and. (his !alance )nderscores and foc)ses attention on the very real po%er of this wazr %ho r)led 5atimid lands. *e served t%o ImGms. ImGm.al.5GSi4 %as a child, and (OalGSiE kept ImGm al.EXdOid as virt)al prisoner in the palace.P@#Q (he si"n of IsmaEilism is not present on any of the facades of the (OalGSiE mos<)e. 9ather, the si"n of IsmaEilism, so closely related to comm)nal memory devices from IsmGEIlI disco)rses, is transformed on the facades of the mos<)e of (OalGSiE into ro)ndels ela!orately filled %ith "eometric forms !ased on si8ty de"ree an"les. (hese ro)ndels are placed in the spandrels !et%een the arches on the three facades. +n the %est facade, the !lind arches %ith the artic)lated hoods so reminiscent of those on the al.A<mar mos<)e, also display ro)ndels in their center. At this late date, the only si"n of IsmaEilism contin)ally reiss)ed and displayed is that on coins Bfi". #9C %here the concentric circle format and %ritin" in circles is maintained. 3ven the R)rSGnic <)otation in the o)ter rin", 9:##, %ith its !i.valent evocational field, %as maintained. (his contin)ance has m)ch to do %ith the conservative nat)re of coina"e, and its "old fineness, rather than a reco"nition of the ideolo"ical referents of its concentric circle format.P@&Q (he coin %ith its reco"ni4a!le format had come to !e reco"ni4ed and val)ed for its p)rity.

5i". #9a. Jinar, ImGm al.5GSi4 B1$$T.1.89$ Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". #9!. Jinar, ImGm al.5GSi4 B1$$T.1.89$ Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC It is )nderstanda!le that the si"n of IsmaEilism disappeared as a component format for the p)!lic te8t on =)slim sectarian !)ildin"s at this time. 5or appro8imately fo)r decades, since al.=aSmLn, no wazr had !een an IsmGEIlI,P@FQ %hile at the same time the n)m!er of 5atimid IsmGEIlIs in the capital area %as

drastically red)ced !y schisms. /)pport for /)nni Islam %as on the increase. (here %as neither patrona"e to kno% and to s)pport, nor a)dience to perceive s)ch a %ritin" si"n, especially one placed a distance from the immediate 3astern Palace area. (hat the concentric circle form, the si"n of IsmaEilism, sho)ld !e transformed into a ro)ndel displayin" "eometric desi"ns is in keepin" %ith the history of forms that develop, as the si"n of IsmaEilism did, %ith specific referents in a social conte8t. Art Jeco forms, for instance, in the early t%entieth cent)ry related to iss)es of streamlinin" and speed. In their transformed appearance today, they have lost those specific connotations for most of their a)dience, and %ith those connotations aspects of the ori"inal form are altered. \ \ \

Pr"'essi"ns an( t!e P*,&i' Te-t

+n the )r!an sta"e of Cairo.=isOr, the other )se of officially sponsored %ritin" %as on cloth displayed in the p)!lic ceremonies and processions. +)r kno%led"e stems mainly from I!n al.(O)%ayr Bd. 1TT$ '1@C, the late.5atimid. and early.AyyL!id.period historian %hose %ritin"s are lost, !)t %hose acco)nts %ere cited !y al.=a<rI4I.P@'Q Altho)"h I s)spect that more %ritin" %as displayed on cloth than %e can reconstr)ct %ith the limited citations al.=a<rI4I )ses from I!n al.(O)%ayrSs %ork, these are, nonetheless, s)fficient to "ive some sense of the vario)s f)nctions of %ritin" on cloth displayed in the p)!lic space. In recordin" the ImGm.CaliphSs entrance into the An%ar mos<)e Bal.*OGkimSs mos<)eC d)rin" 9amadan, I!n al.(O)%ayr descri!ed the %hite silk c)rtains displayin" s(ras from the R)rSGn rendered in red silk pointed %ritin" Bi.e., %ith diacritical marksC that h)n" on either side of the mihra!. (his description, mentioned in chapter 1, %as part of a lon"er record of the ImGmSs entrance into the mos<)e, a ceremony cele!rated !y ela!orate display in %hich mihra! c)rtains %ere part of the o)tfittin" of the mihra! area %here he sat. (hree %hite silk !arash Bmattresses or spread o)t clothsC %ith %ritin" on them %ere spread on the floor in this area, completin" its appropriate dressin" in 5atimid official colors.P@@Q (hese lavish displays are in the main hard to date, !)t are part of the restoration of the processions of the ImGm.Caliph in the northern part of Cairo !e")n )nder wazr al.=aSmLn. I!n al.(O)%ayr is also responsi!le for details a!o)t %ritin" in official processions. Jescri!in" the De% KearSs ceremonial,P@8Q he records that the !anners t%enty.one of the (roops of the /tirr)p Bsib#n alri@bC carried in the official procession displayed the phrase nasr min allah !ath 'arb B*elp from ,od and ;ictory Dear at *andC, part of R)rSGn '1:1#.P@9Q (his %ritin" %as varie"ated in color, and fashioned in silk. 3ach !anner had three tirz !ands placed on the lances of the horsemen.P8$Q (hey helped provide a colorf)l procession, predominantly red and yello% in color. In a different conte8t, al.Ral<ashandI, in a len"thy description of the arms of the infantry, mentioned that they carried a BoneC narro% !anner of varie"ated BmalawnaC colored silk )pon %hich %as %ritten nasr min allah wa !ath 'arib B*elp from ,od and ;ictory Dear at *andC.P81Q (his sin"le !anner %as part of the troopin" of colors and follo%ed !ehind t%o riders from the /pecial (roops Bsib#n al-@hs+s+C, %ho carried lances each %ith ei"ht !anners of red and yello% dbG.P8TQ (hese t%o descriptions seem to !e of different instances, different troops and some%hat different !anner, altho)"h displayin" the same semantic content. In fact, a (reas)ry of Banners B@hiznat al-bun(dC e8isted in Cairo, employin" #,$$$ artisans in ImGm al.NOGhirSs rei"n %hich %o)ld have !een responsi!le for fashionin" all these !anners. P8#Q Altho)"h it is not specifically recorded, pres)ma!ly the amrs %ho headed this treas)ry Band a similar one for armor and parade adornmentC %ere responsi!le for the maintenance, provision, and collection of the !anners %hich %ere taken o)t and )sed as the occasion demanded. 5a!rication of all of the !anners may not have act)ally occ)rred in the treas)ry, yet the officials m)st have !een responsi!le to proc)re them. If they %ere not em!ellished !y these #,$$$ artisans, then these vario)s

!anners m)st have !een proc)red on special order from %eavin" esta!lishments, many pro!a!ly in the Jelta.P8&Q (hese !anners or, more likely, some related cloth, mi"ht possi!ly !e represented in the archaeolo"ical te8tile fra"ments from this period. 5ra"ments of te8tiles, mainly decorated !ands, displayin" nasr min allah B*elp from ,odC in red silk %ith yello% lattice desi"n on a linen "ro)nd are relatively common in m)se)m collections thro)"ho)t the %orld. In fact, the em!ellished area on these te8tiles is )s)ally %oven in %hat co)ld !e descri!ed as a tripartite composition. 1hile these te8tile fra"ments display part of the semantic content descri!ed in the history te8ts, and also the red and yello% colors mentioned as dominatin" almost all ceremonies and processions, to o)r contemporary eyes, they do not f)lly coincide %ith the descriptions of the !anners !earin" this messa"e. Certainly none of the fra"ments I am a%are of displays "old threads. (hese instances are to my kno%led"e the only ones that descri!e cloth )sed in p)!lic official ceremonies as displayin" %ritin".P8FQ *)ndreds of ro!es and t)r!ans %ith ela!orate !orders are descri!ed as !ein" handed o)t to vario)s mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p d)rin" official distri!)tion of the @iswa.P8'Q (hese distri!)tions %ere e8traordinarily lavish in the rei"n of ImGm.Caliph al.Xmir, as one mi"ht ima"ine in s)ch a period of socio.political insta!ility, altho)"h they e8isted in the earlier 5atimid period, too.P8@Q (hese same reports even record that the cloth for this distri!)tion %as stored in Cairo in the (reas)ry of the 1ardro!e B@hiznat al-@iswaC %hich ho)sed !oth the clothin" for the troops as %ell as the costly ro!es for the ImGm and other di"nitaries.P88Q B)t no description I am a%are of, no matter ho% len"thy and detailed the record, or ho% often !orders of t)r!ans and ro!es are mentioned, or even ho% fre<)ently linen is noted as the "ro)nd fa!ric states specifically that any of this cloth displayed %ritin". (he %ord most fre<)ently )sed to descri!e !orders of cloth and clothin" is man'(sh. =any scholars have translated this %ord as 6inscri!ed.7 B)t its medieval meanin", s)!stantiated !y medieval dictionaries and the ,eni4a records, is 6em!ellished,7 and I have no% come to favor this as the proper translation of the %ord.P89Q4an'(sh, or 6em!ellished,7 sho)ld pro!a!ly !e seen as an )m!rella term that co)ld incl)de %ritten !orders, !)t is not limited to them. (ho)sands of fra"ments displayin" %ritin" remain today from this period, some from very !ea)tif)l and fine cloth, yet %e need more evidence than e8ists c)rrently !efore they can !e attached to these official clothin" distri!)tions. *istorical acco)nts th)s help )s only to a limited e8tent in )nderstandin" the official )se of te8tiles %ith %ritin" on them and the e8tant archaeolo"ical fra"ments. 3vidence a!sent is not proof of a!sent practice, of co)rse. 1e are simply reminded that %ritten doc)ments and remains of vis)al c)lt)re do not e8plain each other !)t f)nction in interrelated %ays, in separate tracks, in society. 1hat is clear is that <)otations taken from the R)rSGn %ere displayed on cloth and else%here in ever. increasin" n)m!ers in the last t%o or three decades of 5atimid r)le. /)ch <)otations %ere addressed even more )r"ently to all =)slims, for their cohesion %as the )nderpinnin" of the r)lin" system headed !y the 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGm.Caliph. (he c)rtains on the sides of the mihra! in the An%ar mos<)e Bal. *OGkimSs mos<)eC are a "ood e8ample of this practice. Both c)rtains displayed the basmala and then the s(rat al-!tih+a Bthe openin" s(ra of the R)rSGnC. (hen on the ri"ht one the surat al-Gum*a B'T, (he ,atherin" or Con"re"ationC %as %ritten, and, on the left, the s(rat al-mun!i'(n B'#, (he *ypocritesC. (he former s(ra %as also displayed in the %ritin" on the %estern salient o)tside this very mos<)e. (his s(ra is most appropriate for the location of its display !eca)se it refers to 5riday prayers. Its placement in the mihra! of this 5riday mos<)e then %o)ld have !een comforta!le for all =)slims. 0ike%ise, s(ra '# disc)sses the role of the =essen"er of ,od and those %ho do not !elieve in his mission. (his chapter, too, had relevance for all =)slims especially in the social circ)mstances of the late 5atimid period, %hen those %ho did not reco"ni4e the messa"e or the =essen"er Bnamely, the ChristiansC, so dominated the r)lin" "ro)p.

(hese same kinds of associations and a)diences %ere evoked !y the semantic content of the %ritin" on the !anners, nas+r min allh wa !ath+ 'arb B*elp from ,od and ;ictory Dear at *andC. +n one level it %as a !attle cry for all =)slims a"ainst their enemies. Ket, on another level, this phrase and the %ords from it %ere important in 5atimid IsmGEIlI practice. RGdOI al.D)EmGn, for e8ample, )nderstand them to refer to the RGSim and to the res)rrection.P9$Q Also, these %ere Band areC the names of the t%o main "ates of Cairo. +)tside the BG! al.DasOr the mus+alla %as located %here the ImGm and r)lin" "ro)p and Believers processes on EId cele!rations. In the later 5atimid period, processions for the De% Kear e8ited from the BG! al.DasOr and re.entered Cairo thro)"h the BG! al.5)tLhO, the site of the An%ar mos<)e Bal. *OGkimSs mos<)eC. (hese t%o %ords, as mentioned a!ove, %ere also part of the <)otations from the R)rSGn placed )nder the dome !efore the mihra! %here these c)rtains h)n" in the mos<)e of al.*OGkim. (he acco)nts descri!ed a!ove also "ive details a!o)t the aesthetic and territorial f)nctions or meanin"s of these same %ritin"s. As in the earlier period, the lavishness of the display in %hich the %ritin" on te8tiles %as em!edded %as intended to convey to the participants, as %ell as to the !eholders, the po%er and th)s the sta!ility of the r)lin" "ro)pM they %ere increased in n)m!er over time as the "overnment "re% more )nsta!le and, predicta!ly, wazrs t)rned over rapidly. (he more the personnel in po%erf)l positions chan"ed, the "reater %as the need for processions %hich contin)ally re.hierarchi4ed Bto themselves and to the )r!an a)dienceC the mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p !y their order in the processional ranks.P91Q If the n)m!er of processions and ceremonies %as in reverse proportion to the sta!ility of the "overnment, so, too, %as the amo)nt of display in terms of the drain on availa!le "overnmental reso)rces to s)pport it.P9TQ 1hile I!n al.(O)%ayrSs description of the lavish display of "old and Ae%eled fa!rics and trappin"s rivals that of DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, the chan"in" ta8ation and troop payment systems meant that the ImGm.Caliph and the palace esta!lishment had less monetary reso)rces than earlier to s)pport s)ch lavishness. In addition, the wazrs had their o%n processions and sections of the processions. (h)s the display of "old and Ae%els and colors represented a "reater distance !et%een the display of po%er and its act)ality in the later 5atimid period than it did in the former. In each of these descriptions of %ritin", %e are told that the %ritin" %as in silk-)s)ally on silk or !rocade cloth. (hese comments on the aesthetics of the %ritin" conveyed to the reader information !oth a!o)t the <)ality of the %ritin" and the cost of prod)ction. /ilk, of co)rse, %as pro!a!ly imported and th)s e8pensive. =entionin" silk as a medi)m distin")ished the fi!re in %hich the %ritin" %as rendered from the dominant fi!re in the processions, namely linen, %hich %as locally prod)ced. By notin" inscriptions and other elements, especially %hen they %ere red or yello%, I!n al.(O)%ayr %as pro!a!ly also si"nallin" a <)ality distinction to his readers. (o mention red and yello% %as to note t%o very e8pensive colors prod)ced from dye s)!stances o!taina!le only on the international market.P9#Q By contrast, for e8ample, to have commented on !l)e as a te8tile color %o)ld not have evoked s)ch connotations of l)8)ry, !eca)se !l)e %as prod)ced from indi"o, a common local dye. In short, %hat mi"ht appear from the descriptions of the aesthetic and territorial f)nctions of %ritin" on cloth to !e the 6same7 display of po%er in terms of the cons)mption of e8pensive commodities !y the r)lin" "ro)p in !oth the early and late 5atimid period %as in fact somethin" <)ite different. Deither the meanin" of the medi)m nor the messa"e of the %ritin" in these processions %as the same. 1e co)ld ask %hen the %ritin"s %e do kno% a!o)t %ere incl)ded in these ceremonies and %hat %e mi"ht infer from this timin". (he ceremonies in %hich %ritin" on cloth %as reported %ere those !roadly !ased in the =)slim calendar. (he historical acco)nts that record them, ho%ever, are all )ndated. B)t considerin" that I!n al.(O)%ayr %as the so)rce, and notin" %here these stories %ere placed in the se<)ence of al.=a<rI4ISs reco)ntin" of 5atimid practice, the earliest moment that this %ritin" on cloth co)ld have appeared %as pro!a!ly late in the rei"n of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGfi4O Br. 11#1? &9 FTF?&&C. Al.*OGfi4O mi"ht %ell have !een the ImGm that I!n al.(O)%ayr descri!ed as enterin" the

An%ar mos<)e d)rin" 9amadanM and his troops mi"ht %ell have !een the ones displayin" the phrase nas+r min allh wa !ath+ 'arbT B*elp from ,od and ;ictory Dear at *andC. 1hether the moment %as then, or later, kno%led"e a!o)t the shifts in the composition of the army and %ithin the r)lin" "ro)p as a %hole, as %ell as a!o)t the a)dience addressed, helps )s )nderstand more clearly the f)ll import of the %ritin". (he reports of cloth %ith %ritin" on it descri!ed a!ove specifically refer to the semantic content of the %ritin". (hese displayed %ords from the R)rSGn, and th)s o!vio)sly %ere taken from a =)slim referential field-a clearly different evocational !ase from that of the %ritin" displayed in the procession descri!ed !y DGsOir.i 2h)sra% in chapter #. (hose %ho %ere in the An%ar mos<)e at the time the ImGm entered d)rin" 9amadan, and those %ho displayed the !anners in the processions, %ere, !y late in the rei"n of al.*OGfi4O, mainly =)slims %ho had A)st en"a"ed in a str)""le to red)ce the Christian infl)ence in the r)lin" esta!lishment. (hey had s)cceeded in defeatin" wazr BahrGm al. ArmanI and his troops.P9&Q (he semantic messa"e of all of this %ritin" p)!lici4ed tri)mph and victory in =)slim sectarian terms. \ \ \

E-teri"rF Interi"rF an( Writing Signs

(h)s far in this chapter the considerations of the 5atimid )se of %ritin" si"ns have foc)sed on %ritin" in the p)!lic space, p)!lic te8ts, !e"innin" %ith the %ritin" si"ns of Badr al.HamGlI. (he referential dimensions of %ritin" in the p)!lic space %ere )sed !y him and !y s)cceedin" wazrs to disseminate specific kinds of information a!o)t the chan"in" social order, namely the "ro%th of the po%er of the %a4Irate and the military as indicated !y the ela!orate tit)larity of the wazr. (he aesthetic and territorial dimensions of those %ritin" si"ns f)nctioned !oth to distin")ish =)slim sectarian practices of displayin" %ritin" si"ns from those of other sectarian "ro)ps, and %ithin =)slim sectarian practices, to !l)r the distinction !et%een the practices of displayin" %ritin" on the inside and o)tside of str)ct)res. 1hile it is diffic)lt to reconstr)ct the vis)al practices of the medieval Coptic comm)nity in relation to %ritin" si"ns %ith any certainty, most historians a"ree that Coptic ch)rches and monasteries remained )nartic)lated !y the display of %ritin" on the e8terior.P9FQ (he display of officially sponsored %ritin" %as reserved for the interior, and there it %as )sed in a traditional manner: a secondary si"n framin" ima"es, %ith references to the Book and comm)nity, in the script style of the Book. (h)s, !e"innin" %ith ImGm.Caliph al.*OGkimSs "olden c)rses and the %ritin" placed on the e8terior of the mos<)e o)tside the BG! al.5)tLhO and contin)in" to the mos<)e (OalGSiE !)ilt o)tside the BG! N)%ayla, the display of %ritin" on the o)tside of =)slim sectarian str)ct)res !)ilt !y the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p distin")ished them from other sectarian str)ct)res. (hey displayed p)!lic te8ts. (he aesthetic dimensions of displayin" %ritin" si"ns on the interior of =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res also )nder%ent a chan"e at the same time. In the al.*OGkim mos<)e, as noted a!ove, %ritin" !ecame a primary si"n for ela!oratin" the interior. It no lon"er framed depictions as in traditional practice, or as in the contemporary practice of )sin" %ritin" si"ns inside Christian space. (his ne% display of %ritin" on the interior %as maintained in the later 5atimid period in !oth e8tant mos<)es, the al.A<mar Bfi". #FC and that !)ilt !y (OalGSiE Bfi". #8C. It also characteri4ed the "ifts or additions that wazrs of this period made to the interior of e8istin" str)ct)res: for e8ample, the mihra! al.AfdOal added to the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn aro)nd 1$9& &8@ Bfi". &1C,P9'Q and the restorations to the ma)sole)m of /ayyida 9)<ayya, 11#$?'$ Bfi". &TC. +f co)rse, it %as not simply the display of %ritin" !)t %ritin" in 2)fic script in a variety of ornamented styles that !ecame a primary vis)al si"n on the interior of =)slim comm)nal spaces. =edi)m also served as a vis)al link. Carved and incised st)cco %as the primary

medi)m for the display of %ritin" on the interior s)rfaces of !oth mos<)es and ma)solea. 1ritin" si"ns in 2)fic script incised in st)cco !o)nd to"ether and identified those str)ct)res s)pported !y the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p. Jisplayin" %ritin", and seein" the display of %ritin", !ecame a vis)al convention in =)slim comm)nal spaces, mos<)e and ma)solea, and for =)slim a)diences thro)"ho)t the capital area.

5i". &1. =ihra! donated !y wazr al.AfdOal in mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn 5i". &T. Interior, ma)sole)m of /ayyida 9)<ayya, after Cres%ell. 4uslim ,rchitecture o! %g#&t, vol. 1 +ne aesthetic practice of displayin" %ritin" on =)slim comm)nal !)ildin"s in this later period !l)rred %hat cent)ries of tradition had maintained, namely, a distinction !et%een the )ses of %ritin" si"ns on the e8terior and the interior of comm)nal str)ct)res. (he layo)t of a central lar"e arch flanked !y t%o smaller arches %ith !ands of %ritin" first descri!ed !y DGsOir.i 2h)sra% on the @iswa of the 2aE!a in =ecca in 1$F$ &&1 %as )sed for !oth the e8terior and interior of =)slim sectarian spaces, primarily those sponsored !y wazrs. It is fo)nd in str)ct)res thro)"ho)t the Cairo.=isOr )r!an area and in the Rarafa cemeteryP9@Q-for e8ample, on the o)tside of the al.A<mar mos<)e in Cairo, on the 'ibla %all inside the ma)sole)m of Ikh%at KLs)f in the Rarafa,P98Q and on !oth the 'ibla %all and on the portico of the ma)sole)m of /ayyida 9)<ayya on the ,reat /treet near AhOmad i!n (OLlLn.P99Q (his !asic layo)t is rendered in different media: carved st)cco in the ma)sole)ms, and stone on the o)tside of the mos<)e. In this difference in medi)m it is possi!le to read a hierarchy of materials, as %ell as, perhaps, in the social stat)s of the str)ct)res %ithin the society. 1hile differences e8ist in the details of the specific variations of the layo)t of the arches and !ands in every str)ct)re, most of these arched layo)ts also incl)de ro)ndels. (he !asic aesthetic similarities of these arched layo)ts providin" the frame%ork for officially sponsored %ritin" mask the referential differences in the %ritin" displayed on the interior and e8terior of these =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res. (he components of the evocational fields of the %ritin", and in tandem %ith that, the allocation of space to each component, on the interior and e8terior of str)ct)res are seemin"ly mirror opposites of each other. +n the o)tside, rank and title information is detailed and len"thy, %hile <)otations from the R)rSGn are limited relative to these social references.P1$$Q +n the interior, the R)rSGn is the main evocational field, altho)"h the donorSs name and minimal titles may appear. 9o)ndels %ere a part of this arched layo)t, and the appearance of this form on !)ildin"s !rin"s )s to the important consideration of %hat happened to the si"n of IsmaEilism as a component of officially sponsored %ritin" in this later period. As part of the p)!lic te8t, its appearance remains constant on coina"e in this period. 3ven the R)rSGnic <)otation B9:##C chosen at the time of ImGm.Caliph al. =)Ei44 is maintained in the o)ter rin" of the coin Bfi". #9C. +!vio)sly, as the n)m!er of IsmGEIlIs in the Cairo )r!an area decreased s)!stantially, the specific meanin" of this concentric circle format %as perceived !y only a very small a)dience trained to reco"ni4e its referents. Ket maintainin" the si"n of IsmaEilism on coina"e is e8plica!le !y the conservative nat)re of coina"e itself, the stron" linka"e !et%een its aesthetic form and its material val)e, partic)larly %ith the "old dinar, and the fact that many are str)ck. (he sit)ation in re"ard to coina"e then is not )nlike that no% %hat %ith the =asonic si"ns on the !ack of the U./. one.dollar !ill. (hese si"ns %ere im!)ed %ith a partic)lar meanin" in relation to the =asonic ceremonies important to the fo)ndin" fathers of the U./. (oday these =asonic si"ns are maintained on the dollar to validate the 6realness7 of the dollar, even tho)"h the a)dience %ho )nderstands their ori"inal referent is limited.

In contrast, ho%ever, the form and content Bor semantic referentC of the si"n of IsmaEilism dissolves !oth as part of the p)!lic te8t on the e8terior of !)ildin"s, and as part of an Islamic sectarian one on the interior. (his dissol)tion res)lts in a semi.a)tonomy of form and content ena!lin" the form and its content Bor referentsC to have separate traAectories. Dat)rally, the form or format lasts lon"est in the vis)al c)lt)re. It is like an empty shell left !y a creat)re on the !each. (he referent, like the creat)re %ho inha!its the shell, is most fra"ile, dependin" on comple8 social relations and the confi")ration of a certain kind of disco)rse, here IsmGEIlI disco)rse. (his dissol)tion of form and content did not happen se<)entially or evenly in 5atimid society. 0ook at the ro)nd form in the central arch on the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e Bfi". #'C and that in the central arch in the ma)sole)m of /ayyida 9)<ayya Bfi". &TC. Both these displays of %ritin" in a ro)nd form are prod)cts of the last fifty years of 5atimid patrona"e. /eein" the play and slippa"e !et%een the form and content of these t%o ro)nd forms helps )s )nderstand the comple8 %ays form and content are layered. +n the portal of the al.A<mar mos<)e, the ro)ndel preserved the form of the si"n of IsmaEilism: the al. *OGkim period variant, lines of %ritin" displayed in a central core s)rro)nded !y o)ter, concentric circles %hich incl)ded %ritin". (he center displays the names 6=)hOammad7 and 6EAlI,7 !oth appropriate to !oth IsmGEIlI and "eneral =)slim disco)rses. (he o)ter rin" displays R)rSGn ##:##, 6,od only desires to take a%ay )ncleanness from yo), +h people of the ho)sehold.7 1hile meanin"f)l to all =)slims, this verse is not cited in IsmGEIlI ta>wl. Until this time, the reference !ase of the %ritin" in si"ns of IsmaEilism, %hether on !)ildin"s or on coins, has !een !i.valent and incl)ded reference %ithin IsmGEIlI ta>wl. Contemporary coins maintain this !i.valent reference. *ere, on the al.A<mar mos<)e, the form of the si"n of IsmaEilism is preserved, !)t not the f)ll ran"e of the content. In the ma)sole)m of /ayyida 9)<ayya, restored %ithin thirty years of the constr)ction of the al.A<mar mos<)e, the form and content BreferentC of the ro)ndel have dissolved even more. (he %ritin" displays the same semantic content as that in the ro)ndel of the al.A<mar mos<)e, yet not in the same ro)nd form. 9ather, it is displayed %ithin the arch and ro)ndel format to"ether. (he ro)nd form is preserved, !)t the center is e8panded so as to !e almost cotermin)s %ith its perimeter. In this center, the names 6=)hOammad7 and 6EAlI7 appear, !)t the %ritin" is displayed in an interlocked "eometric pattern. (his interlocked pattern is not at all related to the conventions for the presentation of %ritin" in either the si"n of IsmaEilism or in the dia"rams in IsmGEIlI disco)rse. 1hile the content, or evocational field, of the %ritin" in the center is the same as that on the facade of al.A<mar, the form in %hich the %ritin" is displayed dissolves the vis)al relationship !et%een this %ritin" and that on al.A<mar and the dia"rams in IsmGEIlI disco)rse. Do concentric circle of %ritin" s)rro)nds these names in the center. (he !and of %ritin" a!ove the ro)ndel, on the mihra! itself, displays the same part of R)rSGn ##:## as displayed in the o)ter rin" on the al.A<mar ro)ndel. (he ro)nd form in this ma)sole)m is the shell left !ehind !y a creat)re on the !each. It !ecomes a vehicle for other )ses. (hose )ses incl)de the display of %ritin", as %ell as the display of "eometric forms and other devices, like on the facade of the mos<)e of (OalGSiE. (he IsmGEIlI content has left this shell-perhaps to another form. In the last one h)ndred years of 5atimid r)le, kno%led"e of IsmGEIlI disco)rses reached fe%er and fe%er people as aven)es of /)nni learnin" increased. (he a)dience %ho kne% and co)ld perceive si"ns of IsmaEilism !ecame very circ)mscri!ed, a condition affectin" !oth patrons and vie%ers. In this later period of 5atimid r)le, =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res, especially ma)solea, %ere re!)ilt and restored !y non.IsmGEIlI wazrs as a means of fosterin" a type of reli"io)s piety and devotion amon" all =)slims, separatin" them from the s)!stantial Christian minority %ithin the pop)lation and r)lin" "ro)p.P1$1Q (his %as essentially a conservative action s)pportin" the stat)s <)o in the "overnment-a r)lin" system that %as headed !y a 5atimid IsmGEIlI ImGm !)t %hich %as other%ise composed predominantly of non.IsmGEIlI =)slims.P1$TQ (he s)pport of s)ch !)ildin"s %as facilitated d)rin" this period !y the

presence of the Cr)saders in Palestine. =)slim pil"rims preferred to skirt some of the shrines in that area and visit the 3"yptian capital instead.P1$#Q (he appearance of pil"rima"e ")ide!ooks "ives evidence to the relevance of these str)ct)res to =)slims of all madhhabs Bla% traditionsC. It is not s)rprisin", then, that in these str)ct)res, the %ritin", officially sponsored !y non.IsmGEIlI wazrs and addressed to a primarily non.IsmGEIlI a)dience referred to the R)rSGn and individ)als important in the collective "eneral Islamic memory, and not to referents in IsmGEIlI sectarian disco)rse. Indeed, the )se of %ritin" !y vario)s mem!ers of the 5atimid r)lin" "ro)p, especially in the p)!lic space, t)rned the capital area into a more o!vio)s te8t. (he iss)e of )sin" a city as 6te8t7 %hen applied to social practice of this period, involved the pop)lation attendin" to different !)t co.e8istent meanin"s implicit in a sin"le te8t. =essa"es co)ld !e read, as %e have a!ove, in the semantic content of the %ords. (hey co)ld !e read in the lon" e8panses of %ritin" in e8pensive materials, and in the m)ltiplicity of styles of script and formats of %ritin" placed on !)ildin"s. /)ch readin"s also entailed attendin" to s)!tle n)ances "iven to e8istin" te8ts as ne% te8ts %ere added to the vis)al environment, %hen s)ccessive mos<)es %ere added so)th%ard alon" the ,reat /treet, or dropped, as %hen %ritin" %as no lon"er displayed in concentric circle formats. (o the !eholder %ho %alked this road, the %ritin" on the mos<)e Bas %ell as the !)ildin"s themselvesC presented an e8traordinarily diverse display: differences in scale, n)ances in style, and pl)rality of messa"es.

N"tes
1. 1hile the !asic periodi4ation in this te8t is !y the dates of the patriarchs, events effectin" the Coptic comm)nity, and indeed the entire pop)lation of =isOr are recorded. I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. #, pt. 1, is relevant to this second half of 5atimid r)le. T. (hese pro!lems have !een %ell doc)mented in the medieval so)rces-=)slim, Christian and He%ish. A !asic list incl)des: al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ T:#TF?#&, T@#?@', T8$?9@M I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. T, pt. #, T9$?#1F. (%entieth.cent)ry analysis of these times incl)des: Je 0acy +S0eary, , Short 3istor# o! the Fatimid =hali&hate B0ondon: 2. Pa)l, (rench, (r)!ner [ Polk 0td., 19T#C, T1$?T1'M Bernard 0e%is, 6An Interpretation of 5atimid *istory,7 ollo'ue 2nternational sur l>histoire du aire/ 0: mars8F a)ril 6E1E BCairo: ,eneral 3"yptian Book +r"anisation, 19@TC, T8@?9F. #. A!L DaAm Badr al.HamGlI al.=)stansOiri al.IsmGEIlI %as wazr from 1$@#?1$9& &''?8@. Armenian in ori"in, he %as a maml)k %ho %as man)mitted and Aoined the 5atimid army. *e headed an Armenian contin"ent of troops loyal to him. Before comin" to Cairo, he had !een "overnor of Jamasc)s. A convert to Islam, his madhhab, or rite, is a"reed )pon !y many %riters as IsmGEIlI. /till others insist he remained Armenian at heart. &. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:##F. F. 1illiam *am!lin, 6(he 5atimid Army d)rin" the 3arly Cr)sades7 BPh.J. diss., University of =ichi"an, 198&C, 19?T@. '. /ee al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:#$F, ##@, #'&. /ome details a!o)t this period are fo)nd in 4,% 1:119. 5or an interpretation of some of the effects of these pro!lems, see Pa)la /anders, 65rom Co)rt Ceremony to Ur!an 0an")a"e: Ceremonial in 5atimid Cairo and 5)stOGtO,7 in The 2slamic World !rom lassical to 4odern Times, ed. C. 3. Bos%orth, Charles Issa%i, 9o"er /avory, and A. 0. Udovitch BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 1989C, #1'?18. @. In this fortification and e8pansion of the %alls of Cairo he incl)ded the mos<)e of al.*OGkim %ithin the city. (his %as the moment that the "reat defensive "ate%ays %ere !)ilt: BG! al.DasOr, Ba!.al.5)tLhO, and the BG! N)%ayla as %e kno% them today. Jetails on the archaeolo"y and architect)re of these "ates and their enlar"ement are provided !y 4,%, vol. 1, chaps. 1$, 11.

8. Al.AfdOal, Badr al.HamGlISs son, %ho s)cceeded his father as wazr, moved his residence to 5)stOGtO. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:&F1?FTM I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs #:#F?#'. 9. /anders, Fatimid airo, @#?8T, 9&?98, 1T@?#&. 1$. (he distance to the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn from the BG! al.5)tLhO alon" the ,reat /treet is a!o)t three kilometers B1.9 milesC. 1alkin" that distance today can !e accomplished in a!o)t forty.five min)tes. Processions, of co)rse, m)st have covered the distance at a more stately pace. 11. /ee especially the map !y 0o)is =assi"non, plate T, in his article 60a cit: des morts a) Caire,7 "ulletin de l>2nstitut FranUais d>,rchaeologie <rientale F@ B19F8C: TF?@9. 1T. (his mos<)e is p)!lished in 4,% 1:T&1?&'M its e8terior inscriptions are recorded in 4 2,, 3"ypte T:1@1M 5 %, 8:1&'?&@M for an interpretation different from the one offered !elo%, see Caroline 1illiams, 6(he C)lt of EAlId /aints in the 5atimid =on)ments of Cairo, Part I: (he =os<)e of al. A<mar,7 4u'arnas 1 B198#C: #@?F#. Another mos<)e, kno%n as the 5r)itsellers =os<)e Bal.5akahaniC %as !)ilt !y ImGm.Caliph al.NOGhir in 11&9 F&& in the so)thern part of Cairo. (oday only the doors are 5atimid. 5or the rei"n of this ImGm.Caliph, see +S0eary, , Short 3istor#K and 65atimids,7 %nc#clo&aedia o! 2slam. 1#. (his mos<)e as !een p)!lished, al!eit some%hat schematically, !y Cres%ell, 4,% 1:T@F?#88. Its modern restoration %as )ndertaken in diffic)lt social circ)mstances and times, !oth local and international. 1orld 1ar II, for instance, halted the reconstr)ction !efore the Comit: de Conservation des mon)ments de lSart Ara!e solved the pro!lem of the minaret. (he ori"inal 5atimid minaret %as destroyed in the earth<)ake of 1#$# @$T. 5or all of the iss)es, see omit? de onser)ation des monuments de l>art ,rabe/ com&te rendus des exercises, 1911: TTM 191T: 81M 191#: FTM 191F?19: FF$? F1, @T8?T9M 19#$?#T: 9'?98, 1$#?19M 19#'?&$: T&9, T@#?@'M 19&1?&F: F'. /ee also Bierman, 6Ur!an =emory,7 1?1T. (he inscription on the e8terior of this mos<)e %as p)!lished in 5 %,, no. #T#1M 4 2,, no. &'. (his inscription is incomplete in these te8ts and has !een p)!lished complete in Cournal ,siati'ue B1891C, plate 1M and in omit? de onser)ation 191F?19: &1?&T. (hese inscriptions %ere read !y Ko)sso)f 3ffendi Ahmed, Inspecte)r d) /ervices. (he )pper !and of the inscription %as totally effaced at the time the comit: )ndertook the restorations. (he state of this cornice inscription %as conveyed to me !y Jr. EA!d al.A4I4 /adi< from the last livin" s)rvivor from the comit: %ho %orked on this reconstr)ction. (h)s, %hile it is kno%n that t%o !ands of %ritin" ori"inally e8isted, the semantic content Beven the aesthetic dimensionsC of the )pper !and remain )nkno%n to )s today. 1&. In 1$89, Badr al.HamGlI replaced the ori"inal ma)sole)m !)ilt !y a ninth cent)ry A!!asid "overnor, %ith a lar"er str)ct)re. KLs)f 9a"i!, 6Al./ayyida DafIsa, sa l:"ende, son c)lte, et son cemetYre,7 Studia 2slamica && B19@'C: '8?'9. 1F. (he e8tent of his po%er is most tellin"ly revealed in a collection of letters from ImGm al.=)stansOir, his mother, and others to the /)layhids of the Kemen: EA!d al.=)nEim =aAId, ed., ,l-SiGillat almustansir##a P orres&ondence de l>2mm al-mostancirM BCairo, 19F&C. /ee also *)sain 5. al.*Oamdani, 60etters of al.=)stansOir !iSallah,7 "ulletin o! the School o! <riental and ,!rican Studies @ B19##?#FC: #$@?T&. 1'. Al.Ral<ashandI, S+ubh+ al-a*sha &:T@$M 4 2,, vol. 1, pt. &, Ara!ia, 9F. (he 5atimid color %as %hiteM see chap. 1. 1@. ,eoffrey 2han, 6(he *istorical Jevelopment of the /tr)ct)re of =edieval Ara!ic Petitions,7 "ulletin o! the School o! <riental and ,!rican Studies F# B199$C, pt. 1, 8?#$, esp. T9, %here he comments a!o)t the role of Badr al.HamGlI in settin" the tit)lat)re and format. 18. ,aston 1iet, 6Une no)velle inscription 5atimide a) Caire,7 Cournal ,siati'ue B19'1C: 1#?#$. /ome

evidence s)""ests that this practice %as also follo%ed !y others in the r)lin" "ro)p. 5or e8ample, EAlI Pasha recorded a mos<)e Bno lon"er e8tant, kno%n only !y this acco)ntC off the ,reat /treet %ith a lar"e pla<)e over the entry port !earin" the name of EAmIr NaEim al.Ja%la H)%amard, a retainer of wazr al.AfdOal, dated 11$T &9'. EAlI PGshG =)!Grak, ,l-=hitat al-taw!i'##a al-Gadda, 1$ vols. BCairo: BLlG<, 1#$'*C, T:8F?8'. *e <)otes al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:8F?8', the latter s)""estin" that people felt that this str)ct)re %as a mashhad for HaEfar al./adI<. 19. %4, T:##' and plate 9@!. Cres%ell notes that the restoration co)ld 6not have amo)nted to m)ch.7 B)t for the p)rposes here %e kno% that he p)t a pla<)e on the o)tside of the str)ct)re on the so)thern entrance of the northeast side of the zi#da. T$. 2,, 3"ypte, vol. 1, no. 11, plate TM no. 1, plate 1@. (he mar!le pla<)e is T'$ cm 8 &F cm and displays fo)r lines of Ara!ic. It %as located on the northeast corner, !y a main door %hich today is %alled )p. T1. 1iet, 2,, 3"ypte 1:#1?#T disc)sses this inscription. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:T'8 comments a!o)t the condition of the districts of al.RatOGSiE, and al.EAskar. /ee also Kaacov 0ev, State and Societ# in Fatimid %g#&t B0eiden: 3. H. Brill, 1991C, 99. TT. /ee 4,%, vol. 1, chap. 1$M EAlI PGshG =)!Grak, ,l-=hitat al-taw!i'##a T:8#, for the inscription on the BG! al.Bar<iyya near al.A4har in the name of Badr al.HamGlI. T#. A mar!le pla<)e is recorded in 4 2,, 3"ypt 1:'#?'&M 5 %, @:T&8?&9. (his action is mentioned in al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ #:&&9. T&. (his inscription and the similar ones over the door%ay into the mos<)e and on the interior of the Dilometer are kno%n only thro)"h the description, translation and dra%in"s of =arcel in .escri&tion de l>%g#&te, 1T8?T9, 1F1?8&. 4,% 1:T1@?18 p)!lished an a!!reviated synopsis of =arcelSs %ork. (he mos<)e %as destroyed !y 5rench inattention !arely a decade after =arcel recorded its e8istence. (he pla<)e, accordin" to =arcel, %as @$ cm. 8 F'9 cm. BT@ b in. 8 c.18 b ft.C. =arcel notes that the only %ay to see this inscription %as !y !oat. TF. (his list of %hat is e8tant is !)t a small portion of %hat Badr al.HamGlI constr)cted. *e, for instance, !)ilt a ne% palace for himself in Cairo so he did not have to live in the palace %here precedin" wazrs had lived. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:&#8, &'1, &'&. T'. =arcel, .escri&tion de l>%g#&te, 1T8?T9, 1F1?8&. T@. I!id., 19'?98. T8. I!id., 19&. T9. (his phrase, %hich %hile )sed in the R)rSGn to !e"in chapters, %as nonetheless very commonly )sed in social practice. It is interestin" to note that the first t%o %ords of this phrase, bismi *lahi, in the Dame of ,od, %ere, of co)rse, )sed !y all Christian "ro)ps %ho spoke and %rote Ara!ic to !e"in their sal)tations, 6In the name of ,od,W7 %hich contin)ed differently from the =)slim one, and often differently amon" Christian rites. #$. R 9:18 B!e"innin" onlyC: 6+nly he can maintain the mos<)es of ,od %ho !elieves in ,od and the 0ast Jay, and maintains the salt and pays the za@t and fears ,od7M and part of '1:1#: 6*elp from ,od and Pro8imate ;ictory.7 #1. /ee chap. #. #T. 5or the a!andonment of the processions, see /anders, Fatimid airo, '@?'9. ##. *e %as kno%n !y his title-al.=aSmLn. *is name %as A!L EA!d AllGh i!n al.AAall.

#&. *e %as the son of a 5atimid d* in Ira< and entered the service of the previo)s wazr, al.AfdOal. *e %as arrested in 11TF F19, acc)sed of plottin" a"ainst ImGm al.Xmir, and e8ec)ted Balon" %ith his !rothersC in 11T8. #F. ImGm al.Xmir %as p)t on the throne %hen he %as five years old !y wazr al.AfdOal. #'. I!n al./OayrafI, ,l-2shara ila man nala al-wizarah, ed. EA!d Allah =)khlis BCairo, 19T&C, 11, editorSs comment. #@. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:1'9. #8. I!n =)yassar, ,@hbar 4is+r, 'T. #9. /ee note 1T a!ove. &$. (he reconstr)ction of this mos<)e %as completed in the 199$s. At that time the so)th third of the facade %as !)ilt ane% !y replicatin" the e8tant third. &1. DGsOir.i 2h)sra%, Sa!ar-nma, 1##?#&. DGsOir.i 2h)sra%Ss description says that 6!elo% and a!ove these !ands the distance %as the same, so that the hei"ht %as divided into three parts.7 (his tripartite e<)al division %as not replicated on the facade. Sa!ar-nma, 1##. &T. It mi"ht even !e s)""ested that the "ray.%hite stone medi)m of the facade %hich "ave the name 6al.A<mar7-the moonlit-to the str)ct)re %as e<)ivalent to the %hite, 5atimid royal color of the coverin". &#. 5or their appearance in Ifri<iya, see Honathan =. Bloom, 6(he +ri"ins of 5atimid Art,7 4u'arnas # B198FC: T#?TF. &&. Al.=a<rI4I, al-=hitat T:&F1M EAlI =)!Grak, al-=hitat al-taw!i'##a #:@#. &F. 5 %, 8:1&'?&@M and in 1illiams, 6C)lt of EAlId /aints,7 &#. &'. (his inscription is a!o)t t%enty.fo)r feet from "ro)nd level. &@. (hey are a!o)t fo)r meters B1# ft.C a!ove "ro)nd. (hese fi")res are appro8imate !eca)se "ro)nd level then is hard to fi8. &8. /ee chap. 1. &9. 1illiams, 6C)lt of EAlId /aints,7 &&?&' presents a different vie%. F$. Cons)lt I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. #, pt. 1, for the many instances of comments a!o)t the appropriateness of the titles conferred on the wazr. F1. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T: #88?9$, &TT, &#$?#T, &#'?#@, &&F?F$, &9$?91, F$T?# lists thirteen feasts thro)"ho)t the year in %hich the space %as )sed: commemoration of the death of *O)saynM EXshLra B1$ =)hOarramCM the !irths of *O)sayn BF 9a!IE ICM 5GtOima BT$ H)mGda IICM EAlI B1# 9aAa!CM *Oassan B1F 9amadanCM investit)re of ,hadIr 2)mmM !irthday of rei"nin" caliph-al.Xmir-B1T =)hOarramCM Ed al-!itr B1 /ha%%GlCM Ed al-ad+h+a B1$ Jh)Sl *OiAAaCM Be"innin" of year B1 =)hOarramCM maulid al-nab B1T 9a!IE ICM depart)re of the caravan to =eccaM pl)s, some cele!ration even of Christian feasts like the 3piphany. /ee also Joris Behrens.A!o)seif, 6(he 5acade of the A<mar =os<)e in the Conte8t of 5atimid Ceremonial,7 4u'arnas 9 B199TC: T9?#8. FT. 4,% 1:T&F, <)otin" al.=a<rI4I and I!n EA!d al.NOGhir. F#. /anders, Fatimid airo, #F, 9#, 9@. F&. /anders, Fatimid airo, #F, 9#, 9@M al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:&''. FF. (he Di4GrIs %ere the !ranch of IsmGEIlIs %ho r)led at the Alam)t in the 3l!)r4 mo)ntains. (hey

%ere responsi!le for a variety of )nsettlin" actions in the eastern =editerranean in this period. It is even s)""ested that they %ere responsi!le event)ally for the poisonin" of ImGm al.=)staElI. 1illiams, 6C)lt of EAlId /aints,7 &&?&@, s)""ests that references to the AlIds Bthe family of EAlIC on the al.A<mar mos<)e %ere %ays of com!attin" the Di4GrI pro!lems. *ere I cannot )nderstand the !asis of her ar")ment !eca)se the Di4GrIs %ere also AlIds. (h)s, rather than !ein" 6com!atted7 !y the AlId references on this str)ct)re, they %o)ld have !een incl)ded !y them. /ee also Christopher /. (aylor, 69eeval)atin" the /hIEI 9ole in the Jevelopment of =on)mental 5)nerary Architect)re: (he Case of Cairo,7 4u'arnas 9 B199TC: 1?1$. F'. Di4GrIs form)lated three levels of )nderstandin". (he btin and the z+hir shared most salient aspects %ith the 5atimid IsmGEIlIs. In the dimension of the ha''a the form)lation %as mostly theirs alone. (his is e8po)nded most clearly in DGsOir al.JIn =)hOammad !. =)hOammad al.(OLsI, 5awd+at altaslm, ed. and trans. 1. Ivano% B0eiden: 3. H. Brill, 19F$C. F@. At this time a si"nificant contest e8ists over %ho is a!le to claim the past and in %hat %ay. ImGm al.*OGkim !ecomes an important pivot in the polemics of this period. F8. /. =. /tern, 6(he /)ccession to the 5atimid ImGm al.Xmir, the Claims of the 0ater 5atimids to the ImGmate, and the 9ise of (Oayyi!I Ismailism,7 <riens & B19F1C: 19&. F9. Bierman, 6Art of the P)!lic (e8t,7 T8'. '$. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:T@#, T91, #11 ff. details the !e"innin"s in the shifts in po%er at the 5atimid co)rt that served as prel)de to this incidentM T:1F' mentions the Gihd declared !y 9idO%GnM 2tti*z+ #:1F9?'$ provides the main acco)nt of the specific )pheaval disc)ssed here. '1. /tern, 6(he /)ccession,7 19#?T#FM Pa)la /anders, 6Claimin" the Past: ,hadir 2h)mm and the 9ise of *afi4i *istorio"raphy in 0ate 5atimid 3"ypt,7 Studia 2slamica @F B199TC: 81?1$&. 'T. /OalGh al.JIn B/aladinC, a /hafIEI, the wazr of the last 5atimid ImGm.Caliph, took advanta"e of yet another crisis moment in 5atimid IsmGEIlI s)ccession to end at last the 5atimid ImGmate.Caliphate in 11@1 F'@. /OalGh al.JIn p)t himself on the throne as /)ltan, and firmly p)t 3"ypt )nder /)nni B/hafIEI and =GlikI predominantlyC la% and practice. /ee Andre% /. 3hrenkre)t4, Saladin BAl!any: /tate University of De% Kork Press, 19@TC. '#. BahrGm al.ArmanI served as wazr from 11#&?#@ FT9?#T. =any char"es %ere leveled a"ainst him !y the =)slim %ealthy elite of favorin" Armenian Christians specifically. *e seems to have enco)ra"ed emi"ration of Armenians into 3"ypt and to have "iven Armenians positions in the "overnment. (he specific char"e %as that he favored Armenians over other <)alified people, specifically over mem!ers of traditional B=)slimC scri!al families, like that of 9idO%GnSs. In fact, there is some indication that Coptic Christians %ere not all that happy %ith the staffin". Al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ #:1FF?F'M =ari)s Canard, 6Un vi4ir Chr:tien de lS:po<)e 5atimite: 0SArm:nien BahrGm,7 ,nnales de l>2nstitut d>Dtudes <rientales de la Facult? des ;ettres d>,lger 1T B19F&C: 8&?11#. /ome difference of opinion e8ists as to the !ack"ro)nd of BahrGm al.ArmanI. 5or a detailed acco)nt of his comin" to po%er, see al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ #:1FF?F'. I!n al.=)<affaE states that BahrGmPSs familyQ came from an area near Acre %ith Badr al.HamGlI and that BahrGm, himself, %as a "overnor of a province in the Jelta B3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. #, pt. 1, &'C. '&. I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, #:&8. 'F. 9idO%Gn, accordin" to al.=a<rI4I, considered overthro%in" the ImGmate.Caliphate in favor of a /)nni "overnment. 2tti*z+ #:1&T, 1''. ''. (his event %as so critical in shiftin" the treatment of Christians in the Cairo )r!an area that I!n al.

=)<affaE records it, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. #, pt. 1, &9?F$, %here he makes the point that 9idO%Gn %as the first wazr that !arred Christians from office Balon" %ith !)rnin" ch)rches and do)!lin" the Giz#a Pta8Q on Christians as %ell as He%sC. '@. *e fled %ith his troops to his !rother in R)s: al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ #:1'1?'FM I!n =)yassar, ,@hbar 4is+r, 8T?8#M A!L /OGlihO, hurches and 4onasteries, T#F?#9, records that BahrGm !ecame a monk in the 1hite =onastery near Akhmim. '8. Cla)de Cahen, KLs)f 9a"i!, and =)stafa Ano)ar (aher, 60Sachat et le %a<f dS)n "rand domaine c"yptien par le vi4ir 5atimide (alaSiE !. 9)44Ik,7 ,nnales 2slamologi'ues 1& B19@8C: ', %here it s)""ests that his family %as either Armenian or 2)rdish in ori"in. '9. *e %as killed in 11'$ FF' !y some soldiers as he %as "oin" to the palace. *is da)"hter %as married to the ImGm.Caliph. /ee I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, vol. #, pt. 1, @@?@8. Al. =a<rI4I, 2tti>z+ #:T1@. @$. /ee note 1T a!ove. @1. =entioned in 4,% 1:T@F, <)otin" the same so)rce. @T. (he only f)ll readin" of the inscription is fo)nd in omit? de onser)ation des monuments de l>art ,rabe/ com&tes rendus des exercices, 191F?19 %here it %as read !y Ko)so)f 3ffendi AhOmad, Inspecte)r d) /ervice. 5 %,, no. #T#1M 4 2,, no. &' are !oth incomplete. 9eprod)ced in Cournal ,siati'ue B1891C. 1hen the comit: )ndertook the restoration of this mos<)e the %ritin" in the other !ands %as severely effaced. In the )pper !and %ere R)rSGnic <)otations from 9:1T9 Bs(rat al-bar>a>, (he Imm)nityCM 1T:'& Bs(rat O(su!, HosephCM and #:188?9F Bs(rat al *2mran, (he 5amily of AmranC. @#. I!n al.=)<affaE, 3istor# o! the Patriarchs, @8?@9, &'?&@. @&. /OalGhO al.JIn for instance maintained the concentric circle desi"n for a time to ens)re as m)ch as possi!le a smooth economic transition. @F. (he only e8ception appears to !e DaAim al.JIn =)hOammad i!n =asal %ho held the position of wazr for t%o months in 11&9 F&& !efore he %as killed. @'. /)!stantial citations from I!n al.(O)%ayr have !een preserved in the Tri@h al-duwal wa>l-mul(@ of I!n al.5)rat Bd.c. 1F$$CM ho%ever, these are fo)nd in the first three vol)mes, as yet )np)!lished and availa!le only in a )ni<)e ;ienna ms. %hich I have not seen. @@. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:T81. (his is part of a description "iven !y I!n al.(O)%ayr %hich !e"ins on p. T8$. Do silk inscri!ed te8tiles from this period are yet kno%n. (he "reat maAority of the te8tiles have silk %oven !ands !)t the "ro)nd of the te8tile is linen. Plenty of evidence e8ists for the collection, trade, %earin", and )se as payment.in.kind of linen "ro)nd fa!rics %ith silk inscri!ed !orders. (hese records are fo)nd in prof)sion in the ,eni4a doc)ments, and represent a nonofficial, yet %ealthy se"ment of the pop)lation. Cons)lt /. J. ,oitein, ;etters o! 4edie)al Cewish Traders BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 19@#C, and 4editerranean Societ#, vol. 1M Kedida /tillman, 65emale Attire of =edieval 3"ypt: Accordin" to the (ro)ssea) 0ists and Co"nate =aterial from the Cairo ,eni4a,7 BPh.J. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 19@TC. @8. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:&&&?&8 "ives the entire descriptionM this specific ceremony is descri!ed and analy4ed in /anders, Fatimid airo, 88?9#M it %as mentioned !y =ari)s Canard, 60e c:r:monial 5atimite et le c:r:monial By4antin: 3ssai de comparison,7 "#zantion T1 B19F1C: #FF?&T$. @9. S(ra '1, s(rat al-S+a!! B(he 9anksC. /imilar phrases, altho)"h not these e8act %ords, are fo)nd in s(ra &8: 1 and #, Ps(rat al-Fath B(he ;ictoryCQ, %here !ath+an mubnan Bclear victoryC and nas+ran

*azzan B"reat helpC are mentioned. (hese latter phrases appeared in the %ritin" !efore the mihra! on the interior of the mos<)e of al.*OGkim Bsee chap. #C. (he e8act phrase on these !anners is also on the pla<)e %ith Badr al.HamGlISs name on the mos<)e on 9oda Island, and the Dilometer. 8$. Tirz is the %ord )sed in al.=a<rI4I. 1hat the %ord si"nified is hard to sort o)t. 3tymolo"ically speakin", the %ord means em!roidery, !)t te8tiles from this period e8tant today displayin" %ritin" in %hich the semantic content states that they %ere fa!ricated in the tirz %orkshops are not em!roidered. (hey are %oven. In seekin" a referent for this term in the =iddle A"es, and not in contemporary te8tile catalo")es, %e mi"ht spec)late that tirz referred to a cate"ory of !order or !and that had !asic <)alities reco"ni4ed !y all %ho sa% them. (hese <)alities may or may not have !een vested in a specific techni<)e B%eavin" or em!roideryCM they may have !een in desi"n or in color. 81. Al.Ral<ashandI, S+ubh+ al-a*sha #:&@#?@&. (his section, %hich starts on p. &@T, !e"ins %ith a coronation ceremony. 8T. .bG )s)ally is translated as !rocade. H)d"in" from the kinds of te8tiles descri!ed as dibaG the %ord seems to !e )sed <)ite non.scientifically as it is today. (oday, in pop)lar )se, !rocade is )sed to descri!e te8tiles of many differin" techni<)es !)t %hich display "old or silver threads, or !oth. /)ch may have !een its )se in the medieval period. 8#. Al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat T:&T#. 8&. (his !rin"s )p the tan"ential <)estion of ho% the %eavin" esta!lishments kno%n as tirz al-@hs+s+a Bspecial or privateC and tirz al-*mma Bp)!lic or commonC %ere related to prod)ction of cloth for co)rt ceremonial. Undo)!tedly, simply !eca)se of the <)antity demanded, they m)st have !een )sed to prod)ce te8tiles for the processions and for the @iswa for the 2aE!a. B)t to date no record has come to li"ht that clarifies these instit)tions. 1e kno% that d)rin" Bat least oneC De% KearSs ceremony the acco)nts of the tirz %ere read o)t lo)d Bal.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:&&T?&&C %hich s)""ests that the income from these esta!lishments %ent into the e<)ivalent p)rses or treas)ries, namely, the ba#t ml al-muslimna Bor al-*mmaC and the ba#t ml al-@hs+s+ Bor for the maintenance of the palaceC. B)t %hat these esta!lishments prod)ced and %ho !o)"ht %hat is not clear. 8F. (here is possi!ly one other instance. (he description in al.Ral<ashandI of the troops cited in note 81 a!ove Bvol. #, p. T@#C !e"ins !y statin" that 6the t%o most important of the !anners are those kno%n as the /tandard of (hanks Bor PraiseC to ,od Bliwa> # al-h+amdC.7 Perhaps there %ere inscri!ed !anners, too, altho)"h the description says 6kno%n7 Bal-ma*ru!anM. It does not say the !anners displayed %ords of 6thanks.7 8'. (his %ord can refer specifically to the cloth Bor 6clothin"7C %hich covers the 2aE!a in =ecca. In the 5atimid period, it %as a term %hich referred also to the ann)al, occasionally more often than ann)al, distri!)tion of clothin"-or money for clothin"-to the mem!ers of the r)lin" "ro)p, incl)din" the troops. 1hat precisely these o)tfits looked like in this period is )nclear from the te8ts. 1e are told small details, s)ch as ho% certain "ro)ps %rapped t)r!an ends aro)nd their chins, !)t no pattern emer"es. 8@. 5or these I!n al.=aSmLn leaves )s a report, al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat 1:&1$. 5or the early period, see I!n (ayySs acco)nt, al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ #:&1FM see also ,l-=hitat 1:&$9. *ere the acco)nt mentions ro!es of "old fa!ric encr)sted %ith Ae%els and pearls. 88. Al.=a<rI4I, 2tti*z+ #:F1. As !efore, these descriptions are relatively "eneral. 89. In 1ehrSs Jictionary B19'1C 6inscri!ed7 is the meanin" "iven for the %ord man'(sh. B)t in the medieval dictionaries, !oth 0ane and the ;isn al-*arab, the %ord means 6em!ellished7 or 6colored7 %hen applied to cloth. ,oitein talks a!o)t this term appearin" in the ,eni4a records %here =oses

=aimonides replied to a He% %ho asked a!o)t prayin" in front of a %all %here the st)cco decoration %as man'(sh. =aimonides replied that 6fi")res %ere certainly a distraction.Wclose oneSs eyes %hen prayin".7 ,oitein, 4editerranean Societ# &:1T1. 9$. 5or an accessi!le reference to the verses RGdOI al.D)EmGn mentions and their referent cons)lt =ar<)et, 60a pens:e philosophi<)e,7 1&1?81. 91. (his is an ar")ment made !y Cameron %ith re"ard to By4antine rit)al, 6(he Constr)ction of Co)rt 9it)al,7 1$'?9. It is also an element in the ar")ment of Bernard Cohen a!o)t official ceremony in ;ictorian India, 69epresentin" A)thority in ;ictorian India,7 in The 2n)ention o! Tradition, ed. 3ric *o!s!a%m and (erence 9an"er BCam!rid"e: Cam!rid"e University Press, 199TC, 1'F?T$9. /ee esp., /anders, Fatimid airo, 91, for a dia"ram of the De% KearSs procession that is a "ood e8ample of the iss)e at hand. 9T. /)!stantial chan"es took place in the ta8 system in the later 5atimid period. 5or a "ood !asic )nderstandin" of the early period see 2osei =orimoto, The Fiscal ,dministration o! %g#&t in the %arl# 2slamic Period B2yoto: Johosha, 1981C, esp. TTT?F@, %here the late 5atimid period is disc)ssed. /ee also 3liyah) Ashtor, , Social and %conomic 3istor# o! the Bear %ast in the 4iddle ,ges B0ondon: Collins, 19@'C-this te8t sho)ld !e )sed for 6fact7 rather than interpretation. 9#. (he <)estion of color can !e investi"ated in t%o %ays. In 4editerranean Societ# 1:1$'?8, notes &1?'$, ,oitein tells )s a!o)t the colors of fa!rics ordered !y the ,eni4a people as %ell as a!o)t dye st)ffs and dyers. Alternately, %e can look at the color analysis of fa!rics from the area and period. =ost of this latter %ork has !een done !y 9. Pfister, 6=at:ria)8 po)r servir a) classement des te8tiles 3"yptiens post:rie)rs a la Con<)dte Ara!e,7 5e)ue des ,rts ,siati'ue 1$ B19#'C: 1?1', @8?8F. +fficial 5atimid practices related to color are <)ite different from the coeval By4antine practices %here )se of color is le"islated. 9&. /ee the section in this chapter on %a4Ir BahrGm al.ArmanI. 9F. 1hite, 4onasteries, pt. #. 9'. 4,% 1:TT$?TT. 9@. 4,%, vol. 1, plates 11'?T1 for a <)ick revie% of the arched mihra!s. 98. KLs)f 9a"i!Ss metic)lo)s st)dy-6Je)8 mon)ments 5atimides a) pied d) =)<atOtOam,7 5e)ue des Dtudes 2slami'ues &' B19@8C: 91?11@, esp. 9@-states that this str)ct)re cannot !e more specifically dated than to the last 5atimid cent)ry, a vie% %ith %hich I a"ree-contrary to the dates of Cres%ell, 4,% 1:T#'M and Caroline 1illiams, 6(he C)lt of EAlId /aints in the 5atimid =on)ments of Cairo, Part T: (he =a)solea,7 4u'arnas # B198FC: #9?'$, &9. 99. /ee Bierman, 6Art of the P)!lic (e8t,7 T8&?8' for an analysis of the %ritin" in this !)ildin" and the a)dience it addressed. 1$$. +ccasionally the name of the donor %ith one or t%o titles is fo)nd inside: e."., the mihra! al.AfdOal "ave to the AhOmad i!n (OLlLn mos<)e. 4,% 1:TT$?TT. 1$1. /ee especially the pers)asive dissertation of Christopher /. (aylor, 6(he C)lt of the /aints in 0ate =edieval 3"ypt7 BPh.J. diss., Princeton, 1989C, chap. 1, for an assessment of reli"io)s piety at this period, and 69eeval)atin" /hIEI 9ole in Jevelopment of =on)mental 5)nerary Architect)re,7 pp. 1? 1$. /ee also I!n =)yassar, ,@hbar 4is+r and al.=a<rI4I, ,l-=hitat, for m)ltiple references for the re!)ildin" and repair of the ma)solea thro)"ho)t all of the )r!an area. Clearly these str)ct)res %ere constantly !ein" )p"raded, to )se a late t%entieth cent)ry term. 1$T. (he )se of officially sponsored %ritin" in this manner %ent in tandem %ith other practices of

e8pandin" a solid =)slim !ase %ithin the r)lin" "ro)p and in the )r!an area that s)pported it. Wazrs allo%ed some mos<)es to restore the /)nni call to prayerM and the position of the Chief H)d"e B'd+ al'ud+tC %as shared !y representatives of more than one madhhab. Adel Allo)che, 6(he 3sta!lishment of 5o)r Chief H)d"eships in 5atimid 3"ypt,7 Cournal o! the ,merican <riental Societ# 1$F B198FC: #1@? T$. 1$#. EAlI i!n A!I Bakr al.*OarG%i, =itb al-2shrt ila ma*ri!at al-zi#rt, trans. Hanine /o)rdel. (homine BJamasc)s, 19F#C, $uide des lieux de &?lerinage. Al.*arG%i visited Cairo in 11@'?@@ A)st after the fall of the 5atimids and the rise to po%er of their last wazr Salah al.JIn. *e lists %ell over a h)ndred shrines or commemorative str)ct)res for vario)s kinds of people important in =)slim c)lt)re -for e8ample, A)rists s)ch as al./hGfiEi, R)rSGn reciters, as %ell as holy people %ho %ere not mem!ers of the family of the Prophet. /ee also KLs)f 9a"i!, 63ssai dSinventaire chronolo"i<)e des ")ides V lS)sa"e des p:lerins d) Caire,7 5e)ue des Dtudes 2slami'ues &1 B19@#C: TF9?8$.

7. A#terE"r(
(he ca)tion %ith %hich I !e"an, remindin" myself and my readers, %as that %ritin" serves a society in many comple8 %ays. (hat %ritin" si"ns %as a practice of r)lin" persons and "ro)ps in societies for a lon" time. (hat the 5atimid phenomenon needed to !e seen in the f)ll conte8t of the )ses of %ritin" si"ns amon" Christian, He%ish, and other =)slim "ro)ps in the eastern =editerranean. (hat the 5atimid %ritin" of si"ns, of makin" a p)!lic te8t, %as )ni<)e. /tated either %ay, my intention %as to confront t%o notions: that onl# =)slim r)lers )sed officially sponsored %ritin", and that all =)slim r)lers )sed it in the same %ay. (hat is %hy so m)ch of this st)dy has foc)sed on e8plicatin" the conditions that s)pported, the people %ho sponsored, and the a)diences %ho sa% the %ritten si"ns in the years of 5atimid r)le. Beyond this in.depth disc)ssion and analysis of the si"ns the 5atimids %rote-those p)!lic te8ts that %ere raised-%e can %ei"h the 5atimid achievement !y a !rief record of ho% lon" it end)red, especially in the Cairene area its si"ns dominated. In very real %ays 5atimid practice !ecame part of the Cairene tradition of %ritin" si"ns. 5or at least the ne8t t%o cent)ries, Ayy)!id B11@1?1TF$ F'@? '&8C and BahOrI =aml)k B1TF$?1#89 '&8?@91C military r)lers )sed p)!lic te8ts in specific locations in %ays similar to those of the 5atimid wazrs !efore them. If %e consider the social )ses that the military leaders, the wazrs, made of officially sponsored %ritin" si"ns d)rin" the last decades of 5atimid r)le, the contin)ation of s)ch practices is almost predicta!le. (he termination of s)pport for the 5atimid IsmGEIlI Caliph did not alter many of the social conditions in %hich the practices of %ritin" si"ns %ere em!edded. (he first of the Ayy)!id dynasty to r)le in 3"ypt, /OalGhO al.JIn KLs)f i!n AyyL! Bd. 119# F89C %as also the last 5atimid wazr. *e !ecame wazr in 11'8 F'&, /)ltan in 11@1 F'@. By this act he accomplished the task of terminatin" 5atimid r)le that several wazrs !efore him had considered. P1Q *e si"nalled this chan"e as =)slim r)lers traditionally did, !y havin" the @hutba delivered in Cairo in a ne% r)lerSs name-the A!!asid Caliph al.=)stadOIS Br. 11@$?8$ F''?@FC. *is coins maintained the 5atimid format of concentric circles %ith lines of %ritin" in the center circle Bfi". &#C. (hey also maintained R)rSGn 9:##, %hich %as present on 5atimid coins. B)t he and the Ayy)!id /)ltans that follo%ed him maintained this format for only a fe% decades, as part of the transition to their ne% r)le in 3"ypt %hich re<)ired economic sta!ility. (he 5atimid dinar, format and material, %as a kno%n and val)ed part of international e8chan"e. +nce Ayy)!id r)le %as sta!ili4ed, the 5atimid concentric circle format %as a!andoned, and the Umayyad.A!!asid traditional format %as a"ain adopted.

5i". &#a. Jinar, /OalGh al.JIn B1$$T.1.1$T@ Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC 5i". &#!. Jinar, /OalGh al.JIn B1$$T.1.1$T@ Collection of the University of Pennsylvania =)se)m in the Ca!inet of the American D)mismatic /ocietyC /OalGh al.JInSs )se of %ritin" si"ns is kno%n also from the pla<)e he placed on the B)r" al.ImGm at the citadel, a )se of p)!lic te8ts on thresholds kno%n for cent)ries in the eastern =editerranean.PTQ (his %ritin" si"n displays /OalGh al.JInSs titles and the year F@' B118$?81C, and like the pla<)e Badr al. HamGlI had displayed on the mos<)e of AhOmad i!n (OLlLn, the %ritin" refers directly to the political circ)mstances. /OalGh al.JIn is 6he %ho has )nified the lan")a"e of !elief and cr)shed the servants of the Cross Preferrin" to the Cr)sadersQW%ho has revived the empire of the PA!!asidQ Caliph.7 1hile the referential dimensions of the %ritin" here are e<)ivalent to those fo)nd in the later 5atimid period, an aesthetic link %ith the past is !roken. (he script style is nas@h, a c)rsive script that !reaks the vis)al link %ith the %ritin" si"ns from the 5atimid period. A pedestrian can readily link this %ritin" style %ith the other inscriptions of the ne% r)ler and r)le-for e8ample, the fo)ndation inscription at the citadel, recordin" its constr)ction, )nder the order of /OalGh al.JIn and his wazr RarG<a)sh in F@9 B118#?8&C. P#Q 0ater Ayy)!id and then BahOrI =aml)k r)lers chan"ed the script style of their %ritin" si"ns, !)t they maintained a reference !ase e<)ivalent to those of the 5atimid wazrs !efore them. (he placement of Ayy)!id and then =aml)k p)!lic te8ts, !oth on the facades of =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res, and the location of these str)ct)res in the Cairo )r!an area, play vis)ally and semantically %ith those of e8istin" 5atimid te8ts. 5o)r sites formed the topo"raphy of r)le in the 5atimid period: the Bayn al.Rasrayn-the palaces flankin" it and the al.A<mar mos<)eM the An%ar or al.*OGkim mos<)e at the BG! al.5)tLhOM the mus+alla at the BG! al.DasOrM and the al.A4har mos<)e Bmap #C.P&Q (he Ayy)!id and then the BahOrI =aml)k r)lers maintained three of these sites as part of their o%n topo"raphy of r)le-the Bayn al.Rasrayn, and the al.A4har and al.*OGkim mos<)es-!)t effectively inscri!ed them %ithin different aesthetic, social, and str)ct)ral net%orks. In this manner the sites !ecame historically layered in their associations %ith r)le. +ne of these sites, the Bayn al.Rasrayn and the t%o palaces alon" %ith the al.A<mar mos<)e, is especially relevant here.PFQ (he area of the 5atimid palaces and the al.A<mar mos<)e remained important in the ne% hierarchies %ithin !oth Ayy)!id and =aml)k Cairo. (he 5atimid palaces may have contin)ed to !e inha!ited in the early Ayy)!id period, !)t on !oth sides of the street, comple8es %ere !)ilt over and %ith materials from these demolished palaces. +n the east side, the 5atimid ImGmSs residence and the ma)sole)m of the IsmGEIlI ImGms %ere replaced !y the madrasa and ma)sole)m comple8 of DaAim al.JIn AyyL!,P'Q and in the =aml)k period, !y the madrasa !)ilt !y al.NOGhir Bay!ars in 1T'T.P@Q +n the %est side, the overlay of the 1estern Palace %as completed in the BahOrI =aml)k period %ith the constr)ction of the comple8es and ma)solea of /)ltan RalGSLn and /)ltan al.DGsOr =)hOammad Bmap FC.P8Q (h)s the area remained residential in character, as it had !een, !)t in the Ayy)!id and =aml)k times the residents %ere st)dents, professors, and other f)nctionaries at the "reat academic, medical, and commemorative str)ct)res that shaped the space. (he area also remained the !)rial site of the r)lersM Ayy)!id and then =aml)k r)lers %ere interred there.

=ap F. Post.5atimid Cairo Bdra%n !y Carel BertramC

DaAim al.JIn AyyL! Br. 1T&$?&9 '#@?&@C, the last of /OalGh al.JInSs dynasty to r)le, and then =aml)k /)ltans RalGSLn Br. 1T8$?9$ '@8?89C and al.DasOr =)hOammadP9Q )sed p)!lic te8ts on the o)tside of the comple8es they !)ilt in this area. In the mid.thirteenth cent)ry, DaAim al.JIn AyyL! !)ilt a madrasa on the site of the 3astern Palace, an act that replaced the 5atimid ImGmsS residence and ma)solea %ith a teachin" instit)tion for the fo)r /)nni schools of la%. After the /)ltanSs death, his %ido% inserted a tom! for her h)s!and into the madrasa !y !)ildin" into the main teachin" hall of the =GlikI la% school.P1$Q (he facade of the madrasa resonates stron"ly %ith that of the mos<)e of (OalGSiE located to the so)th, alon" the ,reat /treet Bmap FC, and its entrance portal relates directly to that of the al.A<mar mos<)e, almost immediately to the north, on the same side of the ,reat /treet Bfi". &&C.P11Q (he !and of inscription on the portal displays the names and titles of the /)ltan. In the arched hood over the portal, %here in the al.A<mar mos<)e a lar"e concentric circle medallion is displayed, a pla<)e %ith lines of %ritin" displays in a different format the names and titles of the /)ltan. Altho)"h these p)!lic te8ts on the madrasa share an e<)ivalent evocational !ase %ith those on the al.A<mar mos<)e and that of (OalGSiE, the nas@h script distin")ishes them vis)ally from those on the 5atimid str)ct)res. At the same time, the nas@h script links them %ith the other Ayy)!id p)!lic te8ts in the city. 1ithin the ne8t five decades, three more maAor comple8es %ere constr)cted in this area, t%o across the street on the site of the 1estern Palace. +n the order of =aml)k /)ltans RalGSLn and al.DasOr =)hOammad maAor madrasa.ma)sole)m comple8es %ere !)ilt on this site.P1TQ +n the facades of !oth of these comple8es the /)ltans displayed %ritin" si"ns in vis)ally prominent !ands r)nnin" the len"th of the facade Bfi". &FC.P1#Q (he semantic content of each of the !ands is the names and titles of the /)ltan. /)ltan RalGSLnSs titles are especially ela!orated t%ice on the facade of his comple8, follo%in" the practice on the al.A<mar mos<)e. In addition to the )s)al ran"e of titles, /)ltan RalGSLn is: 6the 2in" of 2in"s of Ara!s and Persians, the Possessor of (%o Qiblas, the 2iller of Infidels and Polytheists.7 (he other comple8 in this location, the @han'ah Bdervish lod"eC and ma)sole)m of /)ltan Bay!ars al. ,ashankir !)ilt in 1#$9, displays p)!lic te8ts similar in form, in placement, and in content to the t%o =aml)k comple8es mentioned a!ove. (his @han'ah and ma)sole)m %ere !)ilt over the palace )sed !y the very last 5atimid wazrs located on the northern side of the 3astern Palace, on the road from the BG! al.DasOr Bmap F, fi". &'C.P1&Q

5i". &&. 5acade, madrasa of /)ltan DaAim al.JIn AyyL!, after Cres%ell, 4uslim ,rchitecture o! %g#&t, vol. T 5i". &F. 5acade, madrasa.ma)sole)m of /)ltan RalGSLn 5i". &'. 5acade, @han'ah.ma)sole)m of /)ltan Bay!ars al.,ashankir (hese =aml)k p)!lic te8ts, in placement on str)ct)res, location %ithin the city, and referential !ase, contin)e the 5atimid Cairene tradition of )sin" %ritin" si"ns on =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res. *o%ever, they %ere made readily distin")isha!le from those of !oth the 5atimid wazrs and the Ayy)!id /)ltans !y the style of the script, nas@h. 1hile nas@h script %as )sed !y the Ayy)!ids, the proportions of =aml)k nas@h are reco"ni4a!ly different from the Ayy)!id %ritin" si"ns. (he )pri"ht letters are m)ch taller in relation to the hori4ontal lines. In addition, the =aml)k %ritin" si"ns themselves are m)ch lar"er than those of the Ayy)!ids.

(his practice of displayin" p)!lic te8ts created a dense net%ork of te8ts in the area %here the 5atimid palaces %ere !)ilt and %here the al.A<mar mos<)e %as preserved. (he addition to the 5atimid !ase, the Ayy)!id, and =aml)k p)!lic te8ts created Band createC a richly te8t)red net%ork of si"ns. 1hen all these str)ct)res %ere completed, a)diences co)ld easily perceive the differences in %ritin" styles. B)t seein" a hierarchy amon" those vis)al differences %as a social f)nction, and !elon"s to the %ays each of these str)ct)res %as inscri!ed in the social )se of the day.P1FQ *o% the str)ct)re itself %as )sed in the social order, its privile"e of place, formed part of the A)d"ment the a)diences made %hen perceivin" these %ritin" si"ns. (o the !eholder of all these %ritin" si"ns, medi)m %as a less relevant aesthetic dimension for conveyin" meanin" than it %as, for e8ample, in the Jome of the 9ock, !eca)se all of these inscriptions %ere in either mar!le or finely finished stone. 9elevant to this st)dy also is the area of the (OalGSiE mos<)e A)st o)tside the BG! N)%ayla. 1hile not important %ithin the topo"raphy of 5atimid r)le, the Jar! al.AhOmar, the ne% street r)nnin" so)theast from the BG! N)%ayla, !ecame the main thoro)"hfare in the =aml)k period Bmap FC. It s)pplanted the e8tension of the ,reat /treet in importance and alon" it mem!ers of the =aml)k r)lin" "ro)p !)ilt comm)nal str)ct)res. (he importance of this street in the =aml)k period foc)sed attention on the (OalGSiE mos<)e. (his site lacks the dense association %ith r)le of the 5atimid palace and mos<)e of al.A<mar area, !)t the vis)al impact of the (OalGSiE mos<)e, and the p)!lic te8ts on it, )ndo)!tedly acco)nts for the =aml)k response in the form of %ritin" si"ns. (he orientation of the (OalGSiE mos<)e to%ard the 'ibla ass)res that the main facade of the str)ct)re is f)lly in the vie% of a pedestrian e8itin" the BG! N)%ayla. In addition, the str)ct)re "ives definition to the street patterns o)tside this "ate. It creates the corner %here the ,reat /treet and the Jar! al.AhOmar meet, so that anyone proceedin" do%n either street m)st pass the f)ll len"th of one of its facades. (he lon" north side of this mos<)e creates the !e"innin" of the Jar! al.AhOmar, A)st as the %est facade does for the ,reat /treet. (he !ands of p)!lic te8ts on the (OalGSiE mos<)e %ere a hi"hly visi!le feat)re of the facades Bfi". #8C.P1'Q It is not at all s)rprisin", then, that the first mos<)e !)ilt !y a =aml)k near!y on the Jar! al.AhOmar responded %ith the display of p)!lic te8ts in !ands Bfi". &@C. AmIr AhOmad al.=ihmandar, /)ltan al.DasOr =)hOammadSs chief of protocol, !)ilt the first =)slim comm)nal str)ct)re on that street in 1#TF. It %as a mos<)e located on the same side of the Jar! al.AhOmar as the mos<)e of (OalGSiE, and A)st shortly !eyond it Bmap FC.P1@Q As e8pected, the !ands of p)!lic te8t display his name and titles and also provide some indication as to %hy he %as chosen chief of protocol. (he te8t of the inscription is an ast)te presentation of the AmIr as a "ood =)slim %ho %orks "ratef)lly %ithin the social order )nder /)ltan al.DasOr =)hOammad. (he nas@h style of the %ritin" links it vis)ally %ith those %ritin" si"ns %ithin the %alled city sponsored !y the =aml)k /)ltans.

5i". &@. 5acade, mos<)e of AmIr AhOmad al.=ihmandar (he post.5atimid Cairo map Bmap FC is especially desi"ned to hi"hli"ht the A)8taposition of the e8tant str)ct)res that display prominent p)!lic te8ts alon" their facades, and their locations are easy to apprehend. In no other locations %ithin the )r!an area of Cairo.=isOr did military leaders )se p)!lic te8ts to the same de"ree of density. (his assessment of the practice of %ritin" si"ns is !ased, of co)rse, on an e8amination of e8tant !)ildin"s. 5ort)nately, n)mero)s !)ildin"s of the =aml)k period s)rvive, and provide ample evidence to s)pport this contention, as do the fe% remainin" from the Ayy)!id period. /)ltan al.DasOr =)hOammadSs practices of )sin" %ritin" si"ns are indicative of the more "eneral practice. *e displayed p)!lic te8ts alon" the facade only on the comple8 he !)ilt over the 5atimid palace. Do !ands of inscriptions artic)late the e8terior %alls of the lar"e mos<)e he !)ilt on the citadel. In other parts of the city, the =aml)ks developed a different practice for the display of %ritin" on the

e8terior. +ne element of 5atimid practice, that of displayin" %ritin" si"ns on the interior of =)slim comm)nal str)ct)res, %as maintained !y the s)cceedin" r)lers. (hese %ritin" si"ns %ere maintained as the prominent vis)al si"n in the artic)lation of the interior. (his practice %as applied to interiors of comm)nal str)ct)res thro)"ho)t the entire )r!an area, and is readily apparent from any !rief s)rvey. In ma)solea, like those of DaAim al.JIn AyyL!, /)ltan RalGSLn at the Bayn al.Rasrayn, /)ltan *asan at the foot of the citadel, or ImGm al./hGfiEi in the Rarafa cemetery, %ritin" si"ns %ere prominently displayed on the interior. As in the 5atimid period, this practice %as applied in mos<)es and in madrasas in the Ayy)!id and =aml)k periods as %ell. Altho)"h in mos<)es, %hether co)rtyard or iwan Bthree.sided cham!erC style, %ritin" si"ns %ere placed most consistently only in the 'ibla area, and not, as in 5atimid practice, thro)"ho)t the interior. (he reference !ase of the inscriptions remained primarily the R)rSGn, altho)"h, as !efore, patron information did appear. (he style of script )sed for these %ritin" si"ns %as varied, even %ithin str)ct)res, especially in =aml)k practice, a"ain a contrast %ith 5atimid practice in %hich %ritin" si"ns %ere al%ays presented in a variant of 2)fic script. (he intent here is to point to the most salient aspects of the contin)ation of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t and practices of %ritin" si"ns. (he social )ses of officially sponsored %ritin" addressed to a "ro)p a)dience in the Ayy)!id, and especially in the =aml)k period %here m)ch evidence remains, re<)ire their o%n serio)s analysis. In dra%in" this st)dy to a close, it is )sef)l to !rin" the contin)ation of the 5atimid p)!lic te8t into the t%entieth cent)ry, and to do so re<)ires ret)rnin" to an iss)e taken )p in the previo)s chapter. (here the iss)e of the dissol)tion of form and content %as disc)ssed in relation to practices in the later 5atimid period in %hich the ro)nd form of the si"n of IsmaEilism %as maintained, !)t its IsmGEIlI content dissolved. (he dissol)tion of form and content of the si"n of IsmaEilism %as part of the process !y %hich a p)!licly visi!le architect)ral element %as appropriated and assi"ned a ne% meanin" or connotation. /)ch appropriation is a contin)o)s process in a city, and is linked to a related, !)t distinct, process in %hich old forms are a conscio)s model for ne% forms. De%ly created old forms are )sed to fa!ricate a past and make linka"es %ith it.P18Q Dat)rally, here, too, ne% meanin"s and ne% )ses are assi"ned to the old forms. (he facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e, %ith its strikin" format for p)!lic te8ts, is an old form that in the t%entieth cent)ry has !een ne%ly made and appropriated. 3arlier this cent)ry, the Coptic comm)nity fa!ricated a ne% version of the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e, )sin" it as the facade for the ne% Coptic =)se)m Bfi". &8C. (he formal aspects of the ne% facade closely resonate %ith those of the al.A<mar mos<)e Bfi". #FC: its tripartite division, salient portal, ro)ndel %ithin the portal, and three !ands c)ttin" the facade. B)t the alterations present in the ne% old form are part of a t%entieth.cent)ry connotative system that is Cairene, and serve to hi"hli"ht for )s ho% architect)ral forms can !ecome modern em!lems of the historical past of an )r!an area.

5i". &8. 5acade, Coptic =)se)m (he %ritin" on the facade of the m)se)m is in t%o lan")a"es, and is more limited in its display than on the earlier form. In the center of the facade, )nder the cornice of the salient portal of the m)se)m, the !and of %ritin" is in Coptic, alpha!et and lan")a"e. It names the place. +n the t%o side %in"s, the top !and displays %ritin" in Ara!ic, lan")a"e and alpha!et. It also names and dates the place. (he alpha!ets and lan")a"es, as %ell as their placement on the facade, relate directly to the comm)nity, society, and local a)dience of this m)se)m. (he t%o other !ands, the intermediate one r)nnin" the f)ll len"th of the facade, and the third and lo%est one r)nnin" only on the portal, %hich on the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e %ere spaces for

%ritin" si"ns, on the facade of the Coptic =)se)m are filled %ith "eometric desi"ns. (he other format for %ritin" on the facade of the al.A<mar mos<)e, the concentric circle medallions a!ove the entrance portal and in the niches on the side, is maintained, !)t not as a space for %ritin". Instead, on the facade of the Coptic =)se)m, the center of each circle displays the form of the Coptic cross. 5or those !eholders %ho visit the m)se)m and cannot read, and perhaps even identify either %ritin" si"n, the form of the Coptic cross marks the !)ildin" as !elon"in" to the Coptic comm)nity. (here are, of co)rse, many !eholders for %hom the %ritin" si"ns are not p)!lic te8ts !eca)se they do not reco"ni4e the presence of %ritin". (he Coptic =)se)m is visited !y many forei"n to)rs yearly. (he relationship of the ne% old form of the facade of this m)se)m to its s)rro)ndin" area provides a confirmation in the t%entieth cent)ry of the contention of this st)dy, namely, that 5atimid practice of the p)!lic te8t %as different in its day from the traditional practice of %ritin" si"ns. (he Coptic =)se)m is located in %hat today is kno%n as =isOr al.RGdOImah Bold =isOrC, or 5)stOGtO, to )se the other medieval term, A)st so)th of the mos<)e of EAmr. (he imposition of this ne% version of the al.A<mar facade in the oldest part of the Cairo )r!an area A)8taposes the form for the display of 5atimid p)!lic te8ts to the facades of medieval Coptic ch)rches, the mos<)e of EAmr, and the syna"o")e %hich nei"h!or it.P19Q Do %ritin" si"ns appear on the e8terior of those =)slim, He%ish, or Christian sectarian str)ct)res. (he only !)ildin" !elon"in" to the Coptic comm)nity in this area that displays p)!lic te8ts is the facade of the m)se)m, %hich displays those te8ts in the frame%ork of the old 5atimid form. In this A)8taposition, this ne% old form is the thread connectin" the modern !eholder to other parts of the city and to 5atimid practices of %ritin" si"ns. I end %ith a line perhaps familiar to all %ho see %ritin" si"ns every%here: 6(he %aterskater, that is an insect and d)m!, traces the name of ,od on the s)rface of ponds-or so the Ara!ians say7 BH. =. Coet4ee, FoeC. (akin" a c)e from a passa"e from the same a)thor cited in my Preface, I co)ld add that this tracery is endless.

N"tes
1. Al.=a<rI4I states that 9idO%Gn, the /)nni wazr of ImGm.Caliph al.*OGfi4O, considered overthro%in" him. 2tti*z+ #:1&T. T. 2,, 3"ypte, vol. 1, appendi8, @T'?T@M 4,%, vol. T, plate @c. #. 2,, 3"ypte 1:8$?8F. 4,%, vol. T, fi". 1F sho%s the location of the inscriptions. &. Bierman, 6Ur!an =emory,7 1?1T. F. (he al.*OGkim mos<)e retains the e8terior from the period of Badr al.HamGlI. Its c)rrent interior is a modified version of that period. (he e8terior of the al.A4har mos<)e is "reatly layered and modified. /ee i!id., #. '. I!id., &M ,erman Instit)te of Archaeolo"y Cairo, 4ausoleum des Sultans as-Saleh Bagm ad-.in ,##(b BCairo, 199#C, and 4inaret o! 4adrasa o! as-Saleh Bagm ad-.in ,##(b, report on the restoration proAects of the ,erman Instit)te of Archaeolo"y in the Jistrict of ,amaliya Bn.p., n.d.C. @. (he madrasa of al.NO)nddotMGhir Bay!ars is no lon"er e8tant. 8. (he Ayy)!ids !)ilt on the %est side too, !)t the str)ct)res are not e8tant today. 9. *e !ecame /)ltan t%ice: 1T9&?9F and 1T99?1#$9 '9#?9& and '98?@$8. 1$. /ee Dairy *ampikian, 69estoration of the =a)sole)m of al./OGlihO DaAim al.JIn AyyL!,7 in Bacharach, 2slamic 4onuments, &'?F8M 4,% T: 9&?1$#. 11. 5 %,, vol. T, nos. &T19, &TT$M 2,, 3"ypte 1:F@'.

1T. /)ltan RalGSLnSs comple8 also incl)ded a hospital-!)t it %as !ehind, not flankin" the street. *is family and retainers %ere avid !)ilders. /ee Caroline 1illiams, 6(he =os<)e of /itt *ada<,7 4u'arnas 11 B199&C: FF?F'. 1#. 5 %,, vol. 1#, RalGSLn nos. &8F$M &8FT, &8F#M 2,, 3"ypt, vol. 1, nos. 8#, 8&, plate TFM al.DGsOir =)hOammad, 5 %,, vol. 1#, no. F$$'M 2,, 3"ypte, vol. 1, nos. 1, 1##, @'T. 1&. 4,%, vol. T, plate 9'. 1F. 5or an easy reference to the f)nction and social role of the str)ct)res disc)ssed here, see Carl 5. Petry, The i)ilian %lite o! airo in the ;ater 4iddle ,ges BPrinceton: Princeton University Press, 1981C, appendi8 1. 1'. /ee chap. &. 1@. 4,%, vol. T, plates 1$&!, 1$&c. (his str)ct)re is disc)ssed also in 9ichard Parker, 9o!in /a!in, and Caroline 1illiams, 2slamic 4onuments in airo/ , Practical $uide, #rd edition BCairo, 198FC %here there is handy reference to the inscription. 18. Bierman, 6Ur!an =emory,7 8. 19. 1e need to consider the facades of !oth the mos<)e and syna"o")e !efore their recent e8pansions and restorations.

A//en(iFatimi( Im4m0Ca&i/!s 6reign (ates> al.=)Ei44 al.EA4I4 al.*OGkim al.NOGhir al.=)stansOir al.=)staElI al.Xmir al.*OGfi4O al.NOafir al.5GSi4 al.EXdOid Wazrs mentioned Badr al.HamGlI Bal.=)stansOirC al.AfdOal Bal.=)staElI, al.XmirC al.=aSmLn Bal.XmirC BahrGm al.ArmanI Bal.*OGfi4OC 9idO%Gn i!n al.1alakshi Bal.*Oafi4C 1$@#?9& &''?8@ 1$9&?11T1 &8@?F1F 11T1?TF F1F?19 11#&?#@ FT9?#T 11#@?#9 F#T?#& 9F#?@F #&1?'F 9@F?9' #'F?8' 99'?1$T1 #8'?&11 1$T1?#' &11?T@ 1$#'?9& &T@?8@ 1$9&?11$1 &8@?9F 11$1?11#$ &9F?FT& 11#1?&9 FTF?&& 11&9?F& F&&?&9 11F&?'$ F&9?FF 11'$?@1 FFF?'@

(OalGSiE i!n 9)44Ik Bal.5GSi4, al.EXdOidC 11&9?'$ F&9?F'

Fatimi( Im4m0Ca&i/!s 6reign (ates> /OalGh al.JIn al.Ayy)!i Bal.EXdOidC 11'8?@1 F'&?'@

G&"ssar%
A!!asid Jynasty that r)led from Ira< @&9?1TF8 1#T?'F'. dhn Call to prayer. ass 5o)ndation. asbb al-nuz(l 0iterally, 6the ca)ses for the comin" do%n.7 It is the collection of acco)nts that doc)ments the conditions or reasons that ca)sed ,odSs messa"es to !e "iven to the Prophet =)hOammad. #a ;erse of the R)rSGn. Ayy)!id Jynasty that r)led in 3"ypt 11'9?1TF$ F'&?'&8. basmala (he form)la, 6In the name of ,od, the =ercif)l, the Compassionate.7 btin 3soteric Bor hiddenC dimension. ba#n al-'as+ra#n 0iterally, !et%een the t%o palaces. (he name "iven to the open area in Cairo that %as !et%een the ImGmSs palace on the east side of the street and the palace on the %est side of the street. dbi' (erm for fine linen. dr al-h+i@ma 0iterally, *o)se of 1isdom. Place in 5atimid Cairo %here IsmaSili st)dies took place Bsee dr al-*ilmC. dr al-*ilm 0iterally, *o)se of 2no%led"e. Place in 5atimid Cairo %here IsmGEIlI st)dies took place Bsee dr al-h+i@maC. da*wa +r"ani4ation of reli"io)s di"nataries in IsmGEIlI practice. dinar ,old coin. dirham /ilver coin. dwn 0iterally, a collection or "ro)p. As )sed in the te8t, it means co)ncil. h+aGG Pil"rima"e to =ecca. hegira 3mi"ration of the Prophet =)hOammad from =ecca to =edina in H)ly 'TT. (he term also refers to the =)slim calendar %hich is reckoned from that event and is desi"nated 6 A.*. 7 iwan (hree.sided space or room, open on the fo)rth side.

@halG ChannelM in this te8t it refers to the channel flo%in" from the Dile. @hutba /ermon delivered in the mos<)e d)rin" the 5riday noon prayer. @iswa Coverin"BsC. It is the term )sed for the coverin" of the 2aE!a and in the medieval period refers to coverin"s in "eneral and "ifts of te8tiles. madhhab /chool or rite of BIslamicC la%. =GlikI, /hafIEI, *Oan!alI, *anafI are the fo)r main /)nni schools. IsmGEIlI and ImGmI Bor (%elversC are t%o /hIEI schools. maghariba 0iterally, 6%esterners.7 Ber!er Dorth African forces. =aml)k Jynasty that r)led in 3"ypt 1TF$?1F1@ '&8?9TT. manz+ara Place commandin" a vie%, a look o)t. Do specific form is denoted !y this term. mashri'i#a 0iterally, 6easterners.7 De%ly recr)ited forces into the 5atimid armies mainly composed of ()rks and Jaylami and others from the east. mihra! Diche in the %all of a mos<)e or other place of prayer indicatin" the direction of =ecca. =isOr In the medieval period the term referred to 5)stOGtO and those )r!an areas so)th of the royal city of Cairo. In the modern period the term refers to the )r!an area of "reater Cairo and often to 3"ypt as a %hole. mus+alla Jelineated B!)t not enclosedC space for prayer, )s)ally o)tside the city %alls. It %as c)stomarily )sed on special days in the =)slim calendar %hen many =)slims "athered for prayer. 0ocated o)tside BG! al.DasOr. nas@h A c)rsive script style. nti' /peaker.Prophet. 'ad+i H)d"e. 'ibla Jirection Bof =eccaC. In prayer spaces, the 'ibla %all is the one oriented to =ecca. rah+ba +pen area. 9amadan (he ninth month of the =)slim calendar. (he month of fastin". /afavid Jynasty that r)led from Iran 1F$1?1@8' 9$@?1T$$. s+mit /ilent +ne. /elA)k 9)lers in %hat is today Ira<, /yria, Iran, and ()rkey from 1$#@?1#$@ &T9?@$@. 0en"th of r)le varied !y area. shahda

(he form)la 6Do "od !)t (he ,od and =)hOammad is the prophet of ,od.7 shri*a al-a*z+am 0iterally, the ,reat /treet. As applied to medieval Cairo it indicates the main street formin" the central spine r)nnin" from the BG! al.5)tLhO in the north thro)"h the city and o)t the so)thern central "ate and !eyond to the pop)lation areas so)th of the %alled city of Cairo. si@@a (he ri"ht to strike coins. s(ra Chapter, of the R)rSGn. ta!sr 38e"esis. ta>wl Interpretation. tirz (echnically means em!roidery. In many art historical %ritin"s the term is applied to the !ands of %ritin" in Ara!ic on te8tiles %hether or not they %ere em!roidered. By e8tension, from the early nineteenth cent)ry on, the term has !een applied to !ands of %ritin" on !)ildin"s. Umayyad Jynasty that r)led from /yria ''1?@F$ &1?1#T. was+ /pirit)al 0e"atee. z+hir (he literal Bor o!vio)sC dimension. zi#da 38tensionM term applied to an enclos)re added to a mos<)e-either s)rro)ndin" it or on one side.

A,,re$iati"ns
CIA =CIA 4at?riaux Pour un or&us 2nscri&tionum ,rabicarum %4, Cres%ell, %arl# 4uslim ,rchitecture 4,% Cres%ell, The 4uslim ,rchitecture o! %g#&t 5 %, Instit)t franUais dSarch:olo"ie orientale d) Caire, 5?&ertoire hronologi'ue d>D&igra&hie ,rabe

Bi,&i"gra/!%
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Preferred Citation: Bierman, Irene A. Writing Signs: The Fatimid Public Text. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1998 1998. http: ark.cdli!.or" ark: 1#$#$ ft1%1$$&'#