ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

Units:
DIMENSION SI
Time Seconds (S)
Length meter(m)
Force Newton(N)
Mass Kilogram(kg)
Temperature Celsius(C)
FORCE: A one Newton force will give a one kilogram mass an acceleration of 1m/s
2
1N =1kg *1m/sec
2
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC VOLUME: Density r is mass per unit volume (kg/m
3
)
Specific volume (v) is volume per unit mass (m
3
/kg) r=1/v
Specific Weight: Weight per unit volume (n), n=rg (N/m
3
)
Pressure : Force per unit area (N/m
2
)
SI system 1Pascal (Pa)=1N/m
2
, 1bar =10
5
N/m
2
Gage Pressure Measured w.r.t surrounding (ambient) pressure
P
abs
=P
amb
+P
gage
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If Pgage is Negative then the absolute pressure is below ambient. It is called
(positive) vacuum reading
AMBIENT PR.
P1 Gage
P2 Vacuum
P1 Absolute
P2abs
PERFECT VACUUM
1
2
ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURE
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Temperature : K =
o
C+273.15
Viscosity:
Any substance that will continuously deform when subjected to shear stress
) / ( cos ,
2
m s N
tion lardeforma Rateofangu
s ShearStres
ity Vis = ) / ( cos
2
s m ity Vis Kinematic

=
Equation of state: P=rRT For ideal gas , P=ZrRT For Non-ideal gas
P=absolute pressure in N/m2, r =density in kg/m
3
,T is the absolute temperature in K
and R in N-m/kg-K(J /kg K), Z-Factor for non-ideal gas
Some Mathematical Concepts: y=f(x) ,y is dependent and x is independent
P=f(x,y,z)
Infinitesimal : A quantity which eventually is allowed to approach zero in the limit is called an
infinitesimal
dy/dx=lim Dx>0 Dy/Dx
Binomial Theorem
(a+x)
n
= a
n
+na
(n-1)
x+n(n-1)/2! a
(n-2)
x
2
+n(n-1)(n-2)/3!a
(n-3)
x
3
+..
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Thermodynamic concepts
Microscopic approach: deals with molecules their motion and behavior
structure & behavior of matter
Macroscopic approach: deals directly with the average behavior like
temperature, pressure etc.
Control volume: A fixed quantity of mass which is being analyzed
closed system, Since no matter cross the boundary
Control Volume : A region in space which is being analyzed Open system
since matter or energy may cross
Properties: Characteristics which describe the state of a system Pressure,
temperature, entropy)
Intensive Property: Depends only on the state of the system and is independent
of its mass (ex: temperature,Pressure)
Extensive Property: Depends on mass of the system (eg: internal energy,
volume)
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Types of properties
1. Observable-readily measurable, Pressure, temperature, velocity, mass
2. Mathematical: Defined from combination of other properties like density, specific heat, enthalpy
3. Derived :Obtained from analysis, internal energy Ist Law, Entropy 2
nd
Law
State Change: Comes about as the result of a change in any property
Path or Process: represent a series of adjacent states which define a unique path one to another
Types of process:
1. Adiabatic - No heat transfer
2. Isothermal - Temperature is constant
3. Isobaric - Pressure is constant
4. Isentropic - Entropy is constant
CYCLE: A sequence of process in which the system is returned to its original state
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Laws of classical thermodynamics
O2 (OO) relation among properties
O Thermodynamic equilibrium
Conservation of energy
Degradation of energy (Irreversibility)
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O2 (OO) Law assumes that a relationship exists among the properties of the system ie an
equation of state
For a single component substance only three independent properties are required to fix the state
of the system
O - Two system in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium with each
other (and thus have the same temperature)
Deals with conservation of energy, Heat and work are two types of energy
For closed system Q=W+DE
E=u+V
2
/2+gZ=Internal energy due to motion of molecules within system+KE+PE
For infinitesimal process dq =dW + de
Work done by pressure force dW =p dV
Combination of the terms u and PV enters into many equations and it is convenient to define
term called
Enthalpy, h as h=u + PV
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Enthalpy is a property , dh=du+d(PV) =DU+P dV +V dP
C
p
=(jh/jT)
p
C
v
=(ju/jT)
v
C
p
=C
v
+d(PV)/dT , d(RT)/dT=C
p
-C
v
=R
Second Law : It is impossible for an engine operating in a cycle to produce net work output if exchanging
heat with only one temperature source - Entropy
Reversible Process: is one in which both the system and its surroundings can be restored to their
original states.
It can be shown for a reversible process is independent of path. Therefore this integral represent
the change of a property which is called Entropy
DS=
}
T
dQ
}
T
dQ
R
R-Represent reversible
Property Relations: Combination of 1
st
and 2
nd
law, dQ=dW+du, dS=dQ/T=(dW+du)/T
T.dS= dW + du
= PdV + du
= P.dV + dh - V.dP - P.dV
dW = P.dV Work is done by the Pressure force during change in volume
H = u + PV , dh = du + P.dV + V.dP , du = dh V.dP P.dV
T.dS = P.dV + du and T.dS = dh-V.dP
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t Cons P
P
dT
dh
C
tan =
|
.
|

\
|
=
dT C dh
P
=
V
P
C
C
=
Entropy Change:
T
dQ
dS =
Change in entropy between two points can be obtained by integrating above equation
}
= = A

2
1
1 2 2 1
T
dQ
S S S
1
2
1
2
ln ln
P
P
C
V
V
C
V P
+ =
1
2
1
2
ln ln
P
P
R
T
T
C
P
=
1
2
1
2
ln ln
V
V
R
T
T
C
V
+ =
Perfect Gas: Equation of state P=rRT
Internal energy and also the enthalpy are functions of temperature only
t Cons V
V
dT
du
C
tan =
|
.
|

\
|
=
dT C du
V
=
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Process Diagrams: Many process in the gaseous region can be represented as a polytrophic process
,i.e. which follows PV
n
=Constant, where n is a polytrophic exponent (is a any positive number)
From equation of state t Cons TV
n
tan
1
=

t cons TP
n
n
tan
1
=

Cases: n=0 P=constant

n=1 T=constant
n=g S=constant
n=infinity V=constant
n=infinity
n=g
n=1
n=0
P
V
n=1
n=g
n=0
n=infinity
V=C
P=C
(S=C)
T=C
n increasing
n increasing
T
S
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