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THE IMPACT OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS AND FOCAL SKILLS INSTRUCTION ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
A DISSERTATION IN Education and Urban Leadership and Policy Studies in Education Presented to the Faculty o f the University o f Missouri-Kansas City in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
by CHUN HU B.A., Northeast Normal University, China, 1982 M.A., Jilin University, China, 1990 M.A., University o f Missouri-Kansas City, 1993 Ed. Spec., University o f Missouri-Kansas City, 1995
Kansas City, Missouri 2000
UMI Number 9970739
Copyright 2000 by Hu, Chun All rights reserved.
UMI
UMI Microform9970739 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
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2000 CHUN HU ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
THE IMPACT OF CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS AND FOCAL SKILLS INSTRUCTION ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Chun Hu, Doctor o f Philosophy University of Missouri-Kansas City, 2000 ABSTRACT The research investigated the hypothesis that teaching second language learners contrastive analysis between the target language and their native language and employing focal skills instruction help them improve their English proficiency. The subjects were 60 Chinese College students who were enrolled in the English language classes at the Southeast University in China. Two English classes with 30 students each were randomly assigned to two groups. While Group 1 (the experimental group) received the contrastive analysis of the languages and focal skills treatments, Group 2 (the control group) did not receive any treatment. One form o f the Test of English as Foreign Language was used to determine these 60 students' starting points for English proficiency level at the beginning of a new semester. At the end o f the semester, a different form of this test was administered to measure their improvement in English proficiency.
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The Test of English as a Foreign Language consists of three sections: listening comprehension, grammatical structure and reading comprehension. The students in both groups had similar mean scores on the three sections o f this pretest. However, after the treatment period, Group 1 achieved a higher mean score for the combined three sections o f the test as well as a higher mean score for the Listening Comprehension Section, the Grammatical Structure Section, and the Reading Comprehension Section respectively. The data were analyzed by a 2X2 analysis o f variance with repeated measures. Although the interaction between Group and Test for the Listening Comprehension Section was not statistically significant, the interaction between Group and Test for Grammatical Structure Section, Reading Comprehension Section, and the total three sections o f this test was statistically significant respectively, p<.05. In order to facilitate the analysis o f the data, the students comments on the treatments were collected. Furthermore, a one way ANOVA was conducted and the results showed that the group difference in motivation was not statistically significant. The data were interpreted as providing empirical support for the hypothesis that teaching contrastive analysis o f languages and employing the focal skills instruction improve L2 learners' English grammar and reading comprehension. This abstract of 332 words is approved as to form and consent.
John E. George, Ph.D., Professor, Language and Literacy School o f Education m
The undersigned, appointed by the Dean o f the School o f Graduate Studies, have examined a dissertation titled "The Impact o f Contrastive Analysis and Focal Skills Instruction on Second Language Acquisition," presented by Chun Hu, candidate for the Doctor o f Philosophy degree, and hereby certify that in their opinion it is worthy o f acceptance.
! m Tn 3 George, Ph.D. o f Language and Literacy 1 (^Education Schc >
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lonj^v^Marhs^), Ph.^f' DjVisionof Lanftragfe and School of Education Susan A. Adler, Ph.D. Division o f Te^cherdqcati
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Eugene E. Eubanks, Ph.D. Division o f Urpan Leadership and Policy Studies; School o f Education
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT....................................................................................................... LIST OF ILLUSTRATION............................................................................... LIST OF T A B L E S .............................................................................................. ACKNOW LEDGMENTS.................................................................................. Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... Background..................................................................................... R ationale........................................................................................... Purpose.............................................................................................. H ypotheses........................................................................................ 2. REVIEW OF LITERA TU RE..................................................................... Monitor M o d e l..................................................................................... Acquisition Learning H ypothesis............................................... Natural Order H ypothesis......................................................... Monitor H ypothesis..................................................................... Input H ypothesis........................................................................... 9 Affective Filter H ypothesis..............................................................11 Interlanguage T h e o ry ............................................................................... 12 Linguistic U niversals............................................................................... 14 v 1 1 4 5 6 7 7 8 8 9 ii viii ix x
Chapter
Page
Cognitive T h e o ry ..................................................................................
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Focal Skills A pproach............................................................................. 22 3. M e th o d ..........................................................................................................25 S u b je cts..................................................................................................... 25 M easu res.................................................................................................. 28 D e sig n .....................................................................................................29 Procedures................................................................................................31 4. R E SU L T S ..................................................................................................... 35
Quantitative Data Analysis and R e s u lts.................................................35 Students' Comments on the Treatments................................................... 44 Question O n e ..................................................................................... 44 Question T w o ...................................................................................... 53 Question T h re e ..................................................................................... 60 5. D ISCU SSIO N ..................................................................................................66 Interpretation of the D a ta ....................................................................66 Limitations of the S tu d y ......................................................................77 Implications and Directions for Future R esearch ............................. 78 Appendix A. LETTER AND CONSENT F O R M ................................................................................. 85
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Appendix
Page
B. C. D. E. F.
LETTER OF EXEMPTION FROM SOCIAL SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW B O A R D ..........................
88
FOCAL SKILLS TREATMENT ON LISTENTING COM PREHENSION.............................................................................90 TREATMENT OF THE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND C H IN E S E .............................................106 FOCAL SKILLS TREATMENT ON READING COM PREHENSION......................................................... 196 REFERENCES FOR TREA TM EN TS.....................................................217
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................219 V IT A .............................................................................................................................232
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page 1. Mean Score on the Listening Section o f the TOEFL During Pre and Post Test for Group I and Group 2 .................................. 41 2. Mean Score on the Grammatical Structure Section o f the TOEFL During Pre and Post Test for Group 1 and Group 2 .................................. 42 3. Mean Score on the Reading Comprehension Section o f the TOEFL During Pre and Post Test for Group 1 and Group 2 .................................. 42 4. Mean Score on the Total TOEFL During Pre and Post Test for Group 1 and Group 2 ..................................................................... 43 5. Mean Score on the Motivation Scale for Group 1 and Group 2 .................43 6. A-B-C Model o f Emotional Reactions on the Incomprehensible Listening In p u t.........................................................71
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
1. Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors o f Mean for the Pre-listening Scores and the Post-Listening Scores for Group 1 and Group 2 .............................................................................. 39 2. Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors o f Mean for the Pre-grammatical Structure Scores and the Post-grammatical Structure Scores for Group 1 andGroup 2 ................................................... 39 3. Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors o f Mean for the Pre-reading Comprehension Scores and the Post-reading Comprehension Scores forGroup Iand Group 2 ..........................................40 4. Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors o f Mean for the Pre-total TOEFL Scores and the Post- TOEFL Scores for Group 1 and Group 2 .............................................................................. 40 5. Means, Standard Deviations, Standard Errors o f Mean, Minimum and Maximum for the Motivation Score for Group 1 and Group 1 ................................................................................41
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is a great pleasure and honor to thank the people who have assisted me in the completion of this research study and the interdisciplinary Ph.D. program. I realize that I would have never accomplished my educational goal without the assistance o f these extraordinary people. I can only hope that in the future I will return their wonderful support in kind. My deep gratitude goes to my advisor and mentor, the committee chairman, Dr. John George who has consistently offered me academic counsel, guidance and support throughout my graduate study. The regular meeting and conversations with him stimulated my thinking, greatly assisted me in organizing my thoughts, and sharpened my sensitivity. His scholarship served as a source of inspiration that activated my schemata for this study. My special thanks go to Dr. Anthony Manzo who gave his time and attention in helping me prepare for the proposal o f my dissertation. His generous guidance in selection o f a dissertation topic, suggestions on the research design and strong discipline kept me focused. I sincerely thank other committee members, Dr. Susan Adler, Dr. Eugene Eubanks and the late Dr. Ralph Parish all o f whom graciously provided invaluable assistance in the process of completing this study and sacrificed their time to evaluate my work.
I owe a debt of gratitude to the English instructor Rong Rong Wu and her 60 students who participated in this study. Without their cooperation and involvement this study would never have been possible. My thanks also go to my six former professors who have contributed in unique ways to my graduate study and the construction o f this study. Dr. Carvers statistics and advanced research design courses greatly assisted me in my research design. He was tolerant o f my abrupt visits and always available for answering my questions regarding statistical data analysis. Dr. Leibert, Dr. Wheelock and Dr Sherks thought-provoking lectures helped me develop a foundation in the reading field. Dr. Tamera B. Murdock's preliminary graduate research course kindled my love for research and her enthusiasm in teaching uplifted me in a special way. I will always remember my former advisor, Professor Yan Chang Zhang at the Jilin University in China. His sharp insights and deep knowledge in linguistics always motivated and challenged me. I am very grateful to Dr. Pat Hovis, Ms. Constance Smith Mahone and Nancy Hoover from the UMKC School o f Graduate Studies. Dr. Hovis illuminating seminars regarding a variety o f topics prepared me for the inner journey of this study. Her excellent administrative skills and scholarship guided me through different stages o f my graduate study. Ms. Mahones outstanding expertise in Student Service simplified the complex administrative procedures o f my graduate study. Ms. Hoover offered me a great assistance in formatting my dissertation. Her professional skills helped me polish the format o f my dissertation.
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Appreciation and credits are given to Dr. Changming Duan at the division o f Counseling Psychology o f UMKC and Dr. Juhu Kim at the division of Educational Psychology and Exercise Science. Dr. Duan had numerous conversations with me and shared her ideas and teaching philosophy with me. I have great admiration for her wisdom and expertise in her field. Dr.Kim kindly provided advice and assistance in using SPSS for Windows and made the procedures o f running the complicated research data easy. Many thanks go to my friends, Michael L. Brooks, Julie Hwang and Shaun Hwang, and Ningning Zhang and Frank Guo who directly or indirectly supported me throughout my graduate study. Without their friendship and concern my academic goal would have never been attained. Michael L. Brooks was always willing to offer whatever help I needed and had great trust in my abilities and strengths. Julie Hwang, Shaun Hwang and Ningning Zhang and Frank Guo always carried on cheerful conversations with me and had great patience to listening to my joys and frustrations. Last, but never the least, my deepest appreciation goes to my mother, father and my sister, Qing Hu. Without their intellectual guidance and spiritual comfort my long journey would have been unendurable, lonely and difficult. Thanks for enriching my life, enlivening my mind and energizing my soul. To my grandmotheryou have always lived in my heart. Your kindness, love and faith in me have always encouraged me to overcome any obstacles on my way to academic success.
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DEDICATION
For Mother, Father, And Sister, Qing Hu
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background The first hurdle that is faced by any international student is language (Huntley, 1993). Poor language skills are detrimental not only to the academic process, but also to the social interaction with Americans. Many studies have found a high correlation between poor English language speaking skills and a lack o f interaction with American students and the community as a whole ( Huntley, 1993). Many international students have to enroll in an English language class until their English is judged to be at an acceptable level. These students may well find themselves in the situation o f being forced to spend a lot o f time and money on learning English, instead o f embarking on their field o f study, which leads to frustration and annoyance. The Second Language (L2) learning/acquisition has been described as complex, gradual, nonlinear, and dynamic (Larsen-Freeman, 1991). To a large extent, controversies over the role o f the first language in second language acquisition have resulted from vague and varying uses o f the term transfer. Behaviorist psychologists, who first defined transfer technically, used it to refer to a process described as the automatic, uncontrolled, and subconscious use of past learned behaviors in the attempt to produce new responses (Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982). In this sense, transfer may be o f two types: negative and positive. Negative transfer refers to those instances of transfer which result in errors because old, habitual behavior is different from the new I
behavior that is being learned. Some errors L2 learners make are due to the influence o f their LI language. As Lado (1957) pointed out: We assume that the student who comes in contact with a foreign language will find some features of it quite easy and other extremely difficult. Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him, and those elements that are different will be difficult, (p. 2) A contrastive study of English and Chinese conditional clauses illustrates that the syntactic structure of Chinese does not explicitly encode some semantic differences associated with unreality. In contrast, the English verb system explicitly codes differences, such as those seen in the sentences If you didnt study for the test, you would fail. and If you had not studied for the test, you would have failed. The syntax of Chinese allows for one type o f sentence construction to apply to both types o f conditions described in the two English sentences. Thus, there is no special syntactic device in Chinese to signal the difference between a hypothetical state o f affairs (in the first sentence) and a counterfactual state o f affairs (in the second) in which an event that did not take place (e.g., you failed) is talked about as an imaginary event in the past. As a result, some Chinese learners o f English have difficulty in using these unreal conditional clauses in English due to the negative transfer o f their native language. In contrast, positive transfer results in correct performance because the new behavior is the same as the old. In some cases, the learners LI can facilitate L2 acquisition. For example, the similarities in vocabulary, writing systems, and other aspects o f English and Spanish reduce the amount that may be utterly new in English for Spanish speakers in comparison with Chinese speakers or Japanese speakers.
Linguists, second language teachers and educational researchers are engaged in an ongoing debate about the best methods and programs for enhancing second language learners English proficiency level. One o f the L2 teaching hypotheses is the contrastive analysis between the target language and the native language. Contrastive analysis was based on the practical need to teach a L2 in the most efficient way. As Lado (1957), one o f the prime movers o f contrastive analysis, makes clear, The teacher who has made a comparison o f the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them. Furthermore, Fries (1972) claimed that The most effective materials are those that are based upon a scientific description o f the language to be learned, carefully compared with a parallel description of the native language o f the learner. The contrastive analysis hypothesis was founded on transfer theory, which stated that learning difficulty was the result of interference from old habits in the learning o f new habits (Ellis, 1985). It should follow, therefore, that difficulty (and therefore errors) would correlate positively with the magnitude of the distance between languages. The greater the difference, the greater the difficulty and the more numerous errors would be. The advocates o f the contrastive analysis hypothesis viewed second language acquisition essentially as a process o f overcoming LI habits: L1/L2 differences brought about learning difficulty whereas similarities between the two language facilitated acquisition. It appeared, then, that the foreign-language learners difficulties could be predicted from the differences in the structures of the two languages (Hakuta & Cancin, 1991).
The focal skills approach is a relatively recent development in language program design. The basic intent o f the focal skills approach is to accelerate the acquisition of intermediate-level language proficiency by maximizing the efficiency o f instruction; this is supposed to be accomplished by carefully placing each student in a sequence of skillfocused modules in which comprehensible input and communication are stressed. Since the focal skill approach is now being used by several intensive English programs, it is both possible and desirable to evaluate the approach empirically (Hastings, 1995). Rationale Even though the number of international students enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities is increasing, research on helping them enhance their English proficiency level is lacking. Many studies discuss the issues about international students stress and culture shock, but only a paucity of the research deals with how to help these students to accelerate their L2 language learning. Although much has been written about the contrastive analysis approach and the focal skills approach, there appears to be no empirical evidence that supports the theory underlying these two approaches. Furthermore, research on first language pedagogy has explored learner training in depth, especially reading strategies (e.g., Baumann, 1984; Brown, Palincsar, & Armbruster, 1984; Gamer, 1987), but parallel research in assessing foreign language strategy training has been more limited (Cohen, 1990; O Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990). It seems important to test the above two approaches because knowledge from the study would be helpful to the universities and schools in planning effective English Language programs for L2 learners. 4
Purpose The purpose o f this research was to investigate the effectiveness o f teaching contrastive analysis between the target language and the native language and employing the focal skills instruction on L2 learners English proficiency level. The specific aims that guided my research were to: 1. assist students in enhancing listening skills by using contextual clues to find the topic o f a conversation. 2. enhance students awareness of common grammatical mistakes they easily make due to the L 1 negative transfer. 3. develop students effective reading and higher-order thinking (Manzo & Manzo, 1995) and enable students not only to read the lines but also read between and beyond the lines. 4. assist students with effective reading techniques to enhance their reading comprehension. 5. 6. 7. employ frequent practice and feedback to increase their metacognition. accelerate students cognitive dimensions o f language transfer. enhance students test-taking skills including listening comprehension skills, grammatical structure skills and reading comprehension skills. 8. enable students to become effective L2 readers and thinkers through a good deal of practice in applying a combination o f skills. Students leam more than the skills individually in the Listening Section, Grammatical Structure Section, and
Reading Comprehension Section. They also learn to apply the skills together when they take standardized English proficiency tests or read texts. Hypotheses 1. The focal skills instruction improves the listening comprehension o f L2 learners. 2. The contrastive analysis approach improves the English grammar o f L2 learners. 3. The focal skills instruction improves the reading comprehension o f L2 learners. The above hypotheses were investigated by periodically administering a measure of English proficiency level to the Chinese students in two groups. Both Group 1 (Experimental Group) and Group 2 (Control Group) attended the same kind o f the English classes throughout one semester. The same instructor used the same textbooks and methods to teach both groups under similar conditions, the only difference being that Group 1 received the contrastive analysis and focal skills treatment.
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE The literature review o f second language acquisition revealed four major theories regarding L2 acquisition. They are the monitor model, the interlanguage theory, the linguistic universals, and the cognitive theory all upon which my study was based. Monitor Model One of the most influential theories of the second-language learning process is Stephen Krashens monitor model. The theory evolved in the late 1970s in a series o f articles (Krashen 1977a. 1977b, 1978a. 1978b) and was elaborated and expanded in a number of books (Krashen 1981, 1982, 1985; Krashen and Terrell 1983). Krashen has argued that his account provides a general or overall theory (1985, p. 1) of secondlanguage acquisition with important implications for language teaching. According to Krashen, the theory is supported by a large number of scientific studies in a wide variety of language acquisition and learning contexts. This research is seen to provide empirical validation for a particular method o f elementary language instruction- - the natural approach (Krashen and Terrel 1983). The monitor model consists of five central hypotheses: the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis. Each hypothesis is briefly summarized below. A full account o f the monitor model is available in Krashen (1981, 1982), and in Krashen and Terrell (1983). 7
Acquisition Learning Hypothesis Krashen (1982) assumed that second language learners have two different and independent ways o f developing knowledge o f a second language. One way is through what he called acquisition and the other is through learning. This distinction serves as the essence o f Krashens theory. Acquisition occurs subconsciously as a result o f participating in natural communication where the focus is on meaning. Learning occurs as a result of conscious study o f the formal properties of the language. In storage, acquired knowledge is located in the left hemisphere of the brain (in most users) in the language areas; it is available for automatic processing. Learnt knowledge is metalinguistic in nature. It is also stored in the left hemisphere, but not necessarily in the language areas; it is available only for controlled processing. (Ellis, 1985, p. 261). In Krashens view, acquired and leamt knowledge are stored separately. The acquired knowledge cannot be internalized as the leamt knowledge. In performance, acquired knowledge is the major source for L2 learners to receive comprehensible language input and produce language output. The learned knowledge serves as an inspector o f the acquired system. It checks to ensure the correctness o f the utterance against the knowledge in the learned system (Gass, 1997). Natural Order Hypothesis According the natural order hypothesis, there is an order to acquire the rules o f language. Some rules tend to be learned early and some rules tend to be learned late. This hypothesis indicates that grammatical structures are acquired in a predictable order. Furthermore, Krashen argued that L2 learners who acquire second language in a natural setting do not show a different order of acquisition from those who spend most of time
learning their second language in their classroom. This natural order o f acquisition is operating free o f conscious grammatical rules, or the monitor. Monitor Hypothesis The monitor is the device that L2 learners use to check their language performance. It utilizes learned knowledge by interacting and modifying utterances generated from acquired knowledge. Krashen argues that monitoring has an extremely limited function in language performance, even where adults are concerned. He gives three conditions for its use: (1) there must be sufficient time; (2) the focus must be on form and not meaning; and (3) the user must know the rule. Krashen recognizes that editing can also take place using acquired competence. He refers to this as editing by feel. However, this aspect o f L2 performance is not developed (Ellis, 1985). Input Hypothesis The input hypothesis is central to Krashens overall sketch o f acquisition and is a supplement to the natural order hypothesis. If there is a natural order of acquisition, how is it that learners move from one point to another? In Krashens view, the input hypothesis provides the answer. Second languages are acquired by understanding messages, or by receiving comprehensible input (Krashen, 1985). Krashen proposed that comprehensible input is the driving force for interlanguage development and change, and that the effects o f such change carry over to influence production- -that is, one learns to speak by listening, a claim which is interesting because o f its counterintuitive nature. Krashen argues that the predictability o f the context makes what is said function as a commentary on what is already understood. The result is that it is 9
more likely that the interlanguage system will be extended by the context-to-language mapping involved (Skehan, 1998). Krashen defined comprehensible input in a particular way. Essentially, comprehensible input is that bit o f language that is heard or read and that contains language slightly ahead o f a learners current stage o f grammatical knowledge. Language containing structures that a learner already knows essentially serves no purpose in acquisition. Similarly, language containing structures that are way ahead o f a learners current knowledge is not useful. A learner does not have the ability to do anything with those structures. Krashen (1985) defined a learners current state o f knowledge as i and the next stage as i + 1. Thus the input to which a learner is exposed must be at the i +1 level in order to be of use in terms o f acquisition. We move from i, our current level to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i +1 (p. 2). Krashen assumed a language acquisition device, that is, an innate mental structure capable o f handling both first and second language acquisitions. The input activates this innate structure, but only input of a very specific kind ( i +1) will be useful in altering a learners grammar. In Krashens view, the input hypothesis is central to all o f acquisition and also has implications for the classroom (Gass, 1997). Yano, Long, and Ross (1994) recognized the importance o f understanding how linguistic simplification may lead to better comprehension while reducing the amount of information available for reading. They presented learners with three types o f texts:
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unmodified, simplified, and elaborated. The simplified texts consisted o f reducing sentence length, embedding, and multisyllabic words; the elaborated texts included paraphrased information and definitions o f low frequency words. Their results showed greater comprehension for simplified and elaborated versions as opposed to the unmodified texts, although there was no significant difference between the simplified and elaborated texts. It is believed that without understanding, no learning can take place. Although understanding alone does not guarantee learning, it does set the scene for potential learning. With respect to comprehension, however, we must recognize that not all types o f modified input are equally worthwhile. For example, Parker and Chaudron (1987) reviewed the literature and showed that simplifications resulting from discourse elaboration or modification of the conversational structure are more likely to result in comprehension than those simplifications at the linguistic level. Affective Filter Hypothesis Krashen incorporates the notion o f the affective filter as proposed by Dulay and Burt (1977). The filter controls how much input the learner comes into contact with, and how much input is converted into intake. It is affective because the factors which determine its strength, have to do with the learners motivation, self-confidence, or anxiety state. Learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and with low anxiety have low filters and so obtain and let in plenty o f input. Learners with low motivation, little self-confidence, and high anxiety have high filters and so receive little input and allow
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even less in. The affective filter influences the rate o f development, but it does not affect the route (Ellis, 1985). Interlanguaee Theory The term interlanguage was coined by Selinker (1969, 1972) to refer to the interim grammars constructed by second-language learners on their way to the target language. The term won favor over similar constructs, such as approximative system (Nemster 1971) and transitional competence(Corder 1967). Since the early 1970s interlanguage has come to characterize a major approach to second-language research and theory ( Mclaughlin, 1993). Interlanguage refers to the knowledge o f the L2 in the speakers mind. But this L2 interlanguage exists in the same mind as the LI does. Because no word existed to describe the knowledge o f both the LI and the L2, the term multicompetence was coined to refer to the compound state o f a mind with two languges (Cook, 1999). Languge teaching is concerned with developing a L2 in a mind that already contains a L I; as Stem (1992) puts it, Whether we like it or not, the new language is learnt on the basis o f a previous language (p. 282). According to interlanguage theory, L2 acquisition entails a continuum o f evolving systems (Corder, 1981). Selinker conceived o f interlanguage as a dynamic system. He regards the interlanguage system as the product of a psycholinguistic process o f interaction between two linguistic systems, those o f the mother tongue and target language (Ellis, 1997).
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Generally speaking, the term interlanguage means two things: (1) the learners system at a single point in time and (2) the range o f interlocking systems that characterizes the development of learners over time. The interlanguage is thought to be distinct from both the learners first language and from the target language. It evolves over time as learners employ various internal strategies to make sense o f the input and to control their own output. These strategies were central to Selinkers thinking about interlanguage (McLaughlin, 1993, p. 60). Selinker (1972) argued that the interlanguage, which he saw to be a separate linguistic system resulting from the learners attempted production of the target language norm, was the product o f five central cognitive processes involved in second-language learning: 1. Language transfer. Some terms, rules, and subsystems of the interlanguage may result from transfer from the first language. 2. Transfer of training. Some elements of the interlanguage may result from specific features o f the training process used to teach the second language. 3. Strategies o f second language learning. Some elements of the interlanguage may result from a specific approach to the material to be learned. 4. Strategies o f second-language communication. Some elements o f the interlanguage may result from specific ways people leam to communicate with native speakers of the target language. 5. Overgeneralization o f the target language linguistic material. Some elements o f the interlanguage may be the product o f overgeneralization o f the rules and semantic features o f the target language. A considerable body o f research and theorizing over the last two decades has suggested that output, particularly erroneous output, can often be an indication that a 13
learner has formulated a hypothesis about how the language works, and is testing it out. Sometimes this output invokes feedback, which can lead learners to modify or reprocess their output (Swain, M., 1995). Statements to the effect that the investigation of interlanguage (IL) is a valuable endeavor for any researcher interested in extending our knowledge about what language is and how it comes to be acquired are gradually becoming more common (Rurtherford, 1989). Interlanguage phenomena in second language acquisition (SLA) have been cited in support of parmeterization in Universal Grammar (Flynn & Espinal, 1985; Hilles, 1986), o f a theory of implicational universals (Eckman, 1984; Hawkins, 1985), and o f theories of markedness (Zobl, 1983a; Ferguson, 1984). Linguistic Universals There are two major approaches taken to the study of linguistic universals in second language research (Gass, 1984). One is the typological universals approach taken by Greenberg and his followers. This approach begins by analyzing data from a representative sample o f the worlds languages in order to extract universal patterns. The other is the universal grammar taken by Noam Chomsky. The Chomskyan approach derives from an in-depth analysis of the properties o f language in an effort to determine the highly abstract principles o f grammar that constrain the class o f possible human languages. Cook (1985) in a lucid explication o f the Chomskyan view o f universal grammar writes that the language properties inherent in the human mind make up universal
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grammar, which consists not of particular rules or o f a particular language, but a set o f general principles that apply to all languages. Since universal grammar is a theory o f cognition as well as a theory of grammar, it seems only natural that we should once again attempt to understand its relevance for language learning and language pedagogy. Some developments in the theory o f universal grammar make it more conducive to such application (Cook, 1991; Flynn, 1991a, 1991b; Gair, 1992; Rutherford, 1987; Sharwood-Smith, 1981; White, 1990). A distinction is often made between competence and performance in the study of language. According to Chomsky (1965), competence consists o f the mental representation of linguistic rules which constitute the speaker-hearers internalized grammar. Performance consists of the comprehension and production o f language. Chomskys explanation for the innateness o f universal grammar is that without a set of innate principles it would not be possible for a child to learn the grammar of his mother tongue (Ellis, 1985b). This is because the data available from the input are insufficient to enable the child to discover certain rules. Universal grammar is composed o f different kinds of universals. Chomsky (1965) identifies two types: substantive and formal. Substantive universals consist of fixed features such as the distinctive phonetic features of which sounds are made or syntactic categories such as nouns, verbs, subjects, and objects. Formal universals are more abstract. They are statements about what grammatical rules are possible. Those rules that a child discovers with the aid of universal grammar form the core grammar of
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his/her language. However, not all rules are core rules. Every language also contains elements that are not constrained by universal grammar. These comprise the periphery. Related to the concept o f core and periphery is Chomskys theory o f markedness. The rules o f the core grammar are thought to be unmarked and those o f the peripheral grammar are marked; that is, they are exceptional in some way. The theory predicts that only minimal exposure is needed to leam a core rule, but that peripheral or marked rules need to be learned on the basis o f positive evidence o f their existence in the grammar. Marked rules cannot be assumed a priori because they represent idiosyncratic features o f the language. Hence their instantiation in a grammar takes longer to leam than a related unmarked rule. In our idealized theory o f language acquisition, we assume that the child approaches the task equipped with universal grammar and an associated theory o f markedness that serves two functions: It imposes a preference structure on the parameters o f universal grammar, and it permits the extension o f core grammar to a marked periphery (Chomsky, 1981). White (1981) argues that a less marked grammar is easier to acquire than a marked one, because it requires less elaborate triggering experience. In other words, the child finds it easier to acquire the unmarked rules comprising the core grammar o f his mother tongue than the marked rules that form the periphery. This is because the unmarked rule is considered to be immediately available to the child, whereas more marked rules require varying amounts o f positive evidence from the input.
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In the absence o f evidence to the contrary, unmarked options are selected. Rutherford (1982) provides a number o f examples o f unmarked and marked rules for English. The criterion o f markedness that he applies is whether one o f a pair o f rules or features is more grammatically restricted than the other. Thus the adjective big, long, and fast are unmarked in relation to small, short, and slow, because they occur in both declarative and interrogative sentences, while the latter occur only in declarative sentences (i.e. they cannot be used in some interrogative sentences like How slow can he run?). Research has suggested that one area in which learning is involved concerns parameter setting. Results o f several studies (e.g. Flynn, 1983, 1987; Flynn & Espinal, 1985; Flynn & Lust, 1990; Thomas, 1991) indicate that where parametric values of the L 1 and the L2 match, language acquisition is enhanced in comparison to the case in which the parametric values o f the LI and the L2 do not match. Three studies of student performances on written tests of ESL indicate that speakers of languages having articles tend to use them more accurately than do speakers o f languages not having articles (Oiler & Redding, 1971; Kempt, 1975; Ringbom 1976). Moreover, speaking tests o f learners abilities to use articles produced results similar to those o f the written tests (e.g., Dulay & Burt 1974), as did comparisons o f learners speech in naturalistic contexts (Zobl, 1982; Gibert, 1983). The similarity o f results in several studies thus suggests that some positive transfer occurs even when the contrastive prediction is stated in a very crude way (e.g., Having articles in the native languages will make articles in the target language easier to acquire.). It is likely that more refined comparisons o f learner 17
performances would show even better evidence o f positive transfer (Odlin, 1989). Where the LI and L2 differ in parametric values, the new value must be learned in some sense, and it therefore becomes relevant for language teaching (Flynn & Martohardjono, 1995). Cognitive Theory Cognitive theory is based on the work o f psychologists and psycholinguists, individuals working within this framework apply the principles and findings o f contemporary cognitive psychology to the domain of second-language learning. The theory represents the application of a broader framework to the domain o f secondlanguage research. The intent is to determine whether such a perspective casts light on second-language phenomena (McLaughlin, 1993). Within this framework, second-language learning is considered as the acquisition o f a complex cognitive skill. To leam a second language is to leam a skill, because different sub skills are needed, must be practiced and then integrated into fluent performance. As performance improves, there is constant restructuring as learners simplify, unify, and gain increasing control over their internal representations (Karmiloff-Smith, 1986). These two notions automatization and restructuring are central to cognitive theory. According to cognitive theory, second-language learning, like any other complex cognitive skill, involves the gradual integrating o f subskills as controlled processes initially predominate and then become automatic. Thus the initial stages o f learning involve the slow development of skills and the gradual elimination of errors as the
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learner attempts to automatize aspects o f performance. In later phases, there is continual restructuring as learners shift their internal representations (Mclaughlin, 1993). Domic (1979) conducted a series o f studies dealing with automaticity o f processing in bilingual subjects. Using speed o f processing as a measure o f automaticity, Domic found that speed increased as a function o f experience with language. This was true both with respect to decoding and encoding efficiency. Even when a bilingual had had many years of experience with a second language, performance in that language lagged behind performance in the first language. The semantic content o f words tended to be decoded more slowly in the second language and the subjects ability to encode information in the second language (as measured by naming latencies) tended to be inferior to performance in the first language. Presumably the second language did not attain the degree of antomaticity that characterizes the first, even in the case o f subjects who are overtly balanced bilinguals. Domic (1979) also reported that high information load enhanced the dominance of the bilinguals stronger language system. Noise and other stressors interfered significantly with the weaker language-speech in that language becoming slowed down, rendered less precise, or even entirely blocked. In a study of judgements of acceptability o f deviant and non-deviant English sentences, Lehtonen and Sajavaara (1983) found that non-native speakers required more time in making such judgements than did native speakers, presumably because speech recognition and interpretation skills in a second language are less automatic. Lehtonen and Sajavaara postulated that native speakers decisions as to acceptability are automatically primed by lexical, semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic constraints. 19
Kellerman (1979, 1983) has argued that transfer should be looked on as a cognitive process in which decisions are made on the basis of: (1) the learners perception o f the similarity between first-and-second language structures, and (2) the degree o f markedness o f the first-language structure. Learners viewed regular (unmarked) forms as transferable to the target language, assuming that the two languages are thought to be similar. More marked structures are those that the person thinks of as irregular, infrequent, and semantically opaque. Transfer is predicted to occur when the perceived similarity between the two languages is great and when the structures involved are unmarked. A number o f studies (Gass, 1979; Jordens, 1977; Rutherford, 1982) support these predictions. Furthermore, in light o f common beliefs about cross-linguistic similarities and differences, there appears to be a widespread assumption that language transfer is an important characteristic o f second language acquisition. Teaching may become more effective through a consideration o f differences between languages and cultures (Odlin, 1989). A number o f authors have commented on discontinuities in the second language learning process (e.g., Pike, 1960; Selinker, 1972). Lightbown (1985) pointed out that second language acquisition is not simply linear and cumulative, but is characterized by backsliding and loss o f forms that seemingly were mastered. She attributed this decline in performance to a process whereby learners have mastered some forms and then encounter new ones that cause a restructuring o f the whole system. Restructuring occurs because language is a complex hierarchical system whose components interact in non-linear ways. Seen in these terms, an increase in error rate in one area may reflect an increase in complexity or accuracy in another, followed by over-generalization o f a newly acquired structure, or simply by a 20
sort o f overload o f complexity which forces a restructuring, or at least a simplification, in another part o f the system (1985, p. 177). Ellis (1985a) described a similar phenomenon in his discussion o f systematic and non-systematic variability in the interlanguage. Ellis argued that the interlanguage is characterized by both systematic and non-systematic variability. According to this analysis, in the early stages o f second-language acquisition, new forms are used that have not yet been integrated into the learners form -function system. Two or more forms may be used in free variation. This process involves non-systematic variability in the interlanguage. Systematic variability occurs only when the new forms have been accommodated by a restructuring of the existing form-function system to one that more closely approximates that o f the target language. In this sense, restructuring is part o f the denativization process (Andersen, 1981), whereby learners adjust the internalized system to make it fit the input. Rather than stressing internal, predetermined linguistic processes, cognitive theory emphasizes the cognitive processes involved in the internalization o f procedural knowledge that accounts for how learners accumulate and automatize rules and how they restructure their internal representations to match the target language. The acquisition o f a cognitive skill is seen to result from the atomatization o f routines or units o f activity. Initially the execution o f these routines requires the allocation o f large amounts of mental effort (controlled processing), but repeated performance of the activity leads to the availability of automatized routines in long-term memory. The result o f this process is that less and less effort is required for antomated routines and the learner can devote more effort to acquiring other sub-skills that are not yet automated. 21
In short, cognitive theory emphasizes the limited information-processing capacities of L2 learners, the use o f a variety o f techniques to overcome these limitations, and the role o f practice in L2 acaquisition. Although the four theories above have their respective limitations, they are still adoptable as guides to second language learning, teaching and research. My current research is influenced by these four theories. Although there is resistance to the traditional heavy reliance on grammar teaching in second language instruction, many researchers view conscious instruction in the rules of a grammar as helpful to language learning. Indeed, research indicates that formal instruction in a second language can be effective (Long, 1983). Focal Skills Approach The focal skills approach was originally developed during 1987 and 1988 at the University o f Wisconsin, Milwaukee. The program designers note that it is neither a theory nor a specific instructional methodology; rather it is a general approach to designing an ESL curriculum. It features a series of modules in which students get intensive, focused instruction in listening, reading, and writing, followed by an integrated immersion module (Isonio, 1994). As the designers note all modules emphasize comprehensible input and topic-centered communicative interaction, employing methods that stress the progressive, functional integration o f developing skills with other relevant skills already possessed by the students (Hastings, 1992, p.l).
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Listening skills are deemed particularly critical to the acquisition o f the other skills since the comprehensible input is essential to L2 learners. As a result, this module should be scheduled first. Videos are important tools for instruction in this module, and are used extensively. After watching and listening to some parts of a videotape, the L2 instructor may explain the conversation or dialogue and ask L2 learners to retell what they heard. Questions and comments are encouraged, and the interactions are structured so that even low-proficiency students can participate. Reading is the focus o f the next module, since reading helps to develop vocabulary and continued growth in other aspects of the target language. Group readings are typically used in which students participate in reading aloud and discussing articles and stories. Personal readings are also designated. In all cases, the emphasis is on comprehension. Then the writing module follows, and typically includes exercises such as journal writing, highly interesting topics, class projects and focused rewrites. The last module is called immersion. It is considered as a low stress seminar in which students study together and work on both individual and cooperative work group projects. During this module, skills developed in each o f the previous modules are practiced and strengthened. In short, the focal skills approach is described as integration o f skills in terms of recognized principles of second language acquisition. Instruction is intensive and is given in skill-focused modules. Development is progressive, and students can leam at their own pace. The approach is individualized in that the instructional pace depends upon the gains made by individual students. Assessment is conducted every four weeks. As soon as appropriate, as determined by the assessment, the student moves on to the 23
next module (Isonio, 1994). Finally, Hastings (1992) readily acknowledges that the principles upon which the focal skills approach is based are not new in many ways they are similar to what has been referred to variously elsewhere, e.g., whole language development (Riggs, 1991) and natural language approach (Krashen and Terrell, 1983).
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CHAPTER 3 METHOD Subjects The subjects were 60 second-year Chinese students who were enrolled in an English language class at the Southeast University in China. They were from the Power Engineering Department, Electrical Engineering Department, Automatic Control Department, Physics Department, Transportation Engineering Department and Social Science Department. Southeast University, located at the center of the ancient capital city o f Nanjing and near the beautiful Xuan Wu Lake, is one of the key universities administered directly under the State Education Commission of China. Southeast University, with its long history and strong reputation, has remained one o f the key institutions of higher learning in China since the 1920s. Many highly regarded teachers, scholars and professors have taught and worked at the university, Many distinguished professionals who graduated from this university have exerted a profound influence on modem Chinas science, technology, education and culture. The university has trained over 80,000 engineers for China since 1949. Among these engineers are some nationally and internationally respected experts and scholars as well as leaders in universities, government offices and various enterprises (Survey o f Southeast University, 1999).
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With its rapid development Southeast University has become an influential institution of higher learning. The major emphasis lies in engineering, but with its Departments o f Science, Engineering, Arts, Social Sciences, Law, Economics, and Management, the university offers an integrated higher education system at the undergraduate, graduate, adult and continuing education levels. The university is accredited by the State Council to award the bachelors, masters and doctoral degrees. Southeast University, with a full range o f strong academic disciplines, comprises a Graduate School, School of Economics and Management, and Wuxi Satellite College. It has 28 departments and 41 undergraduate disciplines and offers 70 masters programs and 33 Ph.D. programs. The university also houses over 30 research institutes and research centers. The total number of faculty members and staff is 4000, of whom about 2000 are engaged in both teaching and research. There are 700 associate professors, 264 tenured professors, three academicians of the Chinese Academy o f Sciences and one Academician of the Chinese Academy of Engineering. The student body numbers over 16000, of whom over 9000 are full-time undergraduates including both native and international students. About 2000 are master and Ph.D. students and 5000 are part time students (Survey o f Southeast University, 1999). All the subjects o f this research started to leam English as a second language at the beginning of seventh grade with five English classes each week until the eleventh grade. They had four English classes in twelfth grade. Currently, at the University these students still have four English classes each week. It has been eight years since these students started to leam English. In China all college students are required to take a foreign language as a required course. Usually students can select one o f three languages (English, Russian or Japanese) offered in middle schools or universities. Since the English-speaking population in the world has constantly increased, most Chinese students select English as a second language. Like all Chinese college students these 60 students passed the entrance examination to the university. The entrance examination to 26
the university consists o f six tests. They are math, Chinese, physics, chemistry, politics, and a foreign language. When new Chinese students enter the university with an English background, they are immediately administered a Standardized English proficiency test. This test result, with the test score from the entrance English test to the university, is used to help administrators and English professors make a decision on assigning students to different levels o f English classes. Usually Chinese college students are required to take the English course or a foreign language in their first two years at the university. There are four levels o f English classes. They are Level 1 (the primary class), Level 2 , Level 3 and Level 4 (the intermediate class). The subjects in both groups in this study were at Level 4. They were sophomores with ages ranging from 18 to 20. The socio-economic status o f the most subjects was likely to be from the middle class and a few from the working class. All Chinese students are required to pass the Standard English Test for Level 4 before they graduate from the university. After they pass this test, students no longer take any English courses in their undergraduate years. But if they want to go to the Graduate School, they need to take the advanced English course and also pass the standardized English test for Level 6. The goal o f college English teaching is to cultivate students listening, reading, speaking and basic writing ability in English with most emphasis on reading. The classroom teaching focuses on the introduction o f the cultural background reflected in reading text: analysis o f the structure o f the text; explanation o f the phrases, idioms and new words; and examination of the students worksheets and assignments. The mode o f 27
the instruction is teacher-centered, and the procedures can be characterized by three steps: explanation, exercises and application. The classroom activities are focused primarily on identifying the meaning o f each new phrase or word, analyzing grammatical structures o f the text and translating difficult sentences. Measures The dependent variable is the Scores on the Test o f English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). The goal o f the TOEFL is to measure the English proficiency of international students whose native language is not English. All foreign students are required to submit their TOEFL scores to a university or college in an English-spoken country before they are officially admitted to it. This standardized instrument consists o f three sections: listening comprehension, grammatical structure and vocabulary, and reading comprehension. It is a 150- item test which requires an individual to respond by selecting the best one answer out o f four multiple choices, and which assesses various aspects o f language proficiency, i.e. vocabulary, grammar, reading comprehension, and listening comprehension. There are 50 questions for the Listening Comprehension Section, 40 questions for the Structure and Written Expression Section, and 60 questions for the Vocabulary and Reading Comprehension Section. Standardized test conditions are set forth in the Supervisors Manual. TOEFL is given in a single session o f about three hours, which includes the time required for admitting examinees. All parts of TOEFL are timed. TOEFL is scored by converting the raw score that is, the number o f questions you answered correctly, to a scaled score which is established according to statistical 28
procedures. Total TOEFL scores range from 200 to 677. First, each of the three sections o f the TOEFL is graded on a scale from 20 to 68. Then the scores from the three sections are added together. Finally, the sum is multiplied by 10 and divided by 3. The test has very high reliability, averaging between .87 and .89 for the three sections (Sharpe,
1996 ).
The validity o f the TOEFL is reflected in three types o f studies: concurrent validity studies, predictive validity studies, and construct validity studies. The TOEFL has correlated with other tests o f English well into the .80 range (.89 with the Michigan test o f English Language Proficiency). Studies showing the validity o f TOEFL as a predictor o f later criterion performance, typically grade point average, produce much lower correlations than do the concurrent validity studies. There is little evidence o f a nomological network out of which hypotheses may be constructed and tested. Hence, the nature of the construct is obscure (Chase, 1972, p. 266). Design This study used a quasi-experimental, nonequivalent groups, pretest, posttest design (Gall, Borg &Gall, 1996). This design is quite prevalent and useful in education, because it is often impossible to randomly assign subjects. This design includes using intact, already established groups of subjects, giving a pretest, administering the treatment condition to one group, and giving a posttest (McMillan & Schumacher,
1997 ).
At the beginning o f the semester, 60 Chinese students who were enrolled in an English language course were selected as subjects for this research. These 60 students came from two English classes with 30 students each. These two English classes were randomly assigned to two groups (Group 1 and Group 2) by flipping a coin. All these 60 students were at Level 4 o f college English. The 30 students in Group 1 (the 29
experimental group) were given the contrastive analysis and focal skills treatments starting from the first day o f the class. They also regularly attended English Language class. The treatment lasted for one semester. The 30 students in Group 2 (the control group) attended the same type o f English Language class as Group 1 but did not receive any contrastive analysis and focal skills treatments. At the beginning o f the semester, both groups were asked to take one form o f TOEFL to determine their starting points for English proficiency level. At the end o f the semester, a different form o f the TOEFL was administered to the students in both groups to measure the improvement o f their English proficiency level. Furthermore, the extent o f the students motivation in leaning English was taken into consideration when data were analyzed. Upon completion o f the TOEFL post-test, the students in Group 1 were asked to answer questions designed by the researcher to determine their reactions to the contrastive analysis and focal skills instruction. As Yvonna Lincoln and Egon Guba (1985) state, There are multiple constructed realities that can be studied holistically (p. 37). Thus, the researcher employed both a quantitative method (test for statistical significant and effect size) and a qualitative method (students written comments regarding the treatments) to control some threats to the validity o f this study. This method could be described as multiplying independent measures and sources o f the same phenomenon (Huberman & Miles, in Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, p. 438). Moreover, the combination of quantitative data and qualitative data analyses served to relate different sorts of data in such a way as to counteract various possible threats to the validity of the analysis (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1996, p. 232). 30
Procedures The Chinese students in Group 1 were asked to participate in the research project when they had their first English language class at the beginning o f a new semester. The students were informed that the purpose o f this research project was to help them enhance their English language proficiency level. They were told that if they participated in this research project, they would have to submit a signed consent form. They were also told that they would be assigned some materials to read and practice exercises to do. If they did not want to participate, they would not have to do the extra assignments they were told. Consequently, all 30 students in Group 1 signed consent forms and participated in this study. The students in both groups were informed that they would take two forms o f the TOEFL. One form o f the TOEFL would be given at the beginning o f the semester, and another form would be given at the end o f the semester. The 30 students in Group 2 were not informed o f this research project. They were informed that taking these two tests were requirements o f the class and that by comparing their TOEFL pre-test scores with their TOEFL post-test scores, they could determine whether or not they had made progress in English in this semester. The students in Group I and Group 2 attended English classes four times each week throughout the entire semester. The content and methods and class activities, textbooks, and class time were basically the same. The students in Group 1, however, received the contrastive analysis and the focal skills treatments. The students in Group 2 did not. The focal skills listening treatment exercises are provided in Appendix C. The 31
contrastive analysis treatment exercises are provided in Appendix D. The focal skills reading comprehension treatment exercises are provided in Appendix E. One female English instructor taught the students in both groups. She was Chinese and held a Bachelor o f Arts degree and a Master of Arts degree in English language and literature. She had taught English at the university level for four years. The students in Group 1 and Group 2 took the same form o f the TOEFL at the beginning o f the semester. Then students in Group 1 received 3 weeks listening comprehension treatment in class. The listening comprehension treatment belonged to the part o f the focal skills treatment project designed by the researcher (See Appendix C). In the final twenty minutes o f each class, students in Group 1 were asked to read focal skills instruction on listening comprehension. Then they were asked to listen to one type o f problem and answer the listening comprehension questions based on the conversation that they had heard. After students in Group 1 finished the listening exercises, the English instructor went over the correct answers with her students. Then, students in Group 1 received the contrastive analysis treatment for the following seven weeks (see Appendix D.) and the reading comprehension treatment (see Appendix E) in the next three weeks. The students in Group 1 were assigned to read the materials designed by the researcher and do the exercises designed by the researcher as homework at the end of each English class. In the next class the English instructor checked these students assignments and answered the students questions. The materials with the practice exercises the students in Group 1 received from the previous English class were collected by the instructor at the end of each class and were not 32
returned to them. By doing so, the students in Group 2 had no way to secure the treatment materials from the students in Group 1. At the end o f the semester students in both groups took another form o f the TOEFL. By comparing the scores from these two tests, the students in both groups could find out whether they had made any improvement in English at the end o f the semester. However, the TOEFL scores did not affect the students grades in the course. After the students in Group I took the TOEFL post-test, they were asked to answer three questions designed by the researcher. Their written comments o f the treatments were used with the quantitative data to determine whether the students thought that the treatments worked. The following three questions were used to determine whether students were satisfied with the treatments. 1. Is the listening skills treatment helpful to your listening to English and taking the listening Part of the TOEFL? If you think so, please describe it in detail. If you do not think so, please explain it. 2. Does the contrastive analysis between English and Chinese help you overcome some mistakes affected by LI interference? If the answer is Yes, you need to expound on it. If the answer is No, you need to give your explanation. 3. Do the reading techniques you learned assist you in enhancing your reading comprehension or taking TOEFL? If this is the case, please explain it. Only 25 students out o f 30 in Group 1 returned their questions to their English teacher. Out of 25 students responses, the researcher developed a coding system to organize data ( Bogdan, & Biklen, 1992). First, the researcher clipped every answer 33
from students question 1 to question 3 respectively. Second, as the researcher read through her data, certain words, phrases, patterns o f behavior, subjects ways o f thinking, and reflections were repeated and stood out. The reseacher sorted the similar data into separate stacks and then decided which stacks of data were representative enough to be entered into result section of the study. Finally, ten answers from each question were selected as representative voices from the participants in Group 1.
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CHAPTER 4 RESULTS Quantitative Data Analysis and Results The first independent variable is Group (Group 1 and Group 2). The second independent variable is Test (TOEFL pre-test and TOEFL post-test). The dependent variable is Score. The data were analyzed by using a 2x2 ANOVA with repeated measures on the second independent variable. The descriptive statistics for the prelistening scores and post-listening scores for the two groups are reported in Table 1; the descriptive statistics for the pre-grammatical structure scores and the post-grammatical structure scores for the two groups are reported in Table 2; the descriptive statistics for the pre-reading comprehension scores and the post-reading comprehension scores for the two groups are reported in Table 3; and the descriptive statistics for the pre-total TOEFL scores and the post-total TOEFL scores for the two groups are reported in Table 4. Furthermore, the means in four figures (Figure I, Figure 2, Figure3 and Figure 4) are presented to facilitate interpretation. Figure 1 shows the mean TOEFL score for Group 1 and Group 2 under the pre-and post-listening test condition respectively. Figure 2 shows the mean TOEFL score for Group 1 and Group 2 under the pre and post-grammatical structure testing condition respectively. Figure 3 shows the mean TOEFL score for Group 1 and Group 2 under the pre-and post reading comprehension testing conditions respectively. Figure 4 shows the mean of the total TOEFL scores for Group 1 and Group 2 under the pre-and post-testing condition respectively. 35
As indicated in Figure 1, Group 1 (N=30) and Group 2 (N=30) were comparable prior to the treatment period, suggesting that the two groups had similar mean scores on their TOEFL Listening Pre-test at the beginning of the semester (the mean for Group 1 = 169; the mean for Group 2 =170). Although the means for both groups increased after the treatment period, the mean for Group 1 was a somewhat higher than the mean for Group 2. However, the interaction between Group and Test for the Listening Part o f the TOEFL was not statistically significant, F(l, 58) =3.48. p> .06, eta2 = .05, thus indicating that the gain from the mean o f the TOEFL Listening Pre-test to the mean o f the TOEFL Listening post-test for Group 1 was not significantly greater than the corresponding gain for Group 2. These data demonstrated that 5 % o f the variance in the Score was associated with Group by Test interaction. Cohen (1977) considered that an eta2 o f .14 reflected a large effect size, .06 is medium, and .01 is small. Therefore, .05 could be interpreted as between a medium and a small effect size. In Figure 2, Group 1(N=30) and Group 2 (N=30) were comparable prior to the treatment period, indicating the two groups had similar mean scores on their TOEFL Grammatical Structure Pre-test at the beginning o f the semester (the mean for Group 1= 174; the mean for Group 2 =178). However, after the treatment period, a very small increase (from 178 to 183) in the mean for Group 2 was noted. The corresponding mean for Group 1 was relatively large from (174 to 205), making the mean for Group I considerably higher than the mean for Group 2 after the treatment. Furthermore, the interaction between Group and Test was statistically significant, F (l, 58)= 37.3, p<.001, eta2 = .39, thus indicating that the gain from the TOEFL pre-test mean to the TOEFL 36
post-test mean for Group 1 was significantly greater than the corresponding gain for Group 2. These data indicated that 39% o f the variance in the Scores was associated with the Group by Test interaction. Therefore, in terms o f Cohens criteria, .39 could be interpreted as a large effect size. In Figure 3, Group 1 (N=30) and Group 2 (N=30) were comparable prior to the treatment period, meaning that two groups had similar mean scores on their TOEFL Reading Comprehension Pre-test at the beginning o f the semester (the mean for Group 1 = 175; the mean for Group 2 =176). But after the treatment period, a small increase (176 to 184) in the mean for Group 2 was demonstrated. The corresponding increase in the mean for Group 1 was relatively large (from 175 to 195), making the mean for Group 1 higher than the mean for Group 2 after the treatment. Moreover, the interaction between the Group and Test was statistically significant, F(l, 58) = 10.5, p<.05, eta2 = .15, thus indicating that the gain from the TOEFL reading comprehension pre-test mean to the TOEFL reading comprehension post-test mean for Group 1 was significantly greater than the corresponding gain for Group 2. These data showed that 15 % o f the variance in the scores of reading comprehension was associated with Group by Test interaction. According to Cohens criteria, an eta2 of .14 or greater represents a large effect size, therefore, .15 was interpreted as a large effect size. In figure 4, Group 1(N=30) and Group 2(N=30) were comparable prior to the treatment period, suggesting that the two groups had similar mean scores on their overall TOEFL pre-test at the beginning o f the semester (the mean for Group 1 =519; the mean for Group 2 =525). However, after the treatment period, a small rise from (525 to 542) 37
was noted in the mean for Group 2. The corresponding rise in the mean for Group 1 was relatively large (from 519 to 584), making the mean for Group 1 considerably higher than the mean for Group 2 after the treatment. The interaction between Group and Test was statistically significant, F (1, 58) = 32.12, p< .001, eta2 = .35, thus indicating that the gain from the overall TOEFL pre-test mean to the overall TOEFL post-test mean for Group 1 was significantly greater than the corresponding gain for Group 2. These data showed that 35 % o f the variance in the Scores was associated with Group by test interaction. According to Cohens criteria, .35 could be interpreted as a large effect size. Furthermore, the data on the extent o f the students motivation for learning English were collected. Before the students in both groups took the TOEFL Pre-test, they were asked to fill in the motivation scale sheet to identify themselves as either low motivated, or intermediately motivated, or highly motivated. A one way ANOVA was used to determine whether there was a difference in motivation between Group 1 and Group 2. The result indicated the group difference in motivation was not statistically significant, F (1, 58) = .06, p> .81. The descriptive statistics for each groups motivation score are reported in Table 5, and the mean score on motivation for each group is compared in Figure 5 to facilitate interpretation o f the result.
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Table 1
Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors o f Mean (SEM) for the Pre-Listening Scores and the Post-Listening Scores for Group 1 and Group 2 (Group 1= Experimental Group; Group 2=Control Group).
Group Pre-listening Post listening 1 2 1 2
Mean 169.7 170.5 182.6 175.3
Standard Deviation 12.5 9.5 12.2 11.1
SEM 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1
N 30 30 30 30
Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors of Mean (SEM) for the PreGrammatical Structure Scores and the Post-Grammatical Structure Scores for Group 1 and Group 2.
Group PreStructure PostStructure 1 2 1 2
Mean 174.8 178.0 205.8 183.2
SEM 2.3 2.3 1.9 1.9
N 30 30 30 30
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Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors of Mean (SEM) for the Pre-Reading Comprehension Scores and the Post-Reading Comprehension Scores for Group 1 and Group 2. Group Pre-Reading Comprehen sion PostReading Comprehen sion 1 2 Mean 175.1 176.5 195.8 184.4 SEM 1.8 1.8
N 30 30
1 2
2.0 2.0
30 30
Table 4 Means, Standard Deviations and Standard Errors of Mean (SEM) for the Pre-Total TOEFL Scores and the Post-Total TOEFL Scores for Group 1 and Group 2. Group Pre-Total TOEFL Post-Total TOEFL 1 2 1 2 Mean 519.6 525.0 584.3 542.9 SEM 3.5 3.5 4.4 4.4
N 30 30 30 30
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Table 5
Means, Standard Deviations, Standard Errors o f Mean (SEM), Minimum and Maximum for the Motivation Score for Group 1 and Group 2 ( Group 1= Experimental Group and Group 2 = Control Group). Low Motivation =1, Intermediate Motivation = 2, and High Motivation = 3.
Group
Mean
Standard Deviation .58 .46
SEM .10 .09
Minimum
Maximum
1 2
2.26 2.30
30 30
I 2
3 3
G roupl Group2 16011 M l I Pre-T est
.....
PostT est
Figure 1. Mean Score on the Listening Section o f the TOEFL During Pre and Post Test For Group 1 and Group 2.
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IG roupl IGroup2
Pre-T est
P o st-
Figure 2. Mean Score on the Grammatical Structure Section o f the TOEFL Pre and Post Test For Group 1 and Group 2.
G roup 1 G roup 2
Pre-Test
PostTest
Figure 3. Mean Score on the Reading Comprehension Section o f the TOEFL During Pre and Post Test For Group 1 and Group 2.
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590 580 570 560 550 540 530 520 510 500 490 480 Pre-T est P ost-T est
G roup 1 G roup 2
Figure 4. Mean Score on the Total TOEFL During Pre and Post Test For Group 1 and Group 2.
2.28-: Group 1 Group 2
motivation
Figure 5. Mean Score on the Motivation Scale for Group 1 and Group 2.
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Students Comments on the Treatments Immediately after the TOEFL post-test, 25 students responses to the following three questions were collected and then analyzed in order to sort out the repeated ideas or patterns. Among them ten students answers for each question were selected for analysis and interpretation. Question One 1. Is the listening skills treatment helpful to your listening to English and taking the Listening Part of the TOEFL? If you think so, please describe it in detail. If you dont think so, please explain it. Student A Yes, it is. I am poor at listening to English. The scores in the Listening Part o f my college English tests were always lower than the other parts that is, the Grammatical Structures Part and Reading Comprehension Part. When I didnt understand some new words used by the English teacher or failed to understand some words in the Listening Part o f the Test in the past, I usually totally gave up. When I took the Listening Part o f the Test, I had to guess at the answers sometimes. Furthermore, some words were in my reading vocabulary but were not in my listening vocabulary. After I read the listening treatment material and did some listening exercises, I learned how to use contextual clues to detect the topic o f a conversation. I am no longer stumped by a couple o f new words in listening to English lectures or conversations. Some new words can be inferred from the rest of speakers
dialogue. Even though I dont have any idea o f what these words mean, they dont quite prevent me from understanding the main ideas o f the conversation. Afrer I learned these listening skills, my self-confidence in listening to English seemed to be enhanced. In the past, listening to English was like solving a puzzle. I always lost the game. I hated listening classes and sometimes purposely shirked them. But now it seems that I have obtained some methods to approach this puzzle and sometimes I win the game. In short, the direct instructions from the listening treatment material are quite helpful to me and I hope more such direct instructions will be given to students. Student B Yes, it is. When I took the Listening Part of an English test in the past, I felt as if I was unprepared for a test. I was always anxious before and during the listening test. Sometimes I found that it was difficult to follow the speaker. When I translated the first part of the sentence into Chinese, I lost the second part o f sentence. If I did not translate what I heard into Chinese, its meanings appeared vague to me. Listening to English is my weakest area. The listening treatment material and exercises designed by the researcher are very similar to the type of items in the Listening Part o f College English Tests. The listening material teaches me how to prepare for the Listening Part o f the English test. It is very practical because you can use these tips when you take a listening test. Now I know that the conversations on the Listening Test are based on some common topics such as a dialogue between a professor and a student, a 45
dialogue between a doctor and a patient, a conversation between a car dealer and his client, a conversation between a tour guide and a traveler, or a conversation between a bank teller and a customer and so on. When I take this kind o f test, I pay attention to the key words which can be used to answer five w- questions (who, what, when, where and why) later. When I encounter a new word in listening to English, I just put an X as if it were in a formula. When other known words surrounding the new word are given, I can induce this new word. This case is very similar to a linear equation like 3X + 5 = 23. X is like a new word while 3 ,5 , and 23 are like known words. But I know this method sometimes does not work. Student C Yes, it is. I usually dont have any difficulty in understanding what our English teacher talks about in class. However, when I listen to a native English speaker, such as the speaker on a tape of the Listening Part o f the TOEFL, it seems to me that he or she pronounces some words differently than what I am taught. Therefore, when I read tapescripts for the Listening Comprehension Part, I was amazed by the fact that some words I could not understand when I listened to the tape were not new words. When I read them, I knew their meanings. I dont know whether other classmates have the same problems as I do. The listening comprehension training material I read is useful in a certain sense. It offers us some good methods for understanding a speakers message. It is especially helpful in taking a listening test, because the types of the items on the 46
Listening Comprehension Section are very similar to those of the test items on the Listening Part o f the College English Test. In our regular listening classes, we just listen to a dialogue or a short paragraph. After that, the teacher just explains some idiomatic expressions or phrases to us. Therefore, I always thought that the cause of selecting a wrong answer from the listening comprehension materials was due to an insufficient vocabulary base in English and that improving my English was no more than expanding my vocabulary. However, through reading listening comprehension treatment material and doing exercises, I gradually realized that listening comprehension process is similar to reading comprehension process. It does not only depend on word for word translation. I should follow the flow o f the conversation instead o f puzzling over a few new words or idioms in the conversation. Anyhow, I think that I can apply what I learned from the listening comprehension material to listening to English lectures or taking English listening tests. Most importantly, this listening material pinpoints some o f our major weaknesses in listening to English and offers some good suggestions on how to overcome these weaknesses. Student D Yes, it is. The listening comprehension material designed by the researcher is helpful in preparing students to take College English Tests and any English proficiency tests. The regular English classes do not prepare us for this type of the test. I feel that what I have learned from my English classes is not very 47
helpful in handling this land o f the test. The vocabulary and the content in our textbook are different from what we are tested in the TOEFL. I know that some of my classmates do not read our English textbook (College English). They probably study some other books that teach them how to prepare for an English proficiency test. So when these students take the English final exam, they get good grades and some of them have higher scores than some o f my classmates who regularly attend the class. Sometimes I am debating with myself whether I should spend time reading some books that teach me some tests survival skills instead o f attending English classes which have not much to do with what we have been tested. The first advantage for the listening comprehension treatment material is to help me boost my listening test score. Second advantage is to offer me some useful information that is, not to be distracted by some unknown words or idioms when I take a listening test. The third advantage is that the material systematically summarizes the type o f the questions that will appear on an English proficiency test. The last advantage but not the least is that the listening test strategies are based on our real obstacles in listening English and after we read them and practice using them, we can see the progress that is, our test score has been enhanced. Student E Yes, it is. We have never been directly taught how to prepare for the listening comprehension test although every semester we take this kind of test at least
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twice midterm exam and final exam. It is very conducive to me that some strategies are there within my reach so that I can use them to boost my listening comprehension test score. I did not have much interest in listening English in the past because this was just a part of requirements for the English course. However, reading technical articles related to my field are more practical and useful for my future. I often thought that even though my listening comprehension score was lower than the other two parts grammatical structures and reading comprehension, the scores I obtained from those other two parts could offset my low score in the Listening Comprehension Part. If I could pass the College English (Band 4) at the end o f this semester, I would be done for all the English courses. However, after I read the listening comprehension material and did some listening comprehension exercises in class, I gradually developed an interest toward listening English. The reason is that when the English instructor checked our answers for each listening comprehension item, I found that I had more correct answers than incorrect answers. In the past I always had more incorrect answers than correct answers. This is really an encouragement. It is a kind of feeling that you always think you are unable to do something but that all a sudden you find that you are able to do it. You rediscover your own self-efficacy. You feel great.
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Student F
Yes, it is in a certain extent but not a lot, I guess. Unlike attending English classes this kind o f English proficiency test covers too many areas. In my English classes what the English teacher says is pretty predictable. Even if you sometimes dont pay attention to it, you know what she means. However, when you take this kind o f the Listening test, things are different. The topics o f conversations are so broad that it is impossible for you to get well prepared. Unlike some other subjects if you read the textbooks, attend classes and do the practice exercises, you are able to do well on your tests. Sometimes I feel it is
by chance that you understand what the conversation from the tape o f the English listening test means. My experience is that if I am familiar with the topic o f that listening passage in Chinese, I can select the most correct answers from those multiple choice questions. However, if I am not familiar with the topic o f the listening passage in Chinese, I dont have any chance to get correct answers. So I think that the familiarity o f the topic in ones native language plays an important role in understand spoken English. Here I should make my point clearly. 1 dont mean that the listening comprehension material we read is not helpful. What I mean is that it is not a major factor that will greatly assist us in listening English. It helps a little bit and it is better than not knowing these strategies at all.
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Student G
Yes, it is beneficial in a moderate way. Although the listening comprehension treatment material gives us some ideas o f how to prepare for the Listening Comprehension part o f an English proficiency test, it only covers a small area o f how to take this kind o f the test. The topics o f the conversations are too broad to prepare for. Some listening strategies from the listening treatment material are helpful and some dont work. If you dont know the meaning o f an idiom, you can not infer the meaning from the context. It is a kind of like a guessing game or making a bet. You usually lose. Furthermore, it is impossible in such a short period of time (probably a 30 seconds interval) to analyze whether the question is explicit or implicit or the expression is an idiom and so on. Student H The listening comprehension treatment material provides some guidelines for us to take the Listening test. The listening strategies sound good; however, they dont quite work for me. The score o f the Listening Part o f my Post TOEFL did not increase a lot. I dont think that I have made any progress in listening English. My problem in listening English is that if I dont understand the previous sentence, I can not concentrate on listening to the following sentence. If a topic is unfamiliar to me or there are some new words or idiomatic expressions in a conversation on the Listening test, I just randomly select an answer and dont want to spend time thinking about them. By doing so I can have sufficient time to
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deal with next dialogue from the Listening test. Otherwise I would have missed two questions. Student I I should say that the listening strategies discussed in the reading comprehension material are not helpful to me. Probably they are helpful to my classmates. I dont know and I didnt ask them their reflections. You see that when I read those listening strategies, they made sense to me and 1 expected they would help me boost my listening comprehension scores in the College English Test or the Post TOEFL. However, I was a little disappointed when I took the Listening Comprehension Parts of the Tests. I dont think that I have made much progress after I adopted these listening strategies in taking an English Listening test. My score on the listening comprehension Section of the test did not show much improvement. Student J My answer to Question 1 is not much. In my case, I dont have any difficulty in the Listening Comprehension Section o f the English test. My test scores in the Listening Comprehension Section are always the highest in class. I think that I already knew some of your listening comprehension strategies mentioned in your material and used them in taking a listening comprehesion test. But I did not realize I had used them in taking a listening comprehension test. But now I am aware o f them.
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Question Two 2 Does the contrastive analysis between English and Chinese help you overcome some grammatical mistakes affected by LI interference? If the answer is Yes, you need to expound on it. If the answer is No, you need to give your explanation. Student A Yes, it does help me a lot. The contrastive analysis treatment is very helpful to me in both spoken and written English as well as taking the Grammatical Structure Part o f the English test. Although from high school to university I have learned English for eight years and have been taught English grammar systematically, I still make mistakes in my oral and written English. The first advantage for this contrastive analysis is that we are guided to pay special attention to some grammatical mistakes we easily make due to the LI interference. For example, verb tenses, genders, articles and prepositions in English are quite different from those in Chinese. We can easily make mistakes in these areas. The test-maker uses these easily made mistakes to design the grammatical structure section o f an English test. However, if we are aware o f these common mistakes and do some practice exercises to identify these mistakes and reinforce the correct usage, we will successfully overcome the LI interference and set up two repertoires to store those grammatical rules in LI and L2. The second advantage for this contrastive analysis treatment is pragmatic. If you read the contrastive analysis treatment material and do its exercises, you will 53
find your test score in the Grammatical Structures o f the English Test has been greatly enhanced in a short period o f time. When I took my post-TOEFL and College English Test, I found both test scores were boosted. I was quite surprised that I had made impressive progress in only one semester. This is the last semester for me to take an English course if I can pass College English Test (Band 4). I wish that I had been given the contrastive analysis treatment on my first semester in college. Student B My answer to this question is definitely Yes. In the past I never heard about the contrastive analysis between Chinese and English and never thought about it. I made grammatical mistakes in English and never related them to my native languages interference. After I read the contrastive analysis material and did its exercises, I found why I always made some mistakes in the grammatical structures. Knowing these rules does not guarantee that you can apply them in your spoken and written English. It is a kind o f like a persons bad habit. Even though you are aware o f it and intend to rectify it, it still takes time and effort to overcome it. However, if these easily made grammatical mistakes are identified as the traps set by the test-maker in our English tests, we have the exact direction to guard against these mistakes. The contrastive analysis treatment seems to serve as a short cut in the learning some parts o f the English grammatical structure. Moreover it is so pragmatic and effective in assisting me to increase my scores in the Grammatical Structure o f the post- TOEFL and my final English 54
examination. Comparing my score in the Grammatical Structure Section with the other two Sections that is, Listening Comprehension and Reading Comprehension, I think that I have made more improvement in the Grammatical Structure Section than the other two Sections. Student C Yes, it does. The contrastive analysis treatment works for me. It assists me on focusing on the common grammatical mistakes we make and teaches me how to identify and correct them. Although I have systematically learned English grammar, I still make some common mistakes that I always thought I should not have made. In the past, I thought that I was probably not good at learning a language and was slow in learning English. However, after I read the contrastive analysis material, I seemed to find a part o f the answer to the question why I sometimes made some grammatical mistakes. Now I can focus my attention to those grammatical mistakes affected by the LI interference and monitor my output in English. Those exercises of the contrastive analysis treatment are very conducive in correcting those common mistakes made by Chinese learners. I feel as if the items were written for me and I am correcting my own mistakes in my writing and know what caused these mistakes. Now I think that I have obtained a new perspective in understanding English grammatical structure and grammar although I am fully aware that learning English is more than learning English grammar. But at least it is a part of the learning process and the skeleton of a language. 55
Student D
Yes, it does. I am glad that I have the opportunity to read the contrastive analysis material and do its exercises. The contrastive analysis pinpoints some common mistakes we usually make and offers some exercises for us to do. I think that some items o f error identification are based on our spoken and written mistakes. When I worked on these exercises, I felt as if I were correcting my own mistakes. Although I learn how to use the English verb tenses, aspects, subordinate clauses and other grammatical rules, I sometimes forget to apply them in speaking, writing and error identification. It is like something you know how to do it but you can not do it correctly right away. Furthermore, I find that I gradually forget these grammatical rules if I dont use them often. However, when I compare these grammatical rules in English with those in Chinese, I more likely remember the distinctive features o f the target language. Therefore the contrastive analysis assists me to reinforce my memory of those distinctive features of the target language. Now I feel confident at least in one part o f the English testthe Structure and Written Expression Part. In my post-TOEFL I got 24 correct answers out of 2 5 .1 wish I could have made such rapid progress in listening comprehension and reading comprehension. Student E Yes, it greatly assists me in correcting my grammatical mistakes in spoken English. It helps to enhance my English test score.
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I am interested in learning English. Sometimes on weekends I went to the English comer to have conversation with the English professors or Englishspeaking-countries travelers. They pointed some common mistakes in my spoken English such as gender confusion (sometimes), misuse o f verbs and omission o f definite or indefinite articles and omission o f the subject. After I read the contrastive analysis treatment material, I realized that some of these common grammatical mistakes I made were due to the native languages negative transfer. I unconsciously applied the native languages rules to English. Now when I speak English, I pay special attention to the above mistakes and do some self correction. For example, I unconsciously said, I dont play basketball yesterday. Then I immediately realized that I had used a wrong verb tense and corrected it: I didnt play basketball yesterday. In addition, through reading the contrastive analysis material and doing its exercises, my score in the error identification items has been enhanced. Furthermore, I can sometimes identify my classmates grammatical mistakes either in spoken English or written English. Student F Yes, the contrastive analysis between the native language and English can serve as a part o f the grammatical guidance for the students who have difficulty in the English grammar. However, not all the grammatical mistakes are due to ones native language interference. There are other factors that affect a L2 learners mistakes. In other words, I think that the contrastive analysis can help us correct 57
a limited number o f grammatical mistakes affected by LI. The contrastive analysis has its limitation. It only plays a minor role in English learning. I dont have any difficulty in learning English grammar. Our English test usually consists of three Parts, Listening Comprehension, Grammatical Structure and Reading Comprehension. I think that the Grammatical Structure Part is the easiest part among these three. If you have systematically learned English grammar and have practiced some sample tests, you wont have any problem in this part. Therefore, for those students like me, the contrastive analysis is as the Chinese saying goes, adding feet to the serpent. Student G Yes, the contrastive analysis between English and Chinese helps me overcome some mistakes affected by LI interference. It especially helps to boost my test scores in the structure and written expression o f the post TOEFL. The contrastive analysis material assists me to narrow down the types of mistakes to those that frequently appear in an English proficiency test. Therefore, if you study the contrastive analysis material and do its exercises, you will do well in the error identification part o f the test. However, the contrastive analysis treatment has its limitation. There are not many items of the English grammatical structure that can be compared with those of the Chinese grammatical structure. So there will be not much comparison and contrast between these two languages going on, I guess.
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Student H
No, It doesnt help me a lot. The contrastive analysis treatment has pointed out some mistakes affected by Li interference. But some o f these mistakes are also common mistakes made by English beginners regardless o f their native language. Since I have read two English grammar books and is interested in studying English grammar. The Structure and Written Expression Section o f TOEFL is the easiest part among the three parts. I got the same number o f the correct answers on this part in both pre TOEFL and post TOEFL, that is, I only missed one item. I am probably a little more advanced than my classmates especially in English grammar. The contrastive analysis is probably more useful to them than to me. Student I My answer to this question is that the contrastive analysis is only helpful in preparing for an English standardized test but not very helpful in learning English as a whole. What I mean here is that this contrastive analysis treatment is a test for a tests sake. It helps us get more correct answers on the English test. But if we go beyond this test for tests sake, we can not find more advantages for it. Our attention should also focus on a lot of grammatical mistakes that are not caused by the LI interference. Student J My answer to this question is between Yes and No. I hope that my answer is not ambiguous. What I mean is that the contrastive analysis is helpful in a moderate way. The comparison and contrast of some grammatical structures 59
between Chinese and English are very impressive and sound. However, I think I have learned more than I need. L2 only serves as a tool for me in the future and I will use it to read some technical books in my field and leam some new technology and development. If I can get across the authors ideas and translate them into Chinese, this will be sufficient for me. If I can distinguish an incorrect grammatical structure and write correct sentences, I think that I have accomplished my goal in learning English. As for the comparison and contrast between these two languages, that is linguists or educators area o f the study. Question Three 2. Do the reading techniques you learned assist you in enhancing your reading comprehension or taking the TOEFL? If this is the case, please explain it. If this is not the case, please voice your opinions. Student A Yes, they do. I think that reading comprehension material we read covers most types of the questions we encounter in the Reading Comprehension Section o f an English test. From high school to university, I have taken many English reading comprehension tests. However, I have never thought about summarizing the types of the questions on a reading comprehension test. The reading comprehension treatment material offers us a discourse o f analysis and helps us understand different organizational patterns. All these instructions greatly assist us in taking the Reading Comprehension Part o f the Test. If we have a rough idea o f what types o f questions will be on our test, we are more prepared for the test. 60
Furthermore, we are timed when we take an English proficiency test. In the past, I always ran out o f time when I took the Reading Comprehension Part o f the Test. Although most of my answers in the Reading Comprehension Part were correct, some answers were unfilled due to my slow reading rate and unfamiliar with the text structure which affected my grade in that part o f the test. But with the help o f the reading techniques from the reading comprehension treatment material, I can now read a passage and answer its questions fast. This is especially conducive to me if I take an English proficiency test. Student B Yes, they do. After I read the reading comprehension material designed by the researcher, I realized there was a similarity and also a difference in the text structure between English and Chinese. The positive transfer from identifying main ideas o f an article in Chinese helps me in comprehending an English article. I dont have any problem in finding main ideas either in a Chinese article or an English article. However, I certainly lack some reading skills such as making inferences or detecting an authors purpose and tone. Furthermore, some patterns of organization in the English writing are not used in the Chinese writing. If we are not aware o f them, they will interfere with analyzing and comprehending an English article. Also I find that the types o f the multiple-choice questions in the reading comprehension part o f the English proficiency test are pretty much predictable.
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Student C
Yes, they do. These reading techniques help me not only better understand what I read but also answer the multiple-choice questions in the Reading Comprehension Sections of the TOEFL and College English Test. In addition, by studying the reading comprehension treatment material and doing its exercises, I have learned some test-taking skills. All the multiple-choice questions on reading comprehension from the test can be divided into two kinds: explicit questions and implicit questions. Explicit questions are easy questions and we can find the exact answers from a passage we are reading while implicit questions require us to infer the authors intention and read between and beyond the lines. Therefore, when I answer these multiple-choice questions, I need to answer explicit questions first and then answer implicit questions. Furthermore, I prefer to read each of multiple-choice questions before reading the passage. With the question in my mind, I know what information I should pay a special attention to and which information I can ignore. In summary, these reading techniques are very helpful to me and I hope that I will leam more and apply them in my reading. Student D Yes, I think so. In the past, if the topic o f an English article was familiar to me, I was motivated to read. O f course if it was a reading comprehension test with the topic that was familiar to me, I would get more correct answers. But in contrast, if the topic o f an English article was not familiar to me, I was not motivated to 62
read and usually had to guess some o f the answers following the article. Under the latter conditions, I can apply the reading techniques I have learned to my reading to find the correct answers to the multiple-choice questions o f the test. By doing so, the number of the correct answers from the unfamiliar topics has increased a little due to using these reading techniques. Student E Yes, they do. The reading techniques I teamed assist me not only in taking a reading comprehension test but also in speeding up my reading rate a little bit. With these reading techniques in my mind I can rearrange the information according to what each reading comprehension question requires and then select the correct information to answer each reading comprehension question. Analyzing the text structure of an article is very important too. When I identify an organizational pattern from a passage, I can quickly locate the information I need. By doing so, my reading speed increases accordingly. Student F I should say that these reading techniques help me enhance my reading comprehension in a moderate way but not a lot. Generally speaking, my reading comprehension is pretty good and I dont have difficulty in taking a reading comprehension test. I enjoy reading. I especially like reading Chinese history, famous peoples autobiographies and adventure stories. My reading rate in English is okay, I guess. I have never run out o f time when I take a reading comprehension test. I always have a little extra time left at the end o f a test. One 63
reading technique, that is, detecting an authors intention and tone is very beneficial to me. In the past I read so fast that I only catch some literal meanings o f a passage but miss some implied or deep meaning o f the passage. Now I start to focus my attention on this type o f questions. Student G Yes, they helped me a little bit. From learning those reading techniques, I am aware that there is a difference and also a similarity in text structure between English and Chinese. The similarity in the text structure between these two languages does not give us any problem; however, the difference in the text structure between these two languages causes some problems in our reading. Although knowing the differences between English and Chinese assists us to see how information and ideas are organized in an English article, this awareness o f the test structure in English does not play a major role in enhancing reading comprehension. However, I think that this awareness o f the text structure in English is more beneficial in writing than reading. Student H Yes, they do. I know some o f the reading techniques discussed in the treatment material but some of them are new to me. In the past I employed some reading techniques in taking a reading comprehension test but I was not aware that these were called reading techniques. From now on, I will pay attention to picking up new reading techniques or strategies to expand my English Language repertoire. For me all kinds o f reading techniques or strategies are like tools for a 64
repairman. The more tools he has, the more conveniently and accurately he can select the one that is most appropriate when he does his work. In addition the practice exercises in the Reading Comprehension Part summarize the major types o f reading comprehension questions we encounter in our English tests. If we study them, we will have a rough idea of what kind o f questions will be on the test so as to reduce our test anxiety. Student I No, they dont. I dont think that they are very useful. I didnt read all of them and did not do the exercises. I am not quite interested in learning English. Since a foreign language is a required course for all the students, I just study it for the tests sake. So far I think that I can keep pace with my classmates in this class. I dont want to spend more time reading the additional material. Student J Yes, they do in a moderate way. I guess that learning some new reading techniques is better than not learning them. I think that these reading techniques and English rhetorical devices sound good but have their limitations when we use them in our reading. Sometimes a lot o f other factors affect our reading comprehension. Some reading techniques are helpful in a certain context but in another context they no longer work. Sometimes I feel frustrated when I use some reading techniques in my reading but find my answers to the questions based on the reading passage are wrong.
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CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION The purpose o f this research was to determine whether teaching contrastive analysis and employing the focal skills instruction help L2 learners enhance their English proficiency level. First, the TOEFL pre-and post-test mean scores o f Students from Group 1 and Group 2 in listening comprehension, grammatical structures, reading comprehension and the three sections were analyzed by using a 2x2 ANOVA with repeated measures on the second independent variable (Test). Second, a one way ANOVA was used to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference in motivation between Group 1 and Group 2 in order to control the confounding variable motivation in learning English. Finally, the data on the students comments about the treatments were gleaned to provide further information regarding this study. Interpretation o f the Data The result o f the study on the Listening Comprehension Part revealed that although the mean score for Group 1 was a somewhat higher than the mean score for Group 2 after the treatment period, the interaction between Group and Test was not statistically significant (p= .06 ). Therefore, the data did not support the hypothesis that employing the focal skills instruction assists L2 learners in improving their listening comprehension.
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The students comments o f the listening comprehension treatment indicated that listening to spoken English was the weakest area for these students in learning English. The aim of the college English teaching program in China is to cultivate students to have strong ability in reading and have a certain amount of ability in listening, speaking, writing and translation. These abilities enable them to exchange information in English. Based on the English teaching program, classroom teachers in China emphasize teaching grammar, vocabulary, idioms and reading in English but overlook students listening and speaking in English. The assessment instrument in China, the English test, seems to encourage students to leam grammar, usage o f words and reading comprehension techniques because the English test is based on the above items. There is no speaking part on the test and there is only a small portion o f listening comprehension on an English test. If we consider the L2 learners difficulty in listening to spoken English from the perspective o f the way they process what they hear, we probably may find some explanations o f why the interaction between Group and Test is not statistically significant. There are two distinct processes involved in comprehending spoken English, bottom-up processing and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the process of determining the meaning of a message by listening and analyzing piece-bypiece the sounds, words and grammar until the meaning of the whole message is triggered in mind. Top-down processing refers to having the message or message scheme in mind first and then considering sounds, words, and grammar piece-by-piece to determine if they fit or confirm the message already in mind. (Gebhard, 1996; 67
Anderson & Lynch, 1988; Chaudron & Richards, 1986; Helgesen, 1993; Morley 1991; Richards, Hull, & Proctor, 1990). In Krashens view, comprehensible input is a necessary and sufficient condition in learning a L2. If one were not successful in learning a L2, he or she would probably have not received comprehensive input in sufficient quantities. Since these Chinese students only have four English classes each week, they are probably not exposed to sufficient spoken English. The students in Group 1 only received a three-week listening comprehension treatment. Therefore, it was almost impossible for them to make significant improvement in such a short period o f time. Furthermore, when students encounter a new English word, they look up this new word in a dictionary to find its pronunciation, part of speech and its meaning. Sometimes the pronunciation o f a word in the dictionary is not the way a native English speaker usually pronounces the word just as some words are listed in a dictionary but have never been pronounced by native speakers. This discrepancy o f the pronunciation between the native speaker and the dictionary is one o f the causes that affect Chinese students listening comprehension on an English test. For some L2 learners their reading vocabulary is larger than their listening vocabulary while for native English speakers their listening vocabulary is usually larger than their reading vocabulary. The students comments o f the listening comprehension treatment indicated that some students successfully used top-down processing to comprehend the meaning o f a message. If they knew the topic o f an English conversation in Chinese, they usually comprehended the conversation in English and satisfactorily answered the questions following the conversations. Successful top-down processing hinges on having the kind 68
o f background knowledge needed to comprehend the meaning of a message. Background knowledge can be in the form o f schemata or plans about the overall structure of events and the relationship between them (Richards, 1990). Lack o f background knowledge can lead to the breakdown o f the top-down process. For example, a L2 learner listens to a conversation between two speakers from a tape. Woman: Hi, can I help you? Man: I would like to order a double cheeseburger with a medium coke. Woman: Would you like it for here or to go? Man: I would like it to go. Question 1: Did the man eat his food in the restaurant? Although most Chinese students can understand most parts o f this dialogue, they are probably puzzled by the expression for here or to go and probably select the wrong answer, that is, the man ate his food in the restaurant. In this conversation, there are no new words for these students but the lack o f cultural schemata blocks their way to comprehending the message. Since the topics o f the English conversation on the TOEFL cover a variety o f subjects and areas, the Chinese students sometimes fail to employ topdown processing to comprehend the conversation on the Listening Part o f the TOEFL. Moreover, some colloquial English and idioms that they have never learned from their English classes prevent them from comprehending some conversations on the TOEFL. According to Krashens view, if a L2 learner is not successful in listening to spoken English, he or she may not have been exposed to sufficiently comprehensible
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input. Another reason would be inappropriate affect. Gass (1997) gave us a brief introduction o f Krashens affective filter hypothesis: Affect here is intended to include things such as motivation, attitude, selfconfidence, or anxiety. Krashen thus proposed an affective filter. If the filter is up, input is prevented from passing through; if input is prevented from passing through, there can be no acquisition. If, on the other hand, the filter is down or low, and if the input is comprehensible, the input will reach the acquisition device and acquisition will take place. (1982, p. 82) The affective filter hypothesis explains the relation between affective variables and the process o f second language acquisition by pointing out that L2 learners differ in relation to the extent or level of their affective filters. Those L2 learners whose attitudes are not favorable to second language acquisition tend to receive input passively and are less cooperative with L2 instructors. As a result, they seek less input than those L2 learners who have a low affective filter. Krashen (1982, p. 31) claimed: Those with attitudes more conducive to second language acquisition will not only seek and obtain more input, but they will also have a lower or weaker filter. They will be more open to the input, and it will strike deeper. The students comments of the listening comprehension treatment indicated that those students with positive attitudes towards second language acquisition were more open to the listening comprehension treatment, obtained more input and had a lower or weaker filter. A few students who claimed that the listening comprehension treatment was not helpful were also not interested in listening to spoken English. If they were stumped at the beginning of an English dialogue, they totally gave up for the rest o f the dialogue. Their negative self-talk probably causes these problematic emotional reactions, 70
which we may call catastrophic thinking. Catastrophic thinking involves unrealistically pessimistic appraisals o f the incomprehensible listening input that exaggerate the magnitude of ones problem. A simple A-B-C sequence can be used to explain this idea (See Figure 6). The common-sense view
A Activating event Incomprehensible listening input: I dont understand what the speaker said.
Consequence
Emotional turmoil: You feel angry, incompetent and bored with listening to English.
The researchers view
A Activating event Incomprehensible listening input: I dont understand what the speaker said.
B Belief System Irrational appraisal: This is terrible. Ill always have difficulty in understanding spoken English.
C Consequence Emotional turmoil: You feel angry, incompetent, and bored with listening to English.
Figure 6. A-B-C Model o f Emotional Reactions on the Incomprehensible Listening Input.
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Although some people are prone to attribute L2 learners negative emotional reactions directly to events, the researcher argues that L2 learners feel the way they think. The researcher asserts that some people dont understand the importance o f phase B in this three-stage sequence. They unwittingly believe that the activating event (A) causes the consequent emotional turmoil (C). However, the researcher maintains that A does not cause C. It only appears to do so. Instead, the researcher asserts, B causes C. L2 learners emotional turmoil is actually caused by their catastrophic thinking in appraising the incomprehensible listening input. Therefore, the incomprehensible listening input that acts as a trigger event leads to the L2 learners irrational appraisal. It is the irrational appraisal that causes the L2 learner to discontinue trying to improve his listening comprehension. Since the Listening Comprehension Part o f TOEFL requires L2 learners to have more subskills than the other two parts of the TOEFL, a three-week listening comprehension treatment is unlikely effective. L 2 learners need more systematical training in listening and listening related subskills training. They also could benefit from related spontaneous learning o f English in informal conversations, from seeing English films, and from acting out the English stories they have learned. In support o f the second hypothesis o f this study, the analysis o f the interaction between Group and Test on Grammatical Structure revealed that Group 1 had a significantly higher mean score after the treatment period than Group 2 did. The interaction between the Group and Test was statistically significant. According to Cohens criteria, the effect size of the contrastive analysis treatment was interpreted as 72
large. The results provided support for the research hypothesis, indicating that the contrastive analysis treatment helps Chinese students enhance their English grammar. Since the Chinese students common mistakes on English grammar and the structure are to a large extent systematic, and to a certain extent considerably predictable, the treatment material summarizes these common mistakes and provides exercises to help the Chinese students identify and overcome these grammatical mistakes. Furthermore, most treatment exercises are also helpful for students in taking the errors identification part of the TOEFL. In terms of Chomskys linguistic universals, many of L2 learners errors or mistakes in learning English are universal no matter what native language they have. These errors reflect L2 learners attempts to make the task o f learning and using the L2 simpler. Learners commit errors o f omission. For example, they leave out the article a or the and leave the s off plural nouns. They also overgeneralize forms that they find easy to leam and process. The use o f goed in place of went is an example o f the overgeneralization error. In another example, when a Chinese student introduced his family member to the whole class, he said, My older brother is a cooker and works in a restaurant. Obviously he wanted to say, My brother is a cook. This student just generalized the suffix er probably thinking that we can add er to leam and lead and that they become learner and leader and the same rule can be applied to cook. Both errors o f omission and overgeneralization are common in the speech and writing o f all L2 learners, irrespective o f their LI. Other errors, however, reflect learners attempts to make use their LI knowledge. These are called known as transfer errors. In some languages, like Chinese, subjects 73
and verbs dont have to agree in number and in tense. Therefore, for these learners, one o f the most easily found mistakes is that the subject and the verb dont agree in number, person and tense. Irrespective o f the type o f error, however, learners are often seen as actively involved in shaping the grammars that they are learning. Learners create their own rules (Ellis, 1997). Furthermore, the students comments o f the contrastive analysis indicated that most students were quite satisfied with this treatment because their scores on the Grammatical Structures of the TOEFL post-test and their College English Test were enhanced. The contrastive analysis treatment was also very conducive for them to be aware o f syntactical complexity the syntax or word order in sentences o f the target language (Hunt, 1965; Dixon, 1970; Hillock, 1986; George, 1999). Sometimes L2 learners make grammatical mistakes not because they dont leam the rules. These L2 learners pointed out that it was like a bad habit. They felt that they just could not help themselves. However, when L2 learners compared the grammatical rules in English with those in Chinese, they were more aware of the distinctive features o f the target language and reinforced the retention of them. The empirical evidence from this study suggests that L2 learners English grammar could be improved by using the contrastive analysis in one semester. Classroom teachers might use this information and integrate some contrastive analysis in their teaching instruction to accelerate L2 learners learning. The results of this study also support the third hypothesis that applying the focal skills instruction to ESL teaching results in enhancing L2 learners reading 74
comprehension. The interaction between Group and Test on the Reading Comprehension Part o f the TOEFL was statistical significant. Moreover, the effect size associated with the two independent variables (Group and Test) could be described as large. The improvement in reading comprehension made by Group I could be partially related to the fact that teaching reading is always emphasized in the college English syllabus and students motivation and readiness in learning those subskills of reading comprehension are higher than in those o f listening comprehension. During the treatment period, the students in Group 1 learned how to use patterns o f organization to analyze a reading passage and how to use a variety o f reading techniques in their readings. The treatment material pinpointed the types o f questions that often occur in a standardized reading test and offer some approaches to deal with these questions. Most importantly these students learned how to use critical thinking to answer implicit questions after reading a passage and employed metacognition to monitor their reading process. Learning occurs in context. Focusing on discrete information or specific skills makes sense only when the student has a context in which to leam the skills and consider the information (Kaufman & Brooks, 1996). The skills emanated from the reading comprehension materials rather than being superimposed upon them. Students were encouraged to apply these skills and strategies to their own academic materials, and to adapt them as necessary to their learning preferences. From the students comments of the reading comprehension treatment, the researcher summarized the strategies used by the students in Group 1 to comprehend a reading passage. 75
1. Use context clues to infer the meaning o f an unfamiliar word. 2. Make use o f all information in the paragraph to comprehend unfamiliar words. 3. Try to figure out the meaning o f a word by the syntax of the sentence. 4. Focus on reading content words instead o f function words. 5. Do not constantly translate. 6. Brainstorm background knowledge about the topic. 7. Find main ideas. 8. Distinguish main ideas from supporting details. 9. Locate a topic sentence if there is one. 10. Draw inferences from the title. 11. Use skimming or scanning when it is necessary. 12. Detect an authors purpose and tone. 13. Employ metacognition when reading. While most students in Group 1 reported satisfaction for the treatments in the Listening Comprehension, Grammatical Structure and Listening Comprehension Parts, few students were unsatisfied with the treatments. The reason might be that either these students had already acquired these reading strategies without realizing it before the treatments or they had a high or strong affective filter in terms o f Krashens affective filter hypothesis. A one way ANOVA was conducted to determine whether there was a difference in motivation between Group 1 and Group 2. This analysis indicated that the group
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difference in motivation was not statistically significant. Therefore, the potentially confounding variable motivation was under control. Limitations o f the Study The study was conducted in one semester, a relatively short treatment time and for only approximately two to three hours a week. Also the question arises as to whether students would sustain the gains made after the contrastive analysis and focal skills treatments ceased to be provided. Furthermore, subject effects, or more specifically the Hawthorne effect (McMillan & Schumacher, 1997) could be identified as a threat to the internal validity of this study. Some students in Group 1 might study harder and spend more time on their English course because they knew they were receiving special treatment that helped them improve their English proficiency level. Some students might read some books about how to prepare for an English proficiency test or some supplementary English testtaking material during the semester, and this might tend to obscure difference between Group 1 and Group 2. Since the students in Group 2 did not receive any treatment and knew that their TOEFL scores were not counted as part o f their grades for the English course, they might not have tried their best in taking these tests. In short, the non-random selection o f subjects was a limitation o f this study; the sample size was small; background variables were not controlled for; and the conditions under which the tests were administered were not as standardized as one might wish. Furthermore, all the subjects o f this study were selected from a key university in China
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and their English proficiency level and motivation in learning English might be higher than that of students in most ordinary universities and community colleges. Future studies o f the impact of the contrastive analysis and focal skills on second language acquisition should use a larger number o f subjects and use a cross-sectional design or a one-year longitudinal design (Bordens, & Abbott, 1996). Implications and Directions for Future Research This study substantially contributes to the research based on second language acquisition. First, this study provides empirical support for the hypothesis that use o f the contrastive analysis approach improves L2 learners English grammar. Second, this study also supports the hypothesis that applying the focal skills instruction to ESL teaching results in enhancing L2 learners reading comprehension. Third, the result o f this study lends support to the validity o f the monitor model, the linguistic universal theory, the interlanguage theory and the cognitive theory all upon which the contrastive analysis and the focal skills instruction are based. Fourth, the empirical evidence from this study could support a need to reorganize the traditional L2 teaching program and put an emphasis on enhancing L 2 learners cognitive dimensions o f language transfer. Fifth, the data of this study suggest that the contrastive analysis o f languages and focal skills instruction should be included in the L2 teaching program. Sixth, this study also suggests that the contrastive analysis between the native language and target language could serve as a short cut for students learning a foreign language and that the focal skills instruction could accelerate L2 learning.
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Higgs and Clifford (1982) reported that profiles o f students at earlier points o f instruction can be used predictively to estimate the likely later gain o f the candidates in question. Given the basic five-step scale, candidates whose grammar ratings were above or equal to their ratings in vocabulary or fluency tended to continue to progress and reach higher performance levels as they received more instruction. In other words, balanced analytic ratings or higher grammar predicted continued gain and capacity to profit from instruction. In contrast, students whose earlier profiles showed stronger fluency and vocabulary skills did not manifest the same degree o f sustained improvement. A caveat must be pointed out that grammar teaching does not mean merely teaching forms, and it is not limited to teaching explicit form-based rules. Grammatical structures are more than forms; therefore, their acquisition must contain more than learning how to form the structures. It must also include learning what they mean and when and how to use them as well. It is imperative that L2 learners have a good command of the grammar and structure o f the target language. Otherwise their fluency and vocabulary gains may have been associated with fossilization. According to Schmidt, Noticing is the necessary and sufficient condition for converting input to intake (1990, p. 129). Indeed in terms o f information-processing theory, it is necessary for learners to attend to the forms they are learning. So giving increased salience to forms, especially perceptually nonsalient forms, is one possible explanation for form-focused instruction being helpful. Other reasons might be that with form focus, learning transfer from marked to unmarked forms is facilitated, and provision of negative evidence might help to destabilize an incorrect rule (Long & 79
Crookes, 1992). ESL teaching in China is based on emphasizing teaching form since the students English proficiency level is determined by the standardized College English Test. The students comments o f the treatments revealed that classroom instruction did not provide sufficient input to help those Chinese L2 learners to prepare for a standardized English test. It seemed that there was a gap between the class instruction and what was included on the standardized measurement instrument. An ESL instructor should familiarize himself with the form and specification o f the standardized English test and try to infer the superordinate categories in the test specifications under which a particular question type might fall. Once the instructor finds out the broad skill categories under which different questions fall, the relative emphasis given to those skills can be estimated by examining how frequently they are tested. All this information should be integrated into classroom instruction. There is a need for using the cross-sectional design and perhaps a one-year longitudinal design with larger samples o f subjects to test the contrastive analysis and focal skills treatments. Furthermore, the subjects for the study should be selected from a variety o f universities and colleges instead of only key universities. Other standardized English test instruments such as Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency could be used along with TOEFL to determine the degree o f relationship between the scores o f the two test instruments that measure L2 learners English proficiency level. If the scores from these two tests are highly positively correlated, then it will further support the hypothesis that contrastive analysis and focal skills treatments help L2 learners enhance their English proficiency level. 80
In China second language teaching is based on the teacher-centered model. In other words, the teachers spend most o f the class time engaging in direct teaching. A small percent o f class time is provided for discussing grammar or vocabulary and completing reading comprehension exercises. Future research in this area should be expanded to include other teaching approaches or models in ESL such as Georges Power Literacy Program, and constructivist instruction model to test their effectiveness (George, 1999). A balanced approach o f teaching the form and meaning o f the L2 might be adopted and its result in teaching should be examined. According to McLaughlin (1990), a complex cognitive skill, such as acquiring a second language, involves a process whereby controlled, attention-demanding operations become automatic through practice (p. 125). L2 learners should be taught diverse aspects o f grammar structures differently. Although meaningful drills contribute to syntactic fluency, they are unlikely to boost learners comprehending o f the semantics or pragmatics governing the choice of particular structures or an appropriate speech act. Not only syntactical complexity Hunt, 1965; Dixon, 1970; Hillock, 1986; George, 1999) but also semantic complexity (Britton, 1970; Tulving, 1972; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; George, 1999) and text macro-structure complexity ( Stein & Glenn, 1977; Mandler & Johnson, 1977; Fischer & Bullock, 1984; Tharp & Gallimore, 1988; Reutzel & Hollingsworth, 1991; Baumann & Bergeron, 1993; Miller & George, 1992; Weaver, 1996; George, 1999) should be integrated into ESL teaching instruction. More learner-centered and group dynamicsbased approaches might be used to organize L2 classroom activities. Future research
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should examine the likelihood that the L2 instruction uses the constructivist instruction model integrated with the contrastive analysis, and focal skills treatment. In addition, even though reading can be broken down into subskills, reading occurs only when these subskills are put together into an integrated whole (Bums, 1992). L2 learners should leam where, when, and how to use these subskills. ESL students sub-scores in listening comprehension and in grammatical structures and reading comprehension should be taken into consideration when the decision o f what level o f English class they should take is made. Otherwise, the composite score o f ones English test may conceal one low subscore in one o f three areas. If ESL students are placed in an English class that is commensurate with their performance in one o f the three areas, they are more likely to make progress. First, they dont feel that their performance in class is inferior to that o f their peers. Second, they can focus their attention on the skills they need and receive more comprehensible input to make improvement in those weak areas. Third, and most importantly, it will be easy for the instructor to prepare class instruction and organize class activities for those students in terms of Vygotskys zone of proximal development concept (Vygotsky, 1978). When this is done, the variation o f challenging instruction emphasis will be less extreme and within each students grasp. Therefore, it seems appropriate to assign L2 learners to their reading, grammar and listening classes in terms of their subscores instead o f a composite score. Future research might focus on the impact of the contrastive analysis and focal skills treatments or other new teaching models such as the contructivist instruction model on L2 learners assigned by their subscores of their standardized English tests. 82
Furthermore, the future research could be expanded to study cross-linguistic comparison of discourse and examine whether explicit instruction on the acquisition of speech acts and the culture o f the L2 language might enhance L2 acquisition. Although there are many difficulties attending the study o f discourse transfer, such study is very important. As Richards (1980) stated, when learners violate norms o f conversation in the target language, the violations are potentially much more serious than syntactic or pronunciation errors since such violations can affect what is often termed the presentation o f self. If LI patterns influence L2 learners in inappropriate ways, the language that a L2 learner uses may seem impolite or incoherent. Cross-linguistic differences in discourse between LI and L2 may affect comprehension and production. A L2 learner may interpret conversations and discussions in the target language according to native language norms, and may mistakenly consider that native speakers are being rude in situations where they are actually behaving appropriately in terms o f the norms o f their speech community. In short, there are many areas in second language acquisition to be explored. The challenge that faces the future researchers is to identify approaches to L2 teaching and strategy training that are feasible for the classroom and at the same time feasible for the researcher to study. Finally, second language acquisition is a multidimensional and complex phenomenon. This study addresses only a small aspect o f L2 acquisition. However, if the second language acquisition theories and studies written in this dissertation can simply begin to arouse teachers awareness, expand their knowledge, provide comfort and 83
direction when their students sometimes backslide, help them interpret L2 learners errors and encourage them not to give up when students errors seem to be fossilized, then this dissertation will have more value than I could ever imagine. Teaching does not guarantee learning, but teachers who constantly expand their awareness o f and fascination with L2 theories and research that support teaching and learning are more likely to be successful L2 educators.
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APPENDIX A LETTER AND CONSENT FORM
June 15,1999 Dear students: The materials you are going to read will help you to identify the areas which you sometimes overtook when you take a wandawtiMd English teat such as the College English Test or TOEFL and other English proficiency tests. At die beginning o f learning English or even in the intermediate English level, a second language learner unconsciously employs the paradigm of his native language to leam a target language. Although English and Chinese bear some similarities in terms of Chomskys linguistic universal*, they also bear some differences. The similarities between these two languages usually do not give you any trouble. However, the differences between these two languages often lead to obstacles or errors in learning English. Furthermore, test items in any standanfized English test are baaed on these differences or obstacles. A testmaker collects these errors and set traps for you to fall. If you focus your attention on these areas in which you easily make mistakes, you will watch out for these traps and enhance your English test scores. The materials designed are baaed on the structure and grammatical differences between these two languages. Although there are other factors which influence your English proficiency level, I consider that mattering F n g H rfi structure and grammar is imperative for you. They serve as a framework or a foundation. As you gradually learn more English, you will expand your English vocabulary based on this framework. I am aware that some grammatical problems are probably easy for some o f you. If you have already mastered them, they no longer act as troublesome areas. You may just skim them and do the exercises. Please do not skip the exercises. They will be conducive to you in preparing for your English standardized tests. The material covered only touches one edge of the iceberg in learning English. If you find any errors in the material, please tefl your teacher or send me an e-mail at chu@ pctr.umkc.edu Thanks for your cooperation and I am looking forward to your feedback. Your friend. Chun Hu 86
Consent Form Dear Students:
You have been asked to participate in a research project o f testing the effectiveness of the contrastive analysis between the target language and the native language, and the focal skills approach. The result o f this research project will be used to assess the current program of teaching English as Second Language (ESL) and improve ESL teaching. If you decide to participate in this research project, you will take two different forms of Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). One is the pre-test at the beginning of a semester and the other is the post-test at the end o f the semester. Furthermore, if your class is randomly assigned as an experimental group, you will receive some contrastive analysis and focal skills treatment. If your class is randomly assigned as a control group, you will not receive any treatment. Students in both groups will attend the same English class as the university schedule indicates and the treatment materials will be given to the students in the experiment group at the end o f each class as homework and win be checked by the teacher in the next class. Neither your name nor your grades on the two TOEFL will be identified. In order to maintain the integrity o f the experiment, please do not disclose any information regarding the above treatment to any individual. If you decide not to participate in this research project, you will not have to take two different forms of TOEFL and will not receive any treatment if you are in the experimental group. Your participation or non-participation in this research project will not affect your class grade. Your participation is entirely voluntary.
(Researchers Name)
(Participants Name)
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APPENDIX B LETTER OF EXEMPTION FROM SOCIAL SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD
IW w wHfo O ftM n i-ltiM M City

SIO OtockM IRM d K m m s C*y. M tooeri 64110-2499
November S, 1999
u j k j :
3031 H a C m Cky. M O 6 C 0 I 116 636-3174
Chun Hu University of Missouri - Kansas City Mmni of Education Room 232 T-a"gP1 *a r and Literacy Division 5100 RockfaiU Rood
Re: P refa ce! # 169S: The Impact e f the Contrastive Analysis and the Focal S U b ea Second Language Aeqaaeitioa
Dear Ms. Hu: 1 have reviewed your study and concluded that under $46.101 of the Department of Health and Human Services regulations pertaining to the protection of human subjects o f research (45 CFR 46), it is exempt from review by UMKCs Social Sciences Institutional Review Board (SSIRB). Therefore you may proceed with your work.
(It
cknMOMia
..
l i t S 5-I7T T 116 233-1364
Should you want to make any changes to the approved study, you will need to obtain prior SSIRB permission. The exempt status of your study ends on the anniversary of this letter. An SSIRB progress report/amendment request/continuation request/completion report form is enclosed. You should complete and return this form to the SSIRB at the earlier of any request to amend your study, completion of your work, or the anniversary of this letter. Best wishes for a successful study. If we can be of further assistance, please dont hesitate to call the SSIRB Administrator, Cori Brown (235-1764) or me (235-1777). Very truly, yours.
Of r ~ Y ~f f~.
Don Reynolds, JD SSIRB Chair C: John E. George, Ph D Enclosure
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APPENDIX C FOCAL SKILLS TREATMENT ON LISTENING COMPREHENSION
Do you want to enhance your listening comprehension skills and boost your test score in listening comprehension? If you do, please read the following explanations o f the types o f problems in listening comprehension and also do the listening exercises based on each problem. OVERVIEW Part A Short Conversations Short conversations between two speakers with one question spoken on tape after each conversation. You must choose from four possible answers in your test exercise the answer that would be the best response to the question you have heard. Part B Longer Conversations Longer conversations between two speakers with four questions spoken on tape after each conversation. You must choose from four possible answers for each question the answer that would be the best response to each question you have heard. Part C Talks and Lectures Three short talks and lectures with several questions spoken on tape after each talk. You must choose from four possible answers for each question the answer that would be the best response to each question you have heard. Types o f Problems in Part A (Short Conversations) Problem 1 Details Details are specific facts stated in a conversation. In some conversations on Part A, you will hear all o f the information that you need to answer the problem correctly. You will NOT need to draw conclusions. When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must remember the details that were stated. Example Man: Woman: Narrator: Answer:
Front desk. How may I help you? Id like to arrange a wake-up call for tomorrow morning at seven oclock, please. When does the woman want to get up tomorrow? Seven oclock in the morning.
Problem 2 Idiomatic Expressions Idiomatic expressions are words and phrases that are characteristic o f a particular language with meanings that are usually different from the meanings o f each of the words used alone. 91
In some conversations on part A, you will hear idiomatic expressions, such as to k ill tim e, which means to w a it, to g e t a lo n g means to b e a b le to w o r k or p la y to g e th e r w ith o u t fig h tin g o r a r g u in g and to g iv e s o m e th in g a seco n d th o u g h t means to th in k it o v e r a g a in a n d p o s s ib ly c h a n g e o n e 's m ind. When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for the idiomatic expressions. You will be expected to recognize them and restate the idiom or identify the feelings or attitudes o f the speaker. Example Man: Woman: Narrator: Answer:
Im single, In fact, Ive never been married. No kidding! What does the woman mean? She is surprised by the mans statement
Since I selected some exercises that relate to each problem discussed from some listening comprehension tests, the Arabic numeral o f each item wont follow the natural order, that is, 1, 2, 3, 4... I apologize for the inconvenience. Exercise 1 Direction: You will hear short conversations between two people. After each conversation, you will hear a question about the conversation. The conversations and questions will not be repeated. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers for each item and circle the best answer. 1 (A) Lisa is having a hard time in school. (B) Lisa is expecting a baby. (C) Lisa is very busy this term. (D) Lisa is often very tired. (A) He didnt do very well in school. (B) He wont graduate this semester. (C) Steve needs some hands-on classes. (D) Steve is able to apply his knowledge. (A) She wants to continue her studies right away. (B) She wants a break from studying. (C) She hasnt decided yet. (D) Shell find a job right after graduation. 92
10.
23
(A) (B) (C) (D)
He is going to keep the present. He is going to resign his position. Hes going to continue working for now. Hes going to exercise as long as he can.
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(A) They dont have enough time to get there. (B) This way should take less time. (C) They are lost. (D) The road is winding through this area.
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Problem 3 Assumptions An assumption is a statement accepted as true without proof or demonstration. In some conversation on Part A, an assumption is proven false, and the speaker or speakers who had made the assumption express surprise. When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must be able to recognize remarks that register surprise, and draw conclusions about the assumptions that the speaker may have made. Example Woman: Man: Narrator: Answer:
Lets just e-mail our response to Larry instead of calling Larry has an e-mail address? What had the man assumed about Larry? He would not have an e-mail address.
Problem 4 Predictions a prediction is a guess about the future based on evidence from the present. In some short conversations on Part A , you will be asked to make predictions about the future activities of the speakers involved. When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for evidence from which you may draw a logical conclusion about their future activities. Example Man: Woman: Narrator: Answer:
Could you please book me on the next flight out to Los Angeles? Im sorry, sir. Continental doesnt fly into Los Angeles. Why dont you try Northern or Worldwide? What will the man probably do? He will probably get a ticket for a flight on Northern or Worldwide Airlines.
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Exercise 2 Direction: You will hear short conversations between two people. After each conversation, you will hear a question about the conversation. The conversations and questions will not be repeated. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers for each item and circle the best answer. 2 (A) Her major was not chemistry. (B) She is an excellent student in chemistry. (C) She wanted to change her major. (D) She likes chemistry classes more than computer science classes. (A) Mark has quit smoking. (B) Mark doesnt like to share a room with someone smoking. (C) Mark shouldnt smoke in the classroom. (D) Mark helped his roommate quit smoking. (A) He doesnt have the book. (B) He had the book, but lost it. (C) He wants to read it again. (D) He has not read the book. (A) Thank you for dropping by. (B) Thank you for picking it up. (C) No thanks, I dont want any. (D) No, thanks, Im not going. (A) Show her how to make it work right. (B) Invite her as a guest. (C) Tell the woman the directions. (D) Take her there if necessary.
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Problem 5 Implication I m p lie d means su g g e ste d , b u t n o t sta te d . In many ways, implied conversations are like prediction conversations. This kind o f questions is considered to be more difficult than the explicit questions such as questions in Problem 1 Details. In some conversations in the following exercises, you will hear words and phrases or intonations that will suggest how the speakers felt, what kind o f work or activity they were involved in, or where the conversation may have taken place. When you hear a conversation between two speakers, you must listen for information that will help you draw a conclusion about the situation. Example Woman: Man: Narrator: Answer:
Wheres Anita? We were supposed to go to the library to study. Well, here is her coat, and her books are overthere on the chair. What does the woman imply about Anita? Anita has not left for the library yet.
Problem 6 Unfamiliar Words Sometimes you will have difficulty in understanding a spoken statement due to one or two unfamiliar words. If these words appeared in a reading passage, you would probably recognize them. However, when they were used in a spoken form, you would get lost. Here is the strategy you can apply. You may take the context o f the statement into consideration and try to infer or deduce the meaning from the context o f the conversation instead o f focusing your attention only on these unfamiliar words. Example Excuse me, Emily, is it possible for us to switch our seats since you are Man: nearsighted and I am farsighted. Woman: No problem. Narrator: What does the woman mean? Answer: She agrees to exchange seats with the man. Here, even you are not quite sure what switch means, you can still get the correct answer from listening to the context since you are nearsighted and I am farsighted and also the key word seats.
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Exercise 3 Direction: You will hear short conversations between two people. After each conversation, you will hear a question about the conversation. The conversations and questions will not be repeated. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers for each item and circle the best answer. 4 (A) Not many people attended the workshop. (B) There were not many workshops available last night. (C) The workshop is more interesting than the show. (D) Last nights show was one of the few good ones.
(A) She will return the mans favor. (B) She will return the book on her way to work. (C) She cant return the book for the man. (D) She works at the school library. (A) The man was excited by the lecture. (B) The man was very interested in the speech. (C) The man gave a long speech. (D) The man is tired. (A) Choose one class or the other. (B) Ask his advisor. (C) Let the professors make the decision. (D) Take both classes. (A) Whether shell have enough time to do it. (B) Whether the professor will approve it. (C) Whether shell change her mind. (D) Whether she has enough knowledge to do it.
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Types of problems in Part B (Longer Conversations) Problem 7 Informal Conversations Some students may be intimidated by longer conversations in English. Especially when they encounter some unfamiliar words in a conversation, they will give up listening to the conversation. For example, in the following conversation, you may be puzzled by the words such as power windows and cruise control. Even though you dont understand what they exactly mean, these words wont hinder you from answering the questions based on this conversation. Therefore, when you hear a conversation, you must be able to pay attention to the important ideas. You will usually not be required to remember small details. It will help you review the conversations in part A. Example Jack Harper: Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper: Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper: Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper: Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper: Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper:
Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper:
Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper:
Mrs. Ross: Question: Answer:
Are you Mrs. Ross Why, yes! Im Jack Harper: I talked with you on the telephone earliertoday. Oh, good. Let me show you what we have in a new Oldsmobile Cutlass. I want to look at last years model, too, if you have any. I have one. A red Delta 88, with 2,000 miles on it. It was a demonstrator. A demonstrator? That means that only the sales staff have driven it. Oh, well, lets just look at the new ones then. Okay. Everything on this side o f the lot is the Cutlass model. You said on the phone that you are looking for automatic. Did you have any idea o f other options that youd like to have on the car? Air conditioning, power windows, maybe cruisecontrol? Just air conditioning.. .and an FM radio. Then I suggest that you just spend some time looking at the cars in the last row there. Those six. They have the options and the prices on the sticker on the window, and if you have any questions, Ill be glad to help you. Thank you. Let me just say that the best way to know whether you want a car is to drive it. So, when you find something you think you may be interested in, we can take it out for a test drive and let you get the feel o f it. Okay. That sounds like a good idea. Who is the man? A car salesman. 98
Question: Answer: Question: Answer:
What is the woman looking for? A new Oldsmobile. Besides automatic shift, what options does the woman want? Only air conditioning and radio.
Question: What will the woman probably do? Answer: Take the car for a test drive. Exercise 4 Directions: In Part B you will hear longer conversations between two people. After each conversation you will be asked some questions. You will hear the conversations and the questions only once, so listen carefully to what is said. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test and circle the best answer to the question you heard.
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because she failed her exam (B) in order to complete her homework C) in order to prepare for her exams D) because she has fallen behind in her work
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A) to her room B) to the dining hall C) to the pool D) to the gymnasium 23 eating dinner B) swimming C) studying for an exam D) taking a nap
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The man will have an exam. B) The man and the woman will have lunch together. C) The man will be in a swim meet at 1 p.m. D) The man and the woman will study together.
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A) advanced economics B) biology 110 C) introductory economics D) advanced biology 99
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(A) walking on campus (B) waiting in a dormitory lounge (C) eating at a dining hall (D) sitting on a campus bench (A) 40 (B) 100 (C) 200 (D) 400 (A) She took the class last semester. (B) She read about it in the school newspaper. (C) She heard about it on the school radio station. (D) Her roommate took the course last semester.
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Types o f problems in Part C (Talks and Lectures) Problem 8 Lectures Lectures are short talks that provide information about academic subjects. They are like short lectures that might be heard in a college classroom. In some talks on Part C, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You must also be able to answer questions that begin with the following words: w h o , w h a t, w h en , w h ere, why ? It will help you to listen to documentary programs on radio and television. Programs on educational broadcasting networks are especially helpful. Listen carefully. Ask yourself questions to test your ability to remember the information. Example Ernest Hemingway began his writing career as an ambitious young American newspaper man in Paris after the First World War. His early books including T h e S u n A ls o R ise s, were published in Europe before there were released in the United States. Hemingway always wrote from experience rather than from imagination. In F a r e w e ll to A rm s, published 1929, he recounted his adventures as an ambulance driver in Italy during the war. In For W hom th e B e ll T o lls, published in 1940, he retold his memories o f the Spanish Civil War. Perhaps more than any other twentieth-century American writer, he was responsible for creating a style o f literature. The Hemingway style was hard, economical, and powerful. It lured the reader into using imagination in order to fill in the details. In 1952, Hemingway published the O ld M a n a n d th e Sea, a short, compelling tale of an old fishermans struggle to haul in a giant marlin that he had caught in the G ulf o f Mexico. Some critics interpreted it as the allegory of mans struggle against old age; others interpreted it as man against the forces o f nature. This book was the climax o f Hemingways career. Two years later he was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature. What theme did Hemingway use for many o f his books. Question: Answer: War. Question: Answer: Question: Answer: Question: Answer: What was the Hemingway style? Short and powerful. What prize did Hemingway win after he wrote The Old Man and the Sea? The Nobel prize for literature,. What advice would Hemingway probably give to other writers? Write from experience about things you have seen and people you have known.
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Exercise 5 Directions: In this part o f the test, you will hear talks by a single person. After each talk, you will be asked some questions. You will hear the talks and the questions only once, so listen carefully to what is said. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test and circle the best answer to the question you heard. 36 (A) one to two pages (B) 10 to 12 pages (C) 19 to 20 pages (D) No limit was mentioned (A) during the first week of school (B) by the middle o f the term (C) sometime before the last week o f school (D) at anytime during the term (A) because they are more likely to have problems writing the paper (B) because the teaching assistant prefers to work with first-year students (C) because it is the policy o f the university (D) because the professor wants them to have more work (A) April 6 (B) April 13 (C) April 20 (D) April 27 (A) the invention o f the elevator (B) modem elevators (C) the Crystal Palace Exhibition (D) inventions o f the nineteenth century (A) London (B) Chicago (C) San Francisco (D) New York
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(A) steel cables (B) guide rails (C) strong ropes (D) an open carriage (A) other inventions at the Crystal Palace Exhibition (B) the first tall building (C) further developments in elevator (D) the life o f Elisha Otis
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Problem 9 Tours Tours are short talks that provide factual information about a tourist attraction. In some talks on Part C, you will hear a talk by a tour guide. When you hear a talk, you must be able to summarize the important ideas. You must also be able to answer questions that begin with the following words: w ho, w hat, w h en , w here, w h y? It will help you to listen to travel programs on radio and television. Listen carefully. Ask yourself questions to test your ability to remember the information. Example Welcome to the Lincoln Memorial, located, as you can see, on the west bank of the Potomac River, on the axis o f the Capitol Building and the Washington Monument. The structure itself was designed by Henry Bacon in 1912 and completed ten years later at a cost o f 2.9 million dollars. The outer walls o f the memorial are white Colorado marble, 189 feet long and 118 feet 8 inches side. The thirty-six outer columns are also o f marble, representing the thirty-six states that were in the Union at the time of Lincolns death. The name o f each state is cut into stone above the column. Inside the memorial, the walls are Indiana limestone and the floor is pink Tennessee marble. Three commemorative features include the huge seated stature of Lincoln and two inscribed stone tablets. The marble stature occupies the place o f honor, centrally located, as you will note, and facing the Washington Monument and the Capitol Building. The statue is 19 feet high and 19 feet wide, made o f twenty -eight blocks o f Georgia white marble. Because o f the immense size, it took two men four years to complete the carving. On the north wall, inscribed in stone, is Lincolns Second Inaugural Address; on the south wall, similarly inscribed, is the Gettysburg Address. 103
There is a mural above each inscription, representing the two greatest accomplishments o f Lincolns presidency-the emancipation of the slaves and the unification o f the North and South after the Civil War. This memorial is open daily form eight oclock in the morning to midnight. Stay as long as you like, and be sure to ask one o f the park service employees if you have any questions. Question: Answer: Question: Answer: Question: Answer: Question: Answer: What material was used in the construction o f most o f the Lincoln Memorial? Marble. Why are there thirty-six columns? There is one for each state in the Union at the time o f Lincolns death. What other buildings can be seen from the memorial? The Capitol Building and the Washington Monument. When is the memorial open? Every day from 8 a.m. to midnight.
Exercise 6 Directions: In this part of the test, you will hear talks by a single person. After each talk, you will be asked some questions. You will hear the talks and the questions only once, so listen carefully to what is said. After you hear a question, read the four possible answers in your test and circle the best answer to the question you heard. 40 (A) arriving passengers (B) departing passengers (C) people boarding a boat (D) people departing from a train (A) Walk straight ahead. (B) Turn to the left to Terminal B (C) Wait for transportation to bring their luggage (D) Walk to their right to get their baggage (A) at Carousel B (B) at the blue area (C) near the green sign (D) next to the white buses
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(A) at the departure gate (B) at Carousel B (C) under the green sign (D) in the yellow lading zone (A) University o f Washington (B) University o f Iowa (C) Harvard University (D) University o f North Carolina (A) It is the oldest public university. (B) It is the largest public university. (C) It is the least expensive public university. (D) It is the most beautiful university. (A) war (B) plagues (C) lack o f funding (D) fire
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APPENDIX D TREATMENT OF THE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND CHINESE
Problem 1 Subjects and verbs do not agree. In the present tense, the English verbs agree with their subjects in number (singular or plural) and in person (first, second, or third). The present-tense ending-.? is used on a verb if its subject is third person singular; otherwise the verb takes no ending. Speakers o f standard English know by ear that he talks, she has, and it doesnt ( not he talk, she have, and it dont) are the standard forms. However, some Chinese students often forget to put a s to the end of a verb when its subject is third-person singular in the present tense. This kind of error is due to the difference between these two languages. In Chinese, the form o f a verb is always the same no matter what kind of personal pronouns (I, you, they, he or she) you employ as a subject. Therefore, in speaking or writing English or doing English Grammar exercises, Chinese students need to pay special attention to the verb form of a sentence when its subject is third person singular. Examples INCORRECT: Jane like to watch TV after she finish doing her homework. CORRECT: Jane likes to watch TV after she finishes doing her homework. INCORRECT: A good set o f golf clubs cost about eight hundred dollars. CORRECT: A good set o f golf clubs costs about eight hundred dollars. The subject is set, not c lu b s. Strip away the phrase o f g o l f c lu b s to hear the correct verb: s e t co sts.
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Exercise 1 Edit the following sentences to eliminate problems with subject-verb agreement. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. Example: Jacks first days in the infantry was grueling. Correct: Jacks first days in the infantry were grueling. 1. Small pieces o f fermented bread was placed around the edge o f the platter. 2. O f particular concern are penicillin and tetracycline, antibiotics used to make animals more resistant to disease. 3. The presence o f certain bacteria in our bodies is one o f the factors that determine our overall health. 4. Nearly everyone on the panel favor the arms control agreement. 5. Every year a number of salmon, not native to the region, is introduced into Flathead Lake. 6. Measles is a contagious childhood disease. 7. Neither Paul nor Arthur is usually here on Sundays. 8. At MGM Studios at Disney World, the wonders o f moviemaking comes alive. 9. SEACON is the only one o f our war games that emphasize scientific and technical issues. 10. The key program o f Alcoholics Anonymous are the twelve steps to recovery.
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Problem 2 Missing Main Verbs. An English sentence structure is basically SVO (Subject + Verb + Object) or SV (Subject +Verb if the verb is intransitive). In English, a sentence must have a main verb. For example: The sound of the dryer bothers my concentration (SVO). Sometimes, Chinese students forget to place a verb in an English sentence because they focus on word-by-word translating Chinese into English. For instance: We in Chicago since last Thursday. Correct: We have been in Chicago since last Thursday. When we out there in the evening, we often hear the helicopters circling above. Correct: When we are out there in the evening, we often hear the helicopter circling above. Although standard English allows some linking verbs and helping verbs to be contracted, at least in informal contexts, it does not allow them to be omitted. Sometimes the oral Chinese allows the omission of the verb when the meaning is clear without it; English does not.
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Exercise 2 In the following sentences, delete any incorrect verbs and add needed ones. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. Example: Arizona with a very dry climate. Correct: Arizona has a very dry climate. 1. We often dont know whether he angry or just joking. 2. Alvin a man who can defend himself. 3. Mary exceptionally intelligent. 4. Many streets in Chong Qing very steep. 5. Nancy in the backyard. 6. The prettiest girl in our class with long brown hair and brown eyes. 7. In my opinion, too soon to make a decision. 8. Do you know whether the movie that starts at seven? 9. Sam almost always a lot o f fun. 10. The book that I lent you having a good bibliography.
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Problem 3 Misuse verb tenses and moods. Tenses indicate the time of an action in relation to the time o f the speaking or writing about that action. Chinese does not have a conjugation. Unlike English which has three simple tenses (past, present, and future), three perfect tenses (present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect) and a progressive form of each o f these six tenses, Chinese uses temporal nouns, temporal phrases, prepositional phrases and functional words to indicate the time when the action of the verb in a sentence takes place. Sometimes the context of a Chinese sentence implies the verb tense. Due to the discrepancy o f the verb tense between English and Chinese, Chinese students unconsciously apply the rule o f the Chinese verb tense to that of the English verb tense and make errors in speaking and writing English. Since I assume that the Chinese College students have learned rudimentary English verb tenses and moods, in the following I will quickly cover these areas which students are familiar with. Simple tenses The simple present tense is used primarily to describe habitual actions (Jane walks to work) or to refer to actions occurring at the time o f speaking ( I see a plane in the sky.) It is also used to state facts or general truths and to describe fictional events in a literary work. The present tense may even be used to express future actions that are to occur at some specified time (The semester begins tomorrow). The simple past tense is used for actions completed entirely in the past (Yesterday Jane walked to work). Students need to memorize some commonly used past forms of the irregular verbs and the irregular participles. Ill
The simple future tense is used for actions that will occur in the future (Tomorrow Jane will walk to work) or for actions that are predictable, given certain causes (Meat will spoil if not properly refrigerated). In the following chart, the simple tenses are given for the regular verb walk, the irregular verb ride,and the highly irregular verb be. Simple Present Singular I you walk, ride, am walk, ride, are Plural we you they walk, ride, walk, ride, walk, ride, are are are
he/she/it walks, rides, is Simple Past Singular I you walked, rode, was walked, rode, were
Plural we walked, rode, were you walked, rode, were they walked, rode, were
he/she/it walked, rode, was Simple F uture I, you, he/she/it, we, they will walk, ride, be
Perfect Tenses More complex time relations are indicated by the perfect tenses (which consist of a form o f h a v e plus th e p a s t p a r tic ip le ). The present perfect tense is used for an action that begins in the past and is still going on in the present (Jane has walked to work for
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years) or an action that began in the past and is finished by the time o f speaking or writing (Jane has stopped walking to work). The past perfect tense is used for an action already completed by the time of another past action (Jane hailed a cab after she had walked several blocks in the rain) or for an action already completed at some specific past time (By 8:30, Jane had walked two miles). The future perfect tense is used for an action that will be completed before or by a certain future time (Jane will have left Troy by the time Jo arrives). Present Perfect I, you, we, they he/she/it Past Perfect I, you, he/she/it, we, they Future Perfect I, you, he, she/it, we, they will have walked, ridden, been had walked, ridden, been have walked, ridden, been has walked, ridden, been
Progressive Forms The simple and perfect tenses already discussed have progressive forms that describe actions in progress. The present progressive form is used for actions currently in progress (Jane is writing a letter) or for future actions that are to occur at some specified time (Jane is leaving for Chicago on Monday). The past progressive is used for past actions in progress (Jane was writing a letter last night).
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The future progressive is used for future actions in progress (Jane will be traveling next week). Present Progressive I he/she/it you, we, they Past Progressive I, he/she/it you, we, they Future Progressive I, you, he/she/it, we, they will be walking, riding, being. was walking, riding, being were walking, riding, being am walking, riding, being is walking, riding, being are walking, riding, being
Like the simple tenses, the perfect tenses have progressive forms. The perfect progressive forms express the length o f time an action is, was or will be in progress. Jane has been walking to work for five years (present perfect progressive). Jane had been walking to work before she was mugged (past perfect progressive). Jane will have been walking to work for five years by the end o f this month (future perfect progressive). Present Perfect Progressive I, you, we, they he/she/it Past Perfect Progressive I, you, he/she/it, we, they had been walking, riding, being have been walking, riding, being has been walking, riding, being
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F u tu re Perfect Progressive I, you, he/she/it, we, they will have been walking, riding, being Although 12 types o f tenses and progressive forms o f verbs have been discussed above, only six types are most commonly used ones. They are the simple present tense, the sim ple past tense, the simple future tense, the present progressive form and the present perfect tense and the past perfect tense. Y our attention should first focus on these six types, if you have problem s with the rest of them . Actually m ost native speakers seldom use the rest o f 8 types of tenses and progressive forms in th eir daily conversations. After you have learned English and read some English books for years, you will gradually have picked up something that you dont quite understand now. So, dont worry about it. If something doesnt quite make sense to you, you may just temporarily put it aside. Special uses of the present tense Use the present tense when writing about literature or when expressing general truths. When writing about a work o f literature, you may be tempted to use the past tense. The convention, however, is to describe fictional events in the present tense. In M a s u ji Ib n s e 's B la c k R a in , a c h ild rea ch es f o r a p o m e g r a n a te in h is m o th e r 's g a rd e n , a n d a m o m e n t la te r h e is d e a d , k ille d b y th e b la st o f th e a to m ic bom b. Scientific principles or general truths should appear in the present tense, unless such principles have been disproved. G a lileo ta u g h t th a t th e e a rth revo lves a r o u n d th e sun.
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The Past Perfect Tense The past perfect tense consists o f a past participle preceded by had (had worked, had gone). This tense is used for an action already completed by the time o f another past action or for an action already completed at some specific past time. E v e ry o n e h a d s p o k e n b y 1 0 :0 0 A .M . Chinese students sometimes use the simple past tense when they should use the past perfect. In c o rre c t: C o rrect: B y th e tim e w e a r riv e d a t th e p a r ty , th e g u e s t o f h o n o r left. B y th e tim e w e a r riv e d a t th e p a r ty , th e g u e s t o f h o n o r h a d left.
Some Chinese students tend to overuse the past perfect tense. Do not use the past perfect if two past actions occurred at the same time. In c o rre c t: C o rrect: W h en w e a r r iv e d in P a ris, P a u lin e h a d m et u s a t th e tr a in sta tio n . W hen w e a r r iv e d in P a ris, P a u lin e m e t u s a t th e tr a in s ta tio n .
Sequence of tenses with infinitives and participles An infinitive is the base form o f a verb preceded by to. Use the present infinitive to show action at the same time as or later than the action of the verb in the sentence. T he c lu b h a d h o p e d to ra ise a th o u s a n d d o lla rs b y A p r il 1. The action expressed in the infinitive (to raise) occurred later than the action o f the sentences verb (had hoped). Use the perfect form o f an infinitive (to have followed by the past participle) for an action occurring earlier than that o f the verb in the sentence. D a n w o u ld lik e to h a v e jo in e d th e n a v y , b u t h e d id n o t p a s s th e p h y s ic a l. 116
Like the tense of an infinitive, the tense o f a participle is also governed by the tense of the sentences verb. Use the present participle (ending in -ing) for an action occurring at the same time as that o f the sentences verb. H ik in g th e A p p a la c h ia n T ra il in e a rly sp rin g , w e s p o tte d m a n y w ild flo w e rs. Use the past participle (such as given or helped) or the present perfect participle (having plus the past participle) for an action occurring before that of the verb. D is c o v e r e d o f f th e c o a s t o f F lo rid a , th e A to c h a y ie ld e d m a n y tre a su re s. H a v in g w o rk e d h e r w a y th ro u g h colleg e, M e la n ie g r a d u a te d d e b t-fre e . Use the subjunctive mood in the few contexts th a t require it. There are three moods in English: the indicative, used for facts, opinions, and questions; the imperative, used for orders or advice; and the subjunctive, used in certain contexts to express wishes, requests, or conditions contrary to fact. O f these moods, generally the subjunctive causes problems for Chinese students. 1 Forms of the subjunctive In the subjunctive mood, present-tense verbs do not change form to indicate the number and person o f the subject. Instead, the subjunctive uses the base form o f the verb (be, drive, employ) with all subjects. It is im p o rta n t th a t y o u b e (n o t a re) p r e p a r e d f o r th e in terview . W e a s k e d th a t s h e d r iv e (n o t d rives) m o re slo w ly . Also, in the subjunctive mood, there is only one past tense form o f be: were (never was). I f I w ere (n o t w as) y o u . I d p r o c e e d m o re ca u tio u sly .
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Uses of the subjunctive The subjunctive mood appears only in a few contexts: in contrary-to-fact clauses beginning with i f or expressing a wish, in that clauses following verbs such as ask, insist, reco m m e n d , r e q u e s t , and s u g g e s t ; and in certain set expressions. In C ontrary- To-Fact Clauses Beginning W ith I f When a subordinate clause beginning with i f expresses a condition contrary to fact, use the subjunctive mood. I f I w ere a m e m b e r o f C ongress, I w o u ld v o te f o r th a t bill. W e c o u ld b e le ss c a u tio u s i f J a k e w e r e m o re tru stw o rth y. The verbs in these sentences express conditions that do not exist: The writer is not a member o f Congress, and Jake is not trustworthy. Do not use the subjunctive mood in i f clauses expressing conditions that exist or may exist. I f D a n a w in s th e contest, s h e w ill le a v e f o r B a rc e lo n a in J u n e . In C ontrary- To- Fact Clauses Expressing a Wish In formal English the subjunctive is used in clauses expressing a wish or desire; in informal speech, however, the indicative is more common. Formal Informal I wish that Dr. Kurtinitis were my professor. I wish that Dr. Kurtinitis was my professor.
In that clauses following verbs such as ask, insist, recommend, request, and suggest. Becauses requests have not yet become reality, they are expressed in the subjunctive mood. P ro fe sso r M o o r e in sists th a t h e r s tu d e n ts b e on tim e. 118
In Certain Set Expressions The subjunctive mood, once more widely used in English, remains in certain set expressions: Be that as it may, as it were, come rain or shine, far be it from me, and so on.
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Exercise 3
Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in verb tense or mood. If a
sentence is correct, write correct after it. Example: Incorrect: When I went down to breakfast, I was surprised to see that my husband didnt left for work yet. Correct: When I went down to breakfast, I was surprised to see that my husband hadnt left for work yet. 1. Our neighbor stood at the door looking so pale and ashen that we thought he just saw a ghost. 2. They had planned to have adopted a girl, but they got twin boys. 3. My sister Deanna was outside playing with the new puppies that were bom only a few weeks earlier. 4. As soon as my aunt applied for the position o f pastor, the post was filled by an inexperienced seminary graduate who had been so hastily snatched that his mortarboard was still in midair. 5. Sheila knew that Bruce would have preferred to have double-dated, but she really wanted to be alone with him. 6. Don Quixote, in Cervantes novel, was an idealist ill suited for life in the real world. 7. The hurricane tore up the palm trees, lifted them over the hotel roof, and had dropped them into the swimming pool. 8. I would like to have been on the M a y fo w e r but not to have lived through that first winter. 9. When the doctor said Its a girl, I was stunned. For nine months I dreamed about playing baseball with my son.
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If men and women were angels, no government would be necessary. Exercise 4 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in verb tense or mood. I f a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. Because Mark picked her up the previous evening, she assumed he would appear the next evening as well. 2. 3. In the feminist rewriting o f Sleeping Beauty, the girl was not awakened by a prince. If it was only the two o f us, we could afford the trip; but we cannot afford airfare for the whole family. 4. Before Kate was three years old, she knew that there were nine planets in the solar system. 5. 6. 7. 8. By the time we arrived, the cake had been eaten. This isnt the Waldorf; If it was, we wouldt be here. Craigs own mother recommended that the principal expel him from school. I would have liked to have toured Europe after graduation, but I had to go to work immediately. 9. 10. Three months after Mark received his degree, he refused to consider graduate school. They had planned to have gone to Canada last summer, but they were unable to coordinate their vacation.
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Problem 5 T he omission of a subject Generally speaking, the subject of an English sentence can not be omitted with the exception o f the subject in an imperative sentence. For instance: 1. Come in, please. 2. Thank you. 3. See you later. If the subject in a main clause is the same as in a subordinate clause, Chinese students sometimes omit the subject in the following subordinate clause. For example: Incorrect: My brother was working so attentively that ignored my coming into the room. Correct: My brother was working so attentively that he ignored my coming into the room. If a noun subject in a subordinate clause is the same as that in a main clause, it should be replaced by a pronoun. The subject plays an important role in an English sentence. Without a subject, an English sentence can not be made except an imperative sentence. There are five basic sentence structures in English (SV, SVO, SVOl 0 2 , SVOC, SVC). For example: 1. The girls were singing (SV). 2. The ball hit me (SVO). 3. John bought men a gift (SVOl 02). 4. We have proved him wrong (SVOC). 5. Beijing is the capital o f China (SVC). When a longer infinitve phrase, or gerund phrase or a subordinate clause acts as a subject, a formal subject it is often placed in the beginning o f a sentence. For example: 122
1. It is foolish o f you to be still worrying about it. 2. It happened that I wasnt there that day. 3. Its dangerous playing with fire. Sometimes there is no subject in a Chinese sentence. W hen a Chinese student translates this sentence into English, he has to add a subject to this sentence. Otherwise, this sentence is not grammatically correct. For example: 1. It is raining. 2. Here comes our guest. 3. It wont do. 4. Who is it? It is me. 5. Is time up yet?
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Exercise 5 Read the following sentences. If you think that some parts are incorrect or Chinese English, please correct them. 1. Mike called Jane as soon as got home. 2. To be constantly thinking of helping others is good of you. 3. To hear her say that surprised me. 4. I cant imagine what life would be like if havent any TV sets. 5. Christopher had an attention span longer than the other children. 6. Henry preferred the hotels in Pttsburgh to Philadelphia. 7. Their starting salaries are higher than other professionals with more seniority. 8. For me to get there before July is impossible. 9. The best time for doing it comes now. 10. I think that w ell never have such a chance again is a pity.
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Problem 6 Passive Voice Generally speaking, active verbs are preferable to verbs in passive voice. However, the passive voice is appropriate when you wish to emphasize the receiver o f the action or to minimize the importance o f the actor. For example: Active: Passive: Tom caught the fly ball. The fly ball was caught by Tom.
You would choose the active voice if you wanted to emphasize the actor, Tom. But you would choose the passive voice if you wanted to emphasize the fly balls being caught. A passive changes the emphasis o f a sentence. Usually in a passive, the event or result is more important than the person who causes it to happen. Furthermore, passive sentences are also common in certain styles o f scientific writing because we only care for facts and statements rather than the agent o f an action. Some Chinese students often misuse the active voice in English as the passive voice even when the latter is appropriate. Omitting a form of the verb B E is one o f the common mistakes for Chinese students in using the passive voice. Example: Incorrect: As land is short, houses must built upwards. Correct: As land is short, houses must be built upwards.
Remember that a passive infinitive can be used with a present form o f the B E verb to express a future intention, and with the past form of the B E verb to express an intention that was not realized in the past. For instance: 1. The project is to be completed by 2000. 2. The project was to be completed by 1995.
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Sometimes students only use a participle without to or b e to express intention. At another time, they use a verb word instead o f a participle with to be. Example: Incorrect: The play was to be cancel, but it was only postponed. Correct: The play was to be cancelled, but it was only postponed.
Incorrect: The finalists are to named at the next meeting. Correct: The finalists are to be named at the next meeting.
Incorrect: The results o f the exam are be announced tomorrow. Correct: The results o f the exam are to be announced tomorrow. Incorrect: We were to be notify if there was a problem. Correct: We were to be notified if there was a problem.
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Exercise 6
Revise some parts o f the following sentences if you think that they are incorrect. 1. My wedding ring made o f yellow and white gold. 2. If your brother invited, he would come. 3. Mr. Wilson known as Willie to his friends. 4. References not used in the examination room. 5. Work is often measure in units called foot pounds. 6. From now on, new buildings in Level one earthquake zones in the United States are to constructed to withstand a tremor without suffering structural damage. 7. The class divides into English and Chinese sections. 8. I think you will surprise at my answer. Choose the correct answer: 9. The TOEFL examination________ by the year 2000. (A) completedly revised (B) is revised completely (C) is to be revised completely (D) completely is to revise
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10. In the stringed instruments, the tones_____ by playing a bow across a set o f strings that may be made of wire or gut. (A) they produce (B) producing (C) are produced that are producing Problem 7 Sentence Fragm ents Unlike Chinese, English does not allow omission o f subjects (except in imperative sentences); nor does it allow omission o f verbs. A sentence fragment is a word group that pretends to be a sentence. Some fragments are clauses that contain a subject and a verb but begin with a subordinating word. Others are phrases that lack a subject, a verb, or both. For example: On that morning I sat in my usual spot. O n th e o ld w o o d e n s to o l in th e c o m e r o f m y g r a n d m o th e r 's kitchen. To be a sentence, a word group must consist o f at least one full independent clause. An independent clause has a subject and a verb. O n th e o ld w o o d e n s to o l in th e c o m e r o f m y g r a n d o th e r 's kitch en is a fragment: It lacks both a verb and subject. You can repair most fragments in one of two ways: Either pull the fragment into a nearby sentence, making sure to punctuate the new sentence correctly, or turn the fragment into a sentence.
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Attach fragm ented subordinate clauses or tu rn them into sentences. A subordinate clause is patterned like a sentence, with both a subject and a verb, but it begins with a word that marks it as subordinate. The following words commonly introduce subordinate clauses: after even though when so that whom how although where than whose as whether if that why as if which in order that though because rather than while unless before since who until Subordinate clauses function within sentences as adjectives, as adverbs, or as nouns. They cannot stand alone. A fragmented clause can be attached to a nearby sentence or rewrite it. For example: Incorrect: Shirley will address the problem o f limited on-campus parking. If she is
elected special student adviser. Correct: Shirley will address the problem o f limited on-campus parking if she is
elected special student adviser. Attach fragm ented phrases or turn them into sentences. Like subordinate clauses, phrases function within sentences as adjectives, as adverbs, or as nouns. They cannot stand alone. Fragmented phrases are often prepositional or verbal phrases; sometimes they are appositives, words or word groups that rename nouns or pronouns. Many fragmented phrases may simply be pulled into nearby sentences. Incorrect: Sunday morning Jack allowed himself half an orange. The only food he had eaten in two days. 129
Correct: Sunday morning Jack allowed himself half an orange, the only food he had eaten two days. Incorrect: On Sundays James scrupulously read the newspapers employment listings. Scrutinizing every position that held even the remoted possibility. Correct: On Sundays James scrupulously read the newspapers employment listings, scrutinizing every position that held even the remotest possibility.
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Exercise 7
Repair any fragment by attaching it to a neaby sentence or by rewriting it as a complete sentence. If a word group is correct, write correct after it. 1. Sitting as a sidewalk cafe near the Sorbone, I could pass as a French student. As long as I. kept my mouth shut. 2. Mother loved to play all our favorite games. Canasta, Monopoly, hide-and-seek, and even kick the can. 3. The horses were dressed up with hats and flowers. Some even wore sunglasses. 4. I had pushed these fears into one of those quiet places in my mind. Hoping they would stay there asleep. 5. To give my family a comfortable, secure home life. That is my most important goal. 6. If a woman from the desert tribe showed anger toward her hunsband, she was whipped in front o f the whole village. And shunned by the rest o f the women. 7. A tornado is a violent whirling wind. One that produces a funnel-shaped cloud and moves over land in a slim path o f destruction. 8. With machetes, the explorers cut their way through the tall grasses to the edge o f the canyon. Where they began to lay out their tapes for the survey. 9. In my three years of driving, I have never had an accident. Not one wreck, not one fender-bender, not even a little dent. 10. The pilots ejected from the burning plane, landing in the water not far from the ship. And imediately popped their flares and life vests. 131
Problem 8 Dangling Modifiers A dangling modifier fails to refer logically to any word in the sentence. Dangling modifiers are usually introductory word groups (such as a participial phrase, a gerund phrase, an infinitive phrase, and an elliptical clause) that suggest but do not name an actor. When a sentence opens with such a modifier, readers expect the subject o f the following clause to name the actor. If it doesnt, the modifier dangles. Dangling: Deciding to join the navy, the recruiter enthusiastically pumped Joes hand. (Participial phrase) Dangling: Upon seeing the barricade, our car screeched to a halt. (Preposition followed by a gerund phrase) Dangling: phrase) Dangling: Though only sixteen, UCLA accepted Marthas application. (Elliptical clause with an understood subject and verb) These dangling modifiers falsely suggest that the recruiter decided to join the navy, that the car saw the barricade, that the fireworks intended to please the children, and that UCLA is only sixteen years old. To repaire a dangling modifier, you must restructure the sentence in one o f two ways: (1) change the subject o f the sentence so that it names the actor implied by the introductory modifier or (2) turn the modifier into a word group that includes the actor. Dangling: When watching a classic film such as G o n e W ith th e W ind, commercials 132 To please the children, some fireworks were set off a day early. (Infinitive
are especially irritating. Repaired: When watching a classic film such as G o n e W ith th e W ind, I find commercials are especially irritating. Repaired: When Im watching a classic film such as Gone With the Wind, commercials are especially irritating. Dangling: Opening the window to let out a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally swerved into the lane o f oncoming cars. Repaired: When the driver opened the window to let out a huge bumblebee, the car accidentally swerved into the lane o f oncoming cars. (The car didnt open the window; the driver did. The writer has revised the sentence by putting the driver in the opening modifier.)
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Exercise 8
Edit the following sentences to correct misplaced or awkwardly placed modifiers. 1. Gazing at the familiar landscape, the past came back to me. 2. Stepping into the classroom my heart was beating very fast. 3. Scratching his head, a new idea came into Johns head. 4. Standing by the window the park opposite our house is in full view. 5. Crossing the bridge the Administration Building is situated to the right. 6. Comparing these two languages there are differences as well as similarities. 7. On seeing the picture her eyes were filled with tears. 8. To be well-informed, reading newspapers and magazines regularly is a good habit. 9. White with anger there still lingered in his heart some hope. 10. At the age of eleven my father began to teach me English.
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Problem 9 Infinitive an d -ing Subjects Generally a noun can be employed as the subject of a sentence or a clause. However, there are certain situations in which either an infinitive or an -ing form may be used as the subject o f a sentence or a clause. For example: 1. To read a foreign language is even more difficult. 2. Reading quickly and well requires practice. Avoid using a verb word instead of an infinitive or a n -in g form in the subject. Avoid using to with an -in g form. For instance: Incorrect: To working provides people with personal satisfaction as well as money. Correct: To work provides people with personal satisfaction as well as money, or working provides people with personal satisfaction as well as money. Sometimes an infinitive phrase can be served as adverbial of purpose in a sentence. This infinitive phrase means in order to. Dont put a verb with an - in g before to. Incorrect: To buying her girl friend a birthday present, Nick worked 12 hours a day in the last week. Correct: To buy her girl friend a birthday present, Nick worked 12 hours a day in the last week. Here to buy means in order to buy.
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Exercise 9
Read the following sentences and correct the parts of the sentences that you consider incorrect. 1. To meeting the deadline o f the report, Darren stayed up all night. 2. To rectifying the bad habit procrastination, Dick started to make a study schedule. 3. The sneeze spreads germs. 4. Shoplift is considered a serious crime. 5. The rest in the afternoon is a custom in many countries. 6. To exercising makes most people feel better. 7. To planting trees is a custom that many people engage in to celebrate Arbor Day. 8. Spell correctly is easy with the aid o f a number of word processing programs for personal computers.
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Problem 10 Parallel Structure
Parallel structure means expressing ideas o f equal importance with the same grammatical structures. Single words should be balanced with single words, phrases with phrases, clauses with clauses. Writers often use parallelism to create emphasis. For example: 1. A k iss ca n b e a c o m m a , a q u e stio n m ark, o r a n e x c la m a tio n p o in t. M is tin g u e tt 2. T h is n o v e l is n o t to b e to s s e d lig h tly a sid e, b u t to b e h u r le d w ith g r e a t fo r c e . D o ro th y P a r k e r 3. In m a tte rs o fp r in c ip le , s ta n d lik e a ro ck; in m a tte rs o f ta ste, s w im w ith th e cu rren t. T h o m a s J e ffe r s o n In writing English compositions or papers, Chinese students should avoid expressing ideas in a series by different structures. For example: Incorrect: A b u s e d c h ild re n c o m m o n ly e x h ib it o n e o r m o re o f th e fo llo w in g s y m p to m s: w ith d ra w a l, re b ellio u sn ess, re stle ssn e ss, a n d th e y w e r e d ep ressed . Correct: A b u s e d c h ild re n c o m m o n ly e x h ib it o n e o r m o re o f th e fo llo w in g sy m p to m s: w ith d ra w a l, re b e llio u sn e ss, re stle ssn e ss, a n d d e p r e s s io n . When pairing ideas, underscore their connection by expressing them in similar grammatical form. Parallel ideas linked with coordinating conjunctions.
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Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet) link ideas of equal importance. When those ideas are closely parallel in content, they should be expressed in parallel grammatical form. Incorrect: M a n y s ta te s a r e re d u c in g p r o p e r ty ta x e s f o r h o m e o w n e r s a n d e x te n d fin a n c ia l a id in th e f o r m o f ta x c red its to re n te rs. Correct: M a n y s ta te s a r e re d u c in g p r o p e r ty ta x e s f o r h o m e o w n e r s a n d e x te n d in g fi n a n c ia l a id in th e fo r m o f ta x c red its to re n te rs. The revision balances the v e rb r e d u c in g with the verb e x te n d in g . Parallel ideas linked with correlative conjunctions. Correlative conjunctions come in pairs: e ith e r ... or, n e ith e r ...n o r , n o t o n ly ...b u t a ls o , b o th ...a n d , w h e th e r ...o r . Make sure that the grammatical structure following the second half o f the pair is the same as that following the first half. Incorrect: T he s h u tte r s w ere n o t o n ly to o lo n g b u t a lso w e r e to o w id e . Correct: T he s h u tte r s w e re n o t o n ly to o lo n g b u t a ls o to o w ide. Incorrect: I w a s a d v is e d e ith e r to c h a n g e m y f l i g h t o r ta k e th e tr a in . Correct: I w a s a d v is e d e ith e r to c h a n g e m y f l i g h t o r to ta k e th e tra in . Com parisons linked with than or as. In comparisons linked with than o r a s , the elements being compared should be expressed in parallel grammatical structure. Incorrect: It is e a s ie r to s p e a k in a b s tr a c tio n s th a n e r o u n d in e o n e 's th o u g h ts in r e a lity . 138
Correct: It is e a s ie r to s p e a k in a b s tr a c tio n s th a n to g ro u n d o n e s th o u g h ts in rea lity. Incorrect: M o th e r c o u ld n o t p e r s u a d e m e th a t g iv in g is a s m u ch a j o y a s to r e c e iv e . Correct: M o th e r c o u ld n o t p e r s u a d e m e th a t g iv in g is a s m uch a j o y a s r e c e iv in g . Repeat function words to clarify parallels. Function word such as prepositions (by. to) and subordinating conjunctions (that, because) signal the grammatical nature o f the word groups to follow. Although they can sometimes be omitted, include them whenever they signal parallel structures that might otherwise be missed by readers. Incorrect: M a n y s m o k e r s try s w itc h in g to a b r a n d th e y fi n d d is ta s te fu l o r a lo w ta r a n d n ic o tin e c ig a re tte. Correct: M a n y s m o k e r s try s w itc h in g to a b r a n d th e y f i n d d is ta s te fu l o r to a lo w ta r a n d n ic o tin e cig a re tte. In the original sentence the prepositional phrase was too complex for easy reading. The repetition o f the preposition prevents readers from losing their way. Incorrect: T he o p h th a lm o lo g is t to ld m e th a t J u lie w a s e xtrem e ly fa r s ig h te d b u t c o r r e c tiv e le n ses w o u ld h e lp co n sid e ra b ly. Correct: T he o p h th a lm o lo g ist to ld m e th a t J u lie w a s extrem e ly fa r s ig h te d but th a t c o r r e c tiv e le n se s w o u ld h e lp co n sid e ra b ly. A second subordinating conjunction helps readers sort out the two parallel ideas: th a t J u lie w a s extremely fa r s ig h te d a n d th a t c o r r e c tiv e le n se s w o u ld help.
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Exercise 10
Edit the following sentences to correct faulty parallelism. Example: Incorrect: We began the search by calling the Department of Social Services and requested a list of licensed day-care centers in our area. Correct: We began the search bv calling the Department of Social Services and requesting a list of licensed day-care centers in our area. 1. The summer o f our engagement, we saw a few plays, attended family outings, and a few parties. The examiners observed us to see if we could stomach the grotesque accidents and how to cope with them. (Here stomach means endure or tolerate and it is a verb. In English a noun can be converted into a verb or other parts o f speech.) 2. During basic training, I was not only told what to do but also what to think. 3. Activities on Wednesday afternoons include fishing trips, dance lessons, and computers. 4. Bill finds it harder to be fair to himself than being fair to others. 5. More plants fail from improper watering than any other cause. 6. Your adviser familiarizes you with the school and how to select classes appropriate for your curriculum. 7. The babysitter was expected to feed two children, entertain them, take phone messages and some cleaning in the kitchen. 8. Jane is young, enthusiastic, and she has talent. 9. The duties o f the new secretary are to answer the telephone, to type letters, and book keeping. 140
Problem 11 Present Participles and Past Participles Chinese students have difficulty in distinguishing between present participles and past participles used as adjectives. Sometimes they misuse a present participle as a past participle. For example: Incorrect: Monica was very exciting to be going to a Broadway show for the first time. Correct: Monica was very excited to be going to a Broadway show for the first time. Both present and past participles may be used as adjectives. The present participle always ends in -in g . Past participles usually end in -ed, -d, -en, -n, o r -t. (There are irregular past participles that you have to memorize.) PRESENT PARTICIPLES confusing, speaking PAST PARTICIPLES confused, spoken Participles used as adjectives can precede the nouns they modify or they can also follow linking verbs, in which case they will describe the subject o f the sentence. It w a s a d e p r e s s in g m o vie. J im w a s a d e p r e s s e d y o u n g m an. The e s s a y w a s co n fu sin g . The s tu d e n t w a s co n fu sed . A present participle should describe a person or thing causing or stimulating an experience; a past participle should describe a person or thing undergoing an experience. The le c tu r e r w a s b o r in g (n o t bored). T h e a u d ie n c e w a s b o r e d (n o t b o rin g ). In the first example, the lecturer is causing boredom, not experiencing it. In the second example, the audience is experiencing boredom, not causing it. 141
The participles that cause the most trouble for Chinese students are those describing mental states: annoying /annoyed boring / bored confusing / confused depressing / depressed exciting /excited exhausting / exhausted fascinating / fascinated frightening / frightened satisfying /satisfied surprising / surprised
When you come across these words in your tests or drafts, check to see that you have selected them correctly.
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Exercise 11
Edit the following sentences for proper use o f present and past participles. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. I find these frequent interruptions very irritated. 2. During her long lecture, the students appeared boring. 3. I saw an interested program on television last night. 4. Many people feel disgusted by industrys pollution of our air, land, and water. 5. After having done a great deal of research, the scientist made a fascinated discovery. 6. When the bridge collapsed into the river, the people who were watching became horrifying. 7. The directions to the new board game seem extremely complicating. 8. Producers generally avoid making depressed movies because the public wont pay to see them. 9. He had been amazed by the skill of his opponent in fencing. 10. Do you think acting is a fulfilled career?
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Problem 12 Redundancy Repetition of Noun by Pronoun In the error identification part o f a standardized English test, ESL students (English as a Second Language) are sometimes tested by items called r e p e titio n o f n o u n b y p r o n o u n . Although this is a not major problem for Chinese students, it can not be overlooked. In all patterns, avoid using a noun and the pronoun that refers to it consecutively in a sentence. Avoid using a pronoun after the noun it refers to, and th a t. For example: Incorrect: W hile p u s h -u p s b u ild y o u r arm s, s h o u ld e rs a n d ch est, s it-u o s th e y s tr e n g th e n y o u r a b d o m in a l m u sc le . Correct: W hile p u s h -u p s b u ild y o u r arm s, sh o u ld e rs a n d c h e st, s it-u p s s tr e n g th e n y o u r a b d o m in a l m uscles. Incorrect: H o sp ita liza tio n th a t it co v e rs room , m eals, n u r sin g , a n d a d d itio n a l h o s p ita l e x p e n se s su c h a s la b tests. X -r a y s , a n d m edicine. Correct: H o sp ita liza tio n c o v e r s ro o m , m eals, n u rsin g , a n d a d d itio n a l h o s p ita l e x p e n se s su c h a s la b tests. X -ra ys, a n d m ed icin e.
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Exercise 12
Choose the incorrect word or phrase and correct it. 1. My teacher he said to listen to the news on the radio in order to practice listening comprehension. 2. Steve he plans to go into business with his father. 3. My sister she found a store that imported food from our country. 4. Anne she wants to visit Washington, D.C., before she goes home. 5. A perennial is any plant that it continues to grow for more than two years, such as trees and shrubs. 6. Advertising it provides most of the income for magazines, newspapers, radio, and television in the United States today. 7. Insulin, it is used to treat diabetes and is secured chiefly from the pancreas o f cattle and hogs. 8. The most common name in the United States it is Michael. 9. That comets tails are caused by solar wind it is generally accepted. 10. Irving Berlin, Americas most prolific songwriter, he never learned to read or write music.
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Problem 13 Pronouns A pronoun usually has a reference noun that has been mentioned before in conversation or in writing. The pronoun is used instead of repeating the reference noun. In some grammar books, the reference noun is called the antecedent o f the pronoun because it has been mentioned before. Ante means before. For example, in the following sentence, the word them is a pronoun that refers to the noun secretaries. M a n y s e c re ta rie s a r e u s in g co m p u ters to h e lp th e m w o rk fa s t e r a n d effic ie n tly . There are several different kinds o f pronouns in English. They are p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s , p o s s e s s iv e p ro n o u n s, r e fle x iv e p ro n o u n s, re la tiv e p r o n o u n s , in te r ro g a tiv e p r o n o u n s , d e m o n s tr a tiv e p ro n o u n s, in d e fin ite p ro n o u n s, a n d re c ip ro c a l p ro n o u n s. One of the common erro rs in oral English for the Chinese students is the gender confusion. Sometimes when you want to say He, you say She or when you want to say She, you unconsciously say He. The cause o f this slip o f tongue is that in oral Chinese h e has the same pronunciation as s h e (Ta in oral Chinese) although they are different in written Chinese. Personal pronouns used as the subject o f a sentence or clause should be subject case pronouns. Remember that the following pronouns are subject pronouns: I we you you he/she they it Avoid using an object pronoun as a subject. For example: In c o r r e c t: W hen h e c o m e s b a c k fr o m vacation, B o b a n d m e p la n to lo o k f o r a n o th e r a p a rtm e n t. 146
C o rre c t: W hen h e c o m e s b a c k fr o m vacatio n, B o b a n d I p la n to lo o k fo r a n o th e r a p a rtm e n t. A m inor reminder: W hen you mention two o r more people in a parallel structure, please place yourself in the last position {Tom, John and I). In a complement position after the verb B E , a subject pronoun must be used. Avoid using an object pronoun instead of a subject pronoun after the verb B E . For example: In c o r r e c t: It w a s h e r w h o m e v e ry o n e w a n te d to w in. C o rre c t: It w a s s h e w h o m e v e ry o n e w a n te d to w in. A personal pronoun used as the object of a sentence or the objective complement should be an object case pronoun. Remember that the following pronouns are object pronouns: me us you you her them him it Avoid using a subject pronoun as an object. Avoid using a subject pronoun after let. For example: In c o r r e c t: L e t y o u a n d f tr y to re a c h an a g reem en t. C o rrect: L e t y o u a n d m e tr y to re a c h a n a g re e m e n t. Personal pronouns used as the object of a preposition should be object case pronouns. For example: In c o rre c t: A m o n g w e m en, it w a s h e w h o a lw a y s a c te d a s th e in te rp re te r. C o rrect: A m o n g u s m en , it w a s h e w h o a lw a y s a c te d a s th e in te rp re te r. Remember that the following prepositions are commonly used with object pronouns: am ong fo r of w ith b etw een fr o m to
Avoid using a subject pronoun instead o f an object pronoun after a preposition.
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Exercise 13
Choose the incorrect word or phrase and correct it. 1. Frank and us are going to join the same fraternity. 2. When they have enough money, Pat and her will probably go back to school. 3. Didnt you know that it was us who played the joke? 4. I have to admit that it was me who wanted to go. 5. It was her, Elizabeth I, not her father, King Henry, who led England into the Age o f Empire. 6. He always helps my wife and I with our tax returns. 7. The bus leaves Ted and she at the comer. 8. O f those who graduated with Betty and he, Ellen is the only one who has found a good job. 9. The cake is from Jane and the flowers are from Larry and we. 10. Just between you and I, this isnt a very good price.
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Problem 14 Agreement o f Pronoun and antecedent (1) Pronouns replace or refer to other words which usually come before them in sentences (antecedents). In more complex sentences it takes care to distinguish which words the pronoun relates to and to match them in number and person. For example, in the previous sentence th e m " refers to w o r d s " and, therefore, is third-person plural. If the sentence had said w h ic h w o r d th e p r o n o u n r e la te s t o " then the proper pronoun would be singular thirdperson: it." A pronoun and its antecedent agree when they are both singular or both plural. Sometimes Chinese students forget to put a possessive pronoun before a noun that identifies a part o f the body. The reason is that in Chinese we dont use this possessive pronoun and consider it redundant. For example: In c o rre c t: H o w d id y o u tw is t a n k le ? C o rrect: H o w d id y o u tw is t y o u r a n k le ? Remember that possessive pronouns are used before -in g forms that are used as nouns. The following are possessive pronouns: my our your your her their his its Avoid using subject or object pronouns between the verb and the -in g form. For example: In c o r r e c t: W e d o n 't u n d e r s ta n d w h y y o u o b je c t to h im c o m in g w ith us. C o rrect: W e d o n 't u n d e r s ta n d w h y y o u o b je c t to h is c o m in g w ith us. Some Chinese students have difficulty in using relative pronouns that refer to persons. 149
For example: In c o r r e c t: I a s k e d h im w h o h e w as calling. C o rre c t: I a s k e d h im w h o m h e w a s ca llin g . Remember that both w h o and w h o m are used to refer to persons. W ho is used as the subject o f a sentence or a clause. W hom is used as the complement o f a sentence or a clause. W hom is often used after a preposition as the object of the preposition. C o rre c t: E v e ry o n e w h o to o k th e to u r w a s im p re sse d b y th e p a in tin g s . Avoid using w h o m as the subject o f a verb. C o rrect: H e w a s th e o n ly A m e r ic a n w h o m I s a w a t th e c o n fe re n c e . Avoid using w h o instead o f w h o m before a subject and a verb. Reflexive pronouns may be used when both the subject and the complement refer to the same person or thing. Reflexive pronouns are used as the complement of a sentence or a clause or as the object of a preposition. Avoid using object pronouns or possessive pronouns instead of reflexive pronouns. F o r exa m p le : In c o r r e c t: I h a d to te a c h m e to sw im . C o rre c t: I h a d to te a c h m y s e lf to sw im .
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Exercise 14
Choose the incorrect words or phrases and correct them. 1. The doctors finish research reports. 2. Kevin jammed finger while he was fixing his car. 3. She broke wrist in the accident. 4. I would appreciate you letting me know as soon as possible. 5. The doctor insisted on she taking a leave o f absence. 6. He didnt know who he would take to the party. 7. I know the candidate whom was elected. 8. There is often disagreement as to whom is the better student, Bob or Ellen. 9. Help you to what ever you like. 10. According to the Fifth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, no person should be compelled to be a witness against him own.
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Problem : 15 Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent Chinese students are frequently tempted to use plural pronouns to refer to two kinds o f singular antecedents: indefinite pronouns and generic nouns. Indefinite pronouns Indefinite pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. Even though some o f the following indefinite pronouns may seem to have plural meanings, treat them as singular in formal English. any anybody anyone anything each either everybody everyone everything neither nobody none no one somebody someone something
Incorrect: When someone has been drinking, they are likely to speed. Correct: When someone has been drinking, he or she is likely to speed. Incorrect: When someone has been drinking, they are likely to speed. Correct: When drivers have been drinking, they are likely to speed. Incorrect: When someone has been drinking, they are likely to speed. Correct: A driver who has been drinking is likely to speed. Because the h e or s h e construction is wordy, often the second or third revision strategy is more effective. Be aware that the traditional use o f h e (o r h is) to refer to persons o f either sex is now widely considered sexist.
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Generic nouns A generic noun represents a typical member o f a group, such as a typical student, or any member o f a group, such as any lawyer. Although generic nouns may seem to have plural meaning, they are singular. Every runner must train rigorously if he or she wants (not they want) to excel. When a plural pronoun refers mistakenly to a generic noun, you will usually have the same three revision options as just mentioned for indefinite pronouns. For example: Incorrect: A medical student must study hard if they want to succeed. Correct: A medical student must study hard if he or she wants to succeed. Correct: Medical students must study hard if they want to succeed. Correct: A medical student must study hard to succeed. T reat collective nouns as singular unless the meaning is clearly plural. Collective nouns such as faculty, jury, committee, audience, crowd, class, troop, family, team, and couple name a class or a group. Ordinarily the group functions as a unit, so the noun should be treated as singular; if the members o f the group function as individuals, however, the noun should be treated as plural. (as a unit) (as individuals) The committee granted its permission to build. The committee put their signature on the document.
Incorrect: The jury has reached their decision. Correct: The jury has reached its decision. There is no reason to draw attention to the individual members of the jury, so j u r y should be treated as singular. Notice also that the writer treated the noun as singular when choosing the verb has, so for consistency the pronoun must be its. 153
Incorrect: The audience shouted, Strike and stamped its feet. Correct: The audience shouted, Strike and stamped their feet. With compound antecedents connected by either...or o r n eith er...n o r, make the pronoun agree with the nearer antecedent. For example: Either Bruce or James should receive first prize for his sculpture. Neither the mouse nor the rats could find their way through the maze. Note: If one o f the antecedents is singular and the other plural, as in the second example, put the plural one last to avoid awkwardness. Exercise 15 Edit the following sentences to eliminate problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement. Most of the sentences can be revised in more than one way, so experiment before choosing a solution. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. If a driver refuses to take a blood or breath test, he or she will have their licenses suspended for six months. 2. Why should we care about the timber wolf? One answer is that they have proven beneficial to humans by killing off weakened prey. 3. The recruiter may tell the truth, but there is much that they choose not to tell. 4. A1 is interested in mathematics and their applications. 5. If anyone notices any suspicious activity, they should report it to the police. 6. Neither Canada nor Mexico require that citizens of the United States have passports. 7. David lent his motorcycle to someone who allowed their finend to use it. 154
8. By the final curtain, ninety percent o f the audience had voted with their feet. 9. A good teacher is patient with his or her students, and they should maintain an even temper. A graduate student needs to be willing to take on a sizable debt unless they have wealthy families. Problem 16 Omission o r Misuse of the Articles a, an and the (P art 1) To Chinese students articles have proven troublesome, for the rules governing their use are surprisingly complex. Chinese students often forget to put an article before a noun because their mother-tongue has no need for that refinement. For example Incorrect: Phone hasnt rung all day. Correct: The phone hasnt rung all day.
Incorrect: Chinese cook is better than French. Correct: The Chinese cook is better than the French. The definite article th e and the indefinite articles a a n d a n signal that a noun is about to appear. The noun may follow the article immediately or modifiers may intervene. th e n o m in ee, th e e x c e p tio n a lly w e ll q u a lifie d n o m in e e a g irl, a p r e tty g ir l an a p p le, a n a p p e tizin g a p p le Articles are not the only words used to mark nouns. Other noun markers(sometimes called determiners) include possessive nouns (Johns), numbers, and the following pronouns: my, y o u , his, her, its, our, th eir, w h o se, this, that, these, th o se, a ll, a n y each, eith er, eve ry , fe w , m a n y, m ore, m ost, m u ch , n e ith er, severa l, som e.
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Usually an article is not used with another noun marker. Common exceptions include expressions such as a f e w , th e m o st , and a ll the. Use a (or an) with singular count nouns whose specific identity is not known to the reader. Count nouns refer to persons, places, or things that can be counted: one girl, two girls; on city, three cities. Noncount nouns refer to entities or abstractions that cannot be counted: water, steel, air, furniture, patience. It is important to remember that noncount nouns vary from language to language. To see what nouns English categorizes as noncount nouns, refer to an English dictionary or an English grammar book. If a singular count noun names something not known to the readerperhaps because it is being mentioned for the first time, or perhaps because its specific identity is unknown even to the writer-the noun should be preceded by a or a n unless it has been preceded by another noun marker. A (o r a n ) usually means one among many but can also mean any one. Incorrect: Denise Payne arrived in car. Correct: Denise Payne arrived in a car.
Note: Both a and a n mean one. They are used before singular count nouns. A is used before words that begin with a consonant sound. A n is used before words that begin with a vowel sound. Avoid confusing vowel and consonant spellings with vowel and consonant sounds. U is a vowel spelling, but it has the consonant sound Y in words like use, u n iversa l, u su a l, etc. H is a consonant spelling, that has a vowel sound in words like hour and honor, but not in words like h is to r y and h o rro r. For example: Incorrect: Ill call you back in a hour. Correct: Ill call you back in an hour.
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Do not use a (or an) with noncount nouns. A (or a n ) is not used to mark noncount nouns, such as sugar, gold, honesty, or jewelry. Incorrect: Ashley asked her mother for an advice. Correct: Ashley asked her mother for advice. If you want to express an amount for a noncount noun, you can use some, any, or more: some paper, any information. Or you can add a count noun in front o f the noncount noun: a quart o f milk, a piece o f furniture, a bar o f soap. Note: A few noncount nouns may also be used as count nouns: Bill loves chocolate; Bill offered me a chocolate.
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Commonly Used Noncount Nouns Food and drink: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy, cauliflower, celery, cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, com, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce, meat, milk, oil, pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt. Nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool A bstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, wealth. O ther: biology (and other areas o f study), clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, lumber, machinery, mall, money, news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
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Exercise 16
Choose the incorrect words or phrases and correct them. 1. We are looking for apartment close to the lake. 2. Mother asked us to pick up a sugar at the comer store. 3. It is a big decision to choose an university. 4. Education 100E is a honors section. 5. Most o f students in this college are taking courses leading to degree. 6. I took bus to go home. 7. I saw such flourishing city. 8. That fact is a common knowledge. 9. A courage is admirable characteristic. 10. Unfortunately, an information is not always easy to find.
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Problem 17 Omission or Misuse of the Definite A rticle The Use the with most nouns whose specific identity is known to the reader. The definite article th e is used with most nouns whose identity is known to the reader. Usually the identity will be clear to the reader for one o f the following reasons: 1. The noun has been previously mentioned. 2. A phrase or a clause following the noun restricts its identity. 3. A superlative such as b e st or m o s t in te llig e n t makes the nouns identity specific. 4. The noun describes a unique person, place, or thing. 5. The context or situation makes the nouns identity clear. Incorrect: A truck loaded with dynamite cut in front o f our van. When truck skidded a few seconds later, we almost plowed into it. Correct: A truck loaded with dynamite cut in front o f our van. When the truck skidded a few seconds later, we almost plowed into it. The noun truck is preceded by A when it is first mentioned. When the noun is mentioned again, it is preceded by the since readers now know the specific truck being discussed. Incorrect: Bob warned me that gun on the top shelf o f the cupboard was loaded. Correct: Bob warned me that the gun on the top shelf o f the cupboard was loaded. The phrase on the top of the cupboard identifies the specific gun. Incorrect: My sister is tallest girl in her class. Correct: My sister is the tallest girl in her class. The superlative tallest restricts the identity o f the noun boy. Incorrect: During an eclipse, one should not look directly at sun. 160
Correct: During an eclipse, one should not look directly at the sun. There is only one sun in our solar system, so its identity is clear. Incorrect: Please dont slam door when you leave. Correct: Please dont slam the door when you leave. Both the speaker and the listener know which door is meant. Sometimes Chinese students misuse th e with plural or noncount nouns meaning all or in general. Furthermore, they misuse th e with most proper nouns and abstract nouns. When a plural or a noncount noun means all or in general, it is not marked with the. Incorrect: The fountains are an expensive element o f landscape design. Correct: Fountains are an expensive element o f landscape design. Incorrect: In some parts o f the world, the rice is preferred to all other grains. Correct: In some parts of the world, rice is preferred to all other grains. Incorrect: The Shakespeare was a poet. Correct: Shakespeare was a poet. Incorrect: The knowledge can be dangerous without the wisdom. Correct: Knowledge can be dangerous without wisdom. Although there are many exceptions, th e is not used with most singular proper nouns. Do not use th e with names o f persons (Jessica, Michael), names of streets, squares, parks, cities, and states, provinces( Prospect Street, Union Square, Denali National Park, Miami, Jiang Su Province), names of continents and most countries (South America, Italy), and names of bays and single lakes, mountains, and islands(Tampa Bay, Lake Geneva, Mount Everest, Crete).
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Exceptions to this rule include names o f large regions, deserts, and peninsulas (the East Coast, the Sahara, the Iberian Peninsula) and names of oceans, seas, gulfs, canals and rivers (the pacific, the Dead Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Panama Canal, the Amazon). Note: The is used to mark plural proper nouns: the United Nations, the Finger Lakes, the Andes, the Bahamas, and so on (Hacker, D., 1994) Exercise 17 Choose the incorrect article or omission of an article and correct it. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. Money I was carrying in my wallet was not enough to pay for a train ticket. 2. Some of the best wine in world comes from Rhine river valley in southwestern Germany. 3. When I was at the park yesterday I saw dog playing with ball. I picked up ball and threw it, and dog chased after it. 4. She got advice from her counselor, but advice was not as helpful as she had hoped. 5. The beauty is a difficult concept to define. 6. She poured glass o f milk and gave glass to her daughter. 7. The broccoli is extremely nutritious vegetable. 8. She refused to eat the broccoli on her plane. 9. Even a strongest team in our league would have trouble defeating the Raiders. 10. Horse in the first lane is best trained horse in the race. 11. A man sat down next to me and started reading magazine. Later, the man put magazine in his briefcase. 162
12. Each morning they had to chop a wood in order to start fire. 13. Russia was largest republic within former Soviet Union. 14. There was accident today at comer o f Jones Street and Weston Avenue. 15. Earth orbits sun. 16. She is better tennis player than her husband. 17. Scientists are still struggling to understand the animal intelligence. 18. Although it has fewer people, the Canada covers larger area than the United States. 19. Air pollution is the serious problem in world today. 20. It happened in late 1960. 21.1 was lying in the bed when he came. 22. He opposed the violence strongly. 23. The trees along the both sides o f the street gave us pleasant shade. 24. I spent my time playing piano. 2 5 .1 was enchanted by the beauty o f the nature.
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Problem 18 Misuse Adjectives as Adverbs Adjectives ordinarily modify nouns or pronouns; occasionally they function as subject complements following linking verbs. It is a common mistake for Chinese students to use adjectives to modify verbs or adverbs to modify nouns. Some specific adjectives and adverbs that are particularly troublesome and treated in separate entries: good and well, bad and badly, read and really, and so on. Many adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives (formal, formally; smooth, smoothly). But dont assume that all words ending in -ly are adverbs or that all adverbs end in-ly. Some adjectives en in-ly (lovely, friendly) and some adverbs dont (always, here, there). When in doubt, consult a dictionary (Hacker, D., 1994). Use adverbs, not adjectives, to modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Nonstandard: The band played bad. Standard: The band played badly. Nonstandard: After a few lessons Dan drove real well. Standard: After a few lessons Dan drove really well. Nonstandard: Playing good is the goal o f practicing baseball. Standard: Playing well is the goal o f practicing baseball. The adverb w e ll (not the adjective good) should be used to modify p la y in g . Note: The word well is an adjective when it means healthy, satisfactory, or fortunate: I a m very w ell, th a n k y o u . A ll is w ell. I t is j u s t a s w ell. Adjectives are sometimes used incorrectly to modify adjectives or adverbs. Use adjectives, not adverbs, as complements. 164
Adjectives ordinarily precede nouns, but they can also functions as subject complements or as object complements. Subject complements A subject complement follows a linking verb and completes the meaning o f the subject. A linking verb is one that links, or connects, a subject and its complement. When an adjective functions as a subject complement, it describes the subject. For example: T his p ic tu r e is b e a u tifu l. Linking verbs are forms of b e, the verbs associated with our five senses (lo o k, so und, sm ell, fe e l, ta ste ), and a few others (a p p ea r, s e e m , b ecom e, g row , tu rn , p r o v e , re m a in ). Problems can arise with verbs such as sm e ll, ta ste, lo o k , and fe e l, which sometimes, but not always, function as linking verbs. If the word following one of these verbs describes the subject, use an adjective; if it modifies the verb, use an adverb. A d je c tiv e : T h e d e te c tiv e lo o k e d ca u tio u s. A d v e rb : T h e d e te c tiv e lo o k e d c a u tio u s ly f o r fin g e r p rin ts . Linking verbs suggest states of being, not actions. Notice, for example, the different meanings of looked in the preceding examples. To look cautious suggests the state of being cautious: to look cautiously is to perform an action in a cautious way. Object complements An object complement follows a direct object and completes its meaning. When an adjective functions as an object complement, it describes the direct object. For example: T a kin g h a l f a n h o u r s e x e rc is e e v e r y d a y kee p s y o u fit.
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Object complements occur with verbs such as call, consider, crea te, fi n d , keep, a n d m a ke. When a modifier follows the direct object o f one o f these verbs, check to see whether it functions as an adjective describing the direct object or as an adverb modifying the verb. Adjective: The referee called the plays perfect. Adverb: The referee called the plays perfectly. The first sentence means that the referee considered the plays be perfect; the second means that referee did an excellent job of calling the plays. Exercise 18 Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in the use o f adjectives and adverbs. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. When Tina began breathing normal, we could relax. 2. All of us on the team felt badly about our performance. 3. Tims friends cheered and clapped very loud when he made it to the bottom o f the beginnersslope. 4. When answering the phone, you should speak clearly and courteous. 5. We wanted a hunting dog. We didnt care if he smelled badly, but w e really did not want him to smell bad. 6. In the early 1970s, chances for survival o f the bald eagle looked real slim. 7. After checking to see how bad I had been hurt, my sister dialed 911. 8. The manager must see that the office runs smooth and efficient. 9. Professor Browns public praise o f my performance on the exam made me feel a little strangely. 166
10. When I watched Mike run the 440 on Saturday, I was amazed at how good he paced himself. Problem 19 Some Common Misuses of Adjectives In Chinese we usually place an adjective before a noun. In English, we may thus have three positions o f adjectives: PREDICATIVE: T his in fo rm a tio n is u se fu l. ATTRIBUTIVE: u s e fu l in fo rm a tio n POSTPOSTTVE: s o m e th in g u s e fu l A postpositive adjective (together with any complementation it may have) can usually be regarded as a reduced relative clause: S o m e th in g th a t is u s e fu l (Quirk, R., 1985) M isuse fewer as more Less is used with uncountable nouns, fewer with countable ones, e.g. H e h a s s p e n t less tim e o n h is w o r k than h e o u g h t to h a v e d one. T h e r e a r e fe w e r b o y s th a n g ir ls in m y c la ss o r th e r e a r e m o re g ir ls th a n b o y s in m y c la ss. Remember that few and little have the same meaning, but few is used before plural count nouns and little is used before noncount nouns. T he comparative degree o f f e w is f e w e r
i
( $ a_ y
) wbich Chinese students always m isunderstand as m o r e
ax*
). The
com parative degree of little is le ss. C ause-and Result- S o or S u c h Remember that s o is used before an adjective or an adverb followed by th a t. The s o clause expresses cause. The th a t clause expresses result. Cause Result 167
S h e g o t u p s o la te th a t s h e m isse d h e r b u s. Avoid using as or too instead of so in clauses of cause. Avoid using as instead o f that in clauses of result. Incorrect: P r e p a r in g fr o z e n fo o d s is to o ea sy th a t a n y o n e c a n d o it. Correct: P r e p a r in g fr o z e n fo o d s is so ea sy th a t a n y o n e c a n d o it. Avoid using so instead o f such before an indefinite article. Avoid om itting a from the patterns. Incorrect: It w a s s o in te r e s tin g b o o k th a t h e c o u ld n 't p u t it d o w n . Correct: It w a s s u c h a n in te r e s tin g b o o k th a t h e c o u l d n t p u t it d o w n . Or It w a s s o in te r e s tin g a b o o k th a t he c o u ld n t p u t it d o w n .
Most adjectives and adverbs have three forms: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. Positive com parative superlative
soft softer softest fast faster fastest careful more careful most careful bad better best Use the com parative to com pare two things, the superlative to com pare three o r more. W hich o f th e se tw o b r a n d s o f to o th p a ste is b e tte r ? T h o u g h J o h n a n d T om a r e im p ressive, D a v id is th e m o s t q u a lifie d o f th e th r e e c a n d id a te s r u n n in g f o r m a yo r. Chinese students need to pay special attention to the forms of some adjectives in English. In English the comparative forms have to be applied to some adjectives such as h ig h e r education ( ^ ), higher m athem atics ( 168 hi gher language
( J> $z
and hi*ker court (
?7cV while in Chinese these adjectives only
rem ain in th eir positive forms. Absolute concepts Some adjectives and adverbs cannot logically be compared for instance, p e r fe c t, u n iq u e , d e a d , im p o ssib le , stra ig h t, ro u n d , in fin ite and u n iq u e. These words are absolute; that is, it is illogical to suggest that absolute concepts come in degrees. Incorrect: He was the most unique teacher we had. Correct: He was a unique teacher. Avoid double negatives Standard English allows two negatives only if a positive meaning is intended: T he o r c h e s tr a w a s n o t u n h a p p y w ith its p e r fo r m a n c e . Double negatives used to emphasize negation are nonstandard Negative modifiers such as never, no, and not should not be paired with other negative modifiers or with negative words such as n e ith e r, n o n , no o n e , n o b o d y , n o th in g , h a rd ly , barely, and s c a r c e ly . Incorrect: W e c o u ld n o t h a r d ly h e a r th e sp e a k e r. N o n e o f h e r id e a s n e v e r m a d e it to th e b a c k o f th e room . Correct: W e c o u ld h a rd ly h e a r th e sp e a k e r. N o n e o f h e r id e a s m a d e it to th e b a c k o f th e ro o m . Correct: W e c o u ld n o t h e a r th e sp e a k e r. H e r id e a s n e v e r m a d e it to th e b a c k o f th e ro o m .
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Exercise 19
Some o f the sentences in the exercise are correct. Some are incorrect. First, find the correct sentences, and write correct after it. Then find the incorrect sentences, and correct them. 1. Since there are 20 boys and 15 girls in Class A, John concludes that there are fewer boys than girls in this class. 2. Todays modem TV cameras require only a few light as compared with earlier models. 3. Diamonds that are not good enough to be made into gems are used in industry for cutting and drilling. 4. He is so slow as he never gets to class on time.
5. We arrived so late as Professor Baker had already called the roll.
6. She is such nice girl that everyone likes her. 7. It is so nice weather that I would like to go to the beach. 8. I have important something to tell you. 9. One of the most distinctive features of Islamic architecture is the arch. 10. He drives so fast as no one likes to ride with him. 11. We had so a small lunch that I am hungry already. 12. She is more prettier than all o f the girls in our class. 13. O f all of the candidates, Alex is probably the less qualified. 14. Although there are a number o f interesting findings, a most significant results are in the abstract. 15. In my opinion, the more beautiful place in Oregon is Mount Hood. 170
16. These photographs are very good, but that one is the better o f all. 17. Please give me much sugar than you did last time. 18. This composition is more good than your last one. 19.John Brown majors in high education administration. 20. That is the most unique wedding gown I have ever seen. 21. George wont never forget that day. 22. I enjoy living alone because I dont have to answer to nobody. 23. Meredith is so weak that she cant hardly climb stairs. Problem 20 Adverbs Adverbs, like adjectives, are modifiers; generally they modify or add to the meaning of verbs, adjectives or other adverbs, e.g. (Modifying a verb) H e ra n q u ic k ly . (Modifying an adjective) I t is v e r y h o t to d a y. (Modifying an adverb) H e p la y s e x tr e m e ly well. They may, occasionally, modify a noun or noun equivalent, e.g. th e ve ry th in g I w a n te d ; th e a b o v e s e n te n c e s; th e u p tra in . Or a phrase, e.g. I a m a lm o st th r o u g h m y w o r k ; th e y liv e n e a r ly on to p o f th e h ill; h is re m a rk s w e r e n o t q u ite to th e p o in t. Or a whole sentence, e.g. F o rtu n a te ly . I r e m e m b e r e d in tim e w h o h e was.
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Although most adverbs of manner end in - l y ,f a s t , late, and h a r d do not have - l y endings. Avoid using the incorrect forms f a s t l y and la te ly , and hardly. Note: L a te ly and h a r d ly are not adverb forms o f la te and h a rd . L a te ly means rec e n tly . H a r d ly means almost not at all. Incorrect: H e le n ty p e s fa stly a n d e ffic ie n tly . Correct: H e le n ty p e s fa s t a n d effic ie n tly . One o f the common errors for Chinese students is selecting the adverbs s o m e tim e and so m e tim e s . S o m e tim e means at some time in the indefinite future. S o m e tim e s means occasionally. For example: M y f a m il y w ill c a ll m e lo n g d is ta n c e so m e tim e (no specific date in the future sometime). S o m e tim e s (occasionally sometimes) m y fa m ily ca lls m e lo n g d ista n c e . A special problem for Chinese students is that o f the position of adverbs. Comparing Chinese adverbs with English adverbs we may find that Chinese adverbs usually precede the verbs while English adverbs are flexible. For example: (a) Slowly, the old man opened the door. (b) He slowly opened the door, (c ) He opened the door slowly. From these examples, we may conclude that the adverb can come at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end o f the sentence. Another common error for the Chinese students is placing the adverbials o f place and time when they occur in the same sentence. Incorrect: I p r e f e r to s tu d y in th e m o r n in e in th e lib ra r y . 172
Correct: I p r e f e r to stu d y in th e lib r a r y in th e m o rn in g . Note that when the English adverbials o f place and time occur in the same sentence, the former precedes the latter. We can see that the order of adverbials o f place and time between Chinese and English is quite different. In Chinese we put the adverbial o f time before the adverbial o f place. Inversion of subject and verb with adverbs (1) An adverb or adverb phrase which does not normally have front position may have it, usually for emphasis. In this case, inversion o f subject and verb may occur. This usage is in many cases literary and emotional rather than colloquial, e.g. O fte n h a v e I h e a r d it s a id th a t h e is n o t to b e trusted. N e a r m y h o u s e is a n ew ly b u ilt h o sp ita l. H e r e is th e b o o k th a t y o u w a n ted . (2) With negative adverb such as not one, not once, not until, never, never again, only rarely, and very seldom or adverb equivalent in front position, inversion of subject and verb must occur, e.g. In n o c irc u m s ta n c e w o u ld I a s r e e to s u c h a p ro p o sa l. N o t u n til a ll a tte m p ts a t n e g o tia tio n h a d fa ile d d id th e m en d e c id e to g o on strike. (3) Inversion must also occur when o n ly is in front position, and not qualifying the subject, e.g. only when all attempts as negotiation had failed, did the men decide to go on strike. (4) When unstressed th e r e is in front position: T h e re is n o d o u b t th a t th e m a n is g u ilty . T h e r e s a le tte r f o r y o u on y o u r d e s k .
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Note that in an exclamatory sentence an adverb used always has front position. The word order o f such exclamatory sentences is adverb +S+V. In this case there is no need to invert the subject and the verb. H o w fa s t y o u can run! A w a y th e y w e n t! Exercise 20 Choose the following incorrect adverbs or phrases and correct them. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. The plane is scheduled to arrive lately because o f bad weather. 2. Although he tried as hardly as he could, he did not win the race. 3. When students register lately for classes, they must pay an additional fee. 4. First class mail travels as fastly as airmail now. 5. Lets have lunch sometimes. 6. It is cool now, but sometime it gets very warm here. 7. Janet would like to travel sometimes, but right now she has to finish her degree. S. Sometimes car manufacturer must recall certain models because o f defects in design. 9. The meeting will be held at 10 a.m. tomorrow in Room 260 o f Education Building. 10. The school bus will pick up children at 7:15 a.m. at Plaza Library. 11. We went camping last summer in the Rocky Mountain. 12. Never again they will stay in that hotel. 13. Only rarely an accident has occurred. 14. Very seldom a movie can hold my attention like this one. 15. Such that tale was he told me. 174
16. Nowhere else you will find so many happy, contented people. 17. No sooner they have been granted on increase o f pay than they asked for another. 18. Only in this way can you leam English well. 19. How well speaks he English! 20. How quickly has time gone!
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Problem 21 Prepositions (1) Although there are a limited number of prepositions in English, they cause considerable difficulty for Chinese students. Little guidance can be given in any grammar book as to which preposition is the right one to use, for there is no logical reason why one is right in certain contexts and another one is wrong. A good dictionary will help, bu| wide reading with a sharp eye for preposition is the surest teacher. A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the sentence. There are a limited number o f prepositions in English. The most common ones are included in the following list: b e tw e e n about a lo n g b efo re c o n s id e r in g above am ong beyond b e h in d d e s p ite a c ro ss around b elo w but dow n a fte r as by d u r in g b esid e c o n c e rn in g a g a in s t at b esides except fo r past th ro u g h o u t u n to of fr o m p lu s till up offin on reg a rd in g to upon o n to in sid e resp ectn g to w a r d w ith in to under o p p o s ite ro u n d w ith in lik e out u n d e rn e a th sin ce w ith o u t near o u ts id e than u n lik e next over u n til through Some prepositions are more than one word long. They are called complex prepositions (Quirk, 1985). A lo n g w ith , d u e to , a c c o rd in g to, in lie u o f a n d n ext to are common examples. Place Between and Among Misuse o f b etw een and a m o n g is one of the common errors Chinese students easily make. 176
Remember that b etw een and a m o n g have the same meaning, but b e tw e e n is used with two nouns and a m o n g is used with three or more nouns or a plural noun. Incorrect: T h e c h o ic e is b e tw een a v a n illa , chocolate, a n d s tr a w b e r r y ic e c r e a m cone. Correct: T h e c h o ic e is among a va n illa , chocolate, a n d s tr a w b e r r y ic e c re a m cone.
Place In, On, At Although in, o n and a t have similar meanings, they are used with different kinds o f places. In general, in is used before large places; o n is used before middle-sized places; and a t is used before numbers in addresses. Finally, in is used again before very small places. in c o u n try s ta te p r o v in c e c o u n ty c ity on str e e t str e e t c o m e r co a st riv e r a s h ip a p la n e a t n u m b er in a c o m e r ( o f a ro o m ) a ro o m a b u ild in g a park a ca r a boat
Incorrect: J o h n ca n live on Y e llo w sto n e N a tio n a l P a r k b e c a u s e h e is a p a r k ra n g e r. Correct: J o h n ca n liv e in Y ello w sto n e N a tio n a l P a rk b e c a u se h e is a p a r k ra n g e r. Time In, On, At Remember that in, o n, and a t have similar meanings, but they are used with different times. In general, in is used before large units o f time; on is used before middle-sized units of time; and at is used before numbers in clock time. Idiomatic phrases such as in th e m o rn in g , in th e a ftern o o n , in th e e v e n in g , a t n ig h t, a t n o o n , must be learned individually like vocabulary. In y e a r on d a y a t tim e
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Avoid using in before days and dates.
C ondition an Unexpected Result Despite and in Spite of Remember that d e sp ite and in s p ite o f have the same meaning. They introduce a contradiction in a sentence or clause o f cause-and effect. D e s p ite h is d en ia l, w e k n e w th a t h e w a s g u ilty. In s p ite o f h is denial, w e k n e w th a t h e w a s g u ilty . Cause Because of and Because Remember that b e c a u se o f is a prepositional phrase. It introduces a noun or a noun phrase. B e c a u s e is a conjunction. It introduces a clause with a subject and a verb. T h e y d e c id e d to sta y a t h o m e b e c a u s e th e w e a th e r w a s b ad. T h e y d e c id e d to sta y a t h o m e b e c a u s e o f th e w e a th e r. Avoid using b e c a u se o f before a subject and verb. Avoid using b e c a u s e before a noun which is not followed by a verb. Exercise 21 In the following sentences, replace any prepositions that are not used correctly. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. 2. 3. We spent seven days on June in the beach, and it rained every day. In the 1980s, the gap between the rich and the poor in the United Statesbecame wider. Usually she met with her patients on the afternoon, but in that day she stayed at home to take care o f her son. 4. The clock is hanging on the wall on the dining room. 178
5. Our oral examination takes place at the fifteenth o f May. 6. He sat on his bed in his room at the hotel. 7. Only the adults in the family were allowed to sit on the dinning room table; the children ate in another room. 8. If the train is on time it will arrive on six o clock at the morning. 9. She licked the stamp, stuck it in the envelope, put the envelope on her pocket, and walked to the nearest mailbox. 10. The mailbox was in the intersection o f Washington Avenue and 47th Street. 11. Profits are divided between the stockholders o f the corporation. 12. The votes were evenly divided among the Democratic candidate and Republican candidate. 13. We are going to stay overnight on Chicago. 14. Many of the famous advertising offices are located in Madison Avenue. 15. Gloria has a part-time job in the night. 16. The graduation is in May 20. 17. Despite of the light rain, the baseball game was not canceled. 18. In spite the delay, they arrived on time. 19. Classes will be canceled tomorrow because a national holiday. 20. She was absent because of her cold was worse.
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Problem 22 Preposition (2) In contrast with English, Chinese as a non- inflectional language has no clear and definite distinction between prepositions and verbs. Historically, almost all Chinese prepositions evolved from verbs. Therefore when we translate some prepositions from English to Chinese, we do not expect we can get one to one relationships from one English preposition to one Chinese preposition. Sometimes we may find the preposition in an English sentence is converted into a verb in Chinese when this sentenced is translated from English into Chinese. For example: Burning with curiosity, she ran across the field after it, and was just in time to see it pop down a large rabbit-hole under the hedge. (Alices Adventures in Wonderland)
In this English sentence there are six prepositions while there is not a single preposition in its Chinese translation. Moreover, Some English prepositions can be omitted when they are translated into Chinese. For example: H e was s till a c h ild in 1962. W e h a ven t w ritte n to e a c h o th e r fo r th ree years. H e m a d e a liv in g b y fish in g . Prepositions sometimes cause trouble for Chinese students, especially when they follow certain verbs and adjectives. Because the collocation of prepositions with verbs or adjectives follows no particular rules, students must learn them individually. The following list gives some examples. accede to We cannot accede to the request for an extension o f time. 180
accommodate to accommodate with accompany by accompany with accused by accused of acquiesce in acquit o f acquit with adapt for adapt from adapt to adequate for adequate to advise of affix to agree in agree on agree to agree with amenable to analogous to annoy by annoy with apparent in appreciation for appreciation of appreciative of authority in authority on averse to basis for basis in coincide with commensurate with comply with concur in concur with conform to consist in consist of consistent in consistent with
Some people find it hard to accommodate to new situations. We accommodated him with a loan of five dollars. The defendant was accompanied by a lawyer, (a person) The letter was accompanied with a gift.(a thing) He was accused by the plaintiff o f having field a false statement. The mechanic was accused o f overcharging. The dean acquiesced in the decision. He was acquitted o f the crime. The police officer acquitted herself with honor. The guidebook was adapted for our use. The movie was adapted from the book. They find it difficult to adapt to new procedures. His salary was not adequate for his needs. Her ability was adequate to the job. The employees were advised o f the new regulations. A stamp was affixed to the letter. We agree in principle with those who favor the plan. They cannot agree on a plan o f action. They agree to the compromise. I agree with the doctor. They were amenable to our argument. This situation is analogous to the one we faced last year. The clerk was annoyed by the frequent interruptions. The teacher was annoyed with the careless student. His attitude is apparent in his action. The student had a real appreciation for art. The student had a real appreciation of art. We are appreciative of their efforts. Dr. X is an authority in her field. Mr. X is an authority on linear programming. He was not averse to hard work. They had a sound basis for agreement. That argument has no basis in fact. Your wishes coincide with mine in this situation. His salary was commensurate with his abilities. We must comply with the request. We concur in the decision o f the survey committee. One member did not concur with the others. All employees must conform to the regulations. His value consists in his ability to work with others. The handbook consists o f grammar rules. We should be consistent in applying the law. His actions are not consistent with his statements. 181
Her description o f the incident corresponds to what we believe to be the case. We have been corresponding with our new friends abroad. correspond with What did the store owner demand from them in payment? demand from What did the store owner demand o f them in payment? demand o f My estimate o f the amount due differs from yours. differ from We differ in our opinions on the matter. differ in They differ on the amount owed. differ on They differ about the money owed. differ about I differ with your view o f the situation. differ with discrepancy between There is a discrepancy between the two accounts. There is a discrepancy in his account. discrepancy in The supervisor was displeased at the employees conduct. displeased at The supervisor was displeased with the employee. displeased with He is eligible for the job. eligible for The two offices are equivalent in size. equivalent in Each payment is the equivalent o f a weeks salary. equivalent o f Each payment is equivalent to a weeks salary. equivalent to He was excepted from further responsibility. excepted from This type o f income is exempt from tax. exempt from What return do you expect from your investment? expect from What do you expect o f your assistant? expect o f He is quite familiar with the proceedings. familiar with The name is familiar to me. familiar to Adequate supplies were furnished to them. furnish to Please furnish us with background information on this matter. furnish with The student made a habit o f waiting until the report was due before Habit o f Beginning to write it. That case is identical to the one I am working on. identical to identify by The dog was identified by its unusual markings. He identified with the opposing opinion. identify with She was ignorant o f her rights. ignorant o f the improvement in the weather was a welcome change. improvement in The second draft was an improvement on the first. improvement on The judge was inconsistent in making the awards. inconsistent in This is inconsistent with established policy. inconsistent with We infer from this statement that the decision has been made. infer from We were all influenced by the directors statements. influence by The supervisor had a strong influence on his staff. influence on(upon) Instructors should keep their students informed of any changes in Inform o f procedure. A capacity for growth is inherent in all people. inherent in My lawyer interceded for me. intercede for 182
correspond to
irrespective o f liable for liable to oblivious o f (to) recompense for reconcile to reconcile with result in result from transfer form transfer to use for use of wait at wait for wait on (upon)
They decided to implement the plan irrespective o f the criticism that might result. The tenant is liable for damages. The employee is liable to his employer. The teacher was oblivious o f the noise outside the room. We were fully recompensed for the time we spent on the work. We have become reconciled to our fate. Our views cannot be reconciled with theirs. The accident resulted in his death. The damage resulted from the fire. He transferred from another company. He transferred to another company. He had no use for the extra table. She made good use of her opportunity. I will wait at the back of the room until the lecture is over. The children were waiting for their parents to return. This matter must wait on my leisure.
Exercise 22
In the following sentences, replace any prepositions that are not used correctly. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. The mayor acceded with the citizens demands. 2. Youll have to accommodate yourself with the situation. 3. The president was companied with secret service agents everywhere. 4. The prosecutor accused the defendant by murder. 5. I dont like the suggestion, but I will acquiesce with it. 6. The jury acquitted the defendant with all changes. 7. The chameleon adapts for its surroundings by changing color. 8. Affix the inspection sticker on your windshield. 9. I cant agree with the terms o f this contract. 183
10. The committee is amenable for any suggestions. 11. The heart is analogous from a pump. 12. How can we express our appreciation o f you help? 13.1 dont approve o f whisky but Im not averse o f a glass o f wine now and then. 14. My birthday coincides to my wedding anniversary. 15. He was given a job commensurate for his abilities. 16. People who refuse to comply by the law will be punished. 17. The two accounts concur with all major points. 18. Happiness consists o f appreciating what you have. 19 .1 differ in my partners sometimes, but usually we agree. 20. A dime is equivalent in ten pennies. 21. The A students were excepted by taking the exam. 22. A doctors note will exempt you for physical education. 23. The audience identified by the main character. 24. The father was ignorant from the childs fears. 25. They send me e-mails every week, irrespective to whether its useful or not. 26. The woman was liable to her husbands debts. 27. The book was so interesting that I was oblivious from my surroundings. 28. Her diligent study resulted to her good grade in her final exam. 29. Michael transferred the ownership o f the house from his ex-wife. 30. The company recompensed him with working overtime.
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Problem 23 Conjunctions (1) Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses, and they indicate the relation between the elements jointed. C oordinating Conjunctions A coordinating conjunction is used to connect grammatically equal elements. The coordinating conjunctions are a nd, b u t, or. n o r, fo r . so , and y e t. P o v e rty is th e p a r e n t o f re v o lu tio n a n d crim e. C orrelative Conjunctions Correlative conjunctions come in pairs: e ith e r ...o r ; n e ith e r ...n o r ; n o t o n ly ... b u t a lso ; w h e th e r ...o r; b o th ...a n d . Like coordinating conjunctions, they connect grammatically equal elements. E ith e r J a c k S p ra t o r h is w ife c o u ld s p e a k S p a n ish . Subordinating Conjunctions A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause and indicates its relation to the rest o f the sentence. The most common subordinating conjunctions are a fter, a lth o u g h , as, a s if, b eca u se, b efo re , e v e n th o u g h , if, in o r d e r that, r a th e r th a n , sin ce , s o that, th an, that, th o u g h , unless, u n til, w h en , w here, w h eth er, a n d w h ile. I f y o u w a n t service, s e r v e y o u r s e lf. C onjunctive Adverbs A conjunctive adverb may be used with a semicolon to connect independent clauses; it usually serves as a transition between the clauses. The most common conjunctive adverbs are co n seq u en tly, fin a lly , fu r th e r m o r e , h o w ever, m o re o v e r, n e v e rth e le ss , sim ila rly , then, th e re fo re, a n d thus. W hen w e w a n t to m u rd e r a tiger, w e c a ll it s p o rt; h o w e v e r, w h en th e tig e r w a n ts to m u r d e r us. w e c a ll it fe ro c ity .
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Sometimes conjunctions can be om itted in Chinese while conjunctions m ust be used in English. For example: M y s is te r is e x p e c tin g m e, s o I m u st le a v e now . Among these four types o f conjunctions Chinese students have more trouble in using correlative conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions than in using coordinating conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs. Therefore, our attention should be focused on the former two. C orrelative ConjunctionsInclusive both...and Remember that b o th ... a n d are correlative conjunctions. They are used together to include two parallel structures (two nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs). Avoid using a s w e ll a s instead o f a n d with both. Avoid using b o th ... a n d for more than two nouns or adjectives. T h e le c tu r e w a s b oth in te r e s tin g a n d in stru ctive. Remember that both.. .and.. .as well as are correlative conjunctions. They must be used in sequence to include two or three parallel structures (nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs). Avoid using a s w e ll instead of a s w e ll a s. H e e n jo y s p la y in g b o th s o c c e r a n d b a s e b a ll a s w e ll a s te n n is. Correlative ConjunctionsInclusives not only... but also Remember that n o t o n ly ...b u t a ls o are correlative conjunctions. They are used together to include two parallel structures( two nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs). C h e c k s a r e n o t o n ly s a fe r b u t a ls o m o re convenient. Avoid using o n ly n o t instead of n o t o n ly . Avoid using b u t instead o f b u t a lso . Avoid using the incorrect pattern.
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Correlative ConjunctionExclusives n o t...b u t Remember that n o t...b u t are correlative conjunctions. They are used together to exclude the structure that follows n o t (noun, adjective, verb, adverb) and include the structure that follows but. T he la rg e st u n iv e r sity is n o t M in n e so ta b u t O h io State. Affirmative AgreementSo and Too Remember that so, to o , and a ls o have the same meaning, but so is used before auxiliary verbs and to o a n d a ls o are used after auxiliary verbs. M y w ife w ill ta lk to h im a n d so w ill I. M y w ife w ill ta lk to h im a n d I w ill too o r I w ill also. Negative AgreementN either and Either N e ith e r a n d e ith e r have the same meaning, but n e ith e r is used before auxiliary verbs and e ith e r is used after auxiliary verbs and not. M y ro o m m a te w o n t g o , a n d n e ith e r w ill I. Avoid using e ith e r instead o f n e ith e r. Avoid using the subject before B E , D O , H A VE, or the m o d a l in a clause with n e ith e r. M y ro o m m a te w o n t g o , a n d I w on 't eith er. Avoid using n e ith e r instead o f eith er.
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Exercise 23
Choose the incorrect conjunctions and correct them. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. The weather on Sunday will be both sunny, warm also. 2. We can use the bike both to ride to school also go to the grocery store. 3. The party will celebrate both our finishing the term as well your getting a new job. 4. Both Mary, Ellen, and Jean are going on the tour. 5. To reach your goal, you must plan and work as well as dream. 6. We will keep in touch by both writing both calling and visiting each other. 7. The objective is not to identify the problem but also to solve it. 8. Not only her parents but her brothers and sisters also live in Wisconsin. 9. The new models are not only less expensive but also more efficient. 10. The office that I was assigned was not large and cheerful but only small and dark. 11. To judge your friends, you should not listen to what they say only observe what they do. 12. Before the invention of the musical staff, people passed musical compositions on to each other not by writing them down but also by remembering them. 13. We are going to the concert, and so do they. 14.1 am worried about it, and also is he. 15. Mary wants to go home, and so want we. 16. She took pictures, and I did so. 17. She hasnt finished the assignment yet, and neither I have. 18.1 didnt know the answer, and he didnt neither. 188
19. If Jane wont go to the party, either will he. 20. He wont be here today, and either his sister will.
Problem 24 C onjunctions (2) Misuse of conjunctions In a complex English sentence, a subordinating conjunction can be placed only in a subordinate clause, not in a main clause. One o f the common errors Chinese students easily make is to put conjunctions both in a subordinate clause and in a main clause in an adverbial clause of concession or in an adverbial clause o f reason. For example: Incorrect: Although Jack studied very hard, but he did not pass his final exam. Correct: Although Jack studied very hard, (yet) he did not pass his final exam. When the conjunction a lth o u g h (th o u g h ) appears in a subordinate English sentence, the conjunction b u t can not be used in a main clause. However, y e t can be employed in a main clause with the conjunction a lth o u g h o r th o u g h in a subordinate clause. Chinese students need to be aware o f the different forms o f a lth o u g h o r th o u g h between English and Chinese and watch for the negative native language transfer in written English. Incorrect: B e c a u s e th e r o a d w a s slip p ery, th e re fo r e I c o u ld n "t w a lk fa s t. Correct: I c o u ld n 't w a lk fa s t b e c a u se th e r o a d w a s s lip p e r y . Another common error Chinese easily make is to use r e a s o n ... is b e c a u se pattern. Incorrect: T h e r e a s o n I m is s e d th e exa m is b e c a u s e m y m o to r c y c le b ro ke d o w n . Correct: I m is s e d th e e x a m b e c a u s e m y m o to r c y c le b r o k e d o w n . 189
Correct: T h e r e a s o n I m isse d th e e x a m is th a t m y m o to r c y c le b r o k e dow n. Comparatively speaking, The English speaker uses more conjunctions in their daily conversations than the Chinese speaker does. In Chinese the coherence of sentences depends on the context and logic instead o f solely on conjunctions. Due to this fact, Chinese students sometimes forget to employ conjunctions when they write English or translate Chinese into English. Incorrect: Y o u e x p a n d y o u r v o c a b u la ry , y o u r r e a d in g c o m p r e h e n s io n w ill b e im p ro v e d . Correct: I f y o u e x p a n d y o u r v o c a b u la ry , y o u r r e a d in g c o m p r e h e n s io n w ill b e im p r o v e d . Planned ResultSo That Remember that s o th a t introduces a clause o f a planned result. Incorrect: H e b o r r o w e d the m o n e y s o h e c o u ld fin is h h is e d u c a tio n . Correct: H e b o r r o w e d th e m o n e y s o th a t h e c o u ld fin is h h is ed u ca tio n . Avoid using s o instead o f so th a t as a purpose connector in written English. Note: In spoken English, so instead o f s o th a t is often used. In written English, s o th a t is preferred. Future Result W hen Remember that w h e n introduces a clause o f condition for future result. Avoid using w ill instead of a present verb after w h e n . Incorrect: I w ill c a ll y o u w hen I w ill r e tu r n fr o m m y c o u n try . Correct: I w ill c a ll y o u w hen I r e tu r n f ro m m y c o u n try . Indirect Questions
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Remember that question words can be used as conjunctions. Question words introduce a clause o f indirect question. Question words include the following: who why w hat how w h a t tim e h o w lo n g w hen how m any
w h ere h o w m u ch Incorrect: I d id n 't u n d e r s ta n d w h a t d id h e sa v . Correct: I d id n Vu n d e r s ta n d w h a t h e s a id . Avoid using do, does, o r d id after the question word. Avoid using the verb before the subject after the question word. Question W ords with -ev er Remember that - e v e r means any. W h o eve r and w h o m e v e r mean anyone; w h a te v e r means anything; w h e r e v e r means anywhere; w h en e ver means any time; h o w e v e r means any way. The - e v e r words may be used as conjunctions to introduce clauses. Incorrect: W e ca n le a v e e v e r w h en D o n n a is ready. Correct: W e ca n le a v e w h e n e v e r D o n n a is ready. Avoid using a n y instead of - e v e r . Avoid using - e v e r before instead o f after the question word. Exercise 24 Some o f the sentences in this exercise are correct. Some are incorrect. Find the incorrect sentences, and correct them. If a sentence is correct, write correct after it. 1. Though he wasnt interested in music, but he came to the concert. 2. Because he was interested in music, therefore he came. 3. Although Christmas Eve has passed, but I will never forget it. 191
4. Foreign students who are making a decision about which school to attend may not know exactly where their choices are located. 5. In the future, class taught by television will be equipped with boom microphones in the classrooms so students can stop the action, ask their questions, and receive immediate answers. 6. A wind instrument is really just a pipe arranged so air can be blown into it at one end. 7. It is very difficult to compute how much does an item cost in dollars when one is accustomed to calculating in another monetary system. 8. Larry took a bus from New York to California so he could see the country. 9. Marilyn plans to work in her familys store when she will get her M.B.A. 10. She will feel a lot better when she will stop smoking. 11. When Gary will go to State University, he will be a teaching assistant. 12 .1 wonder when is her birthday. 13. Could you please tell me where is the post office? 14. Can they tell you what time does the movie start? 15. Order any what you like. 16. The representative will vote for whom the membership supports. 17. Feel free to present your projects ever how you wish. 18.1 can meet with you ever you have the time. 19. Ferns will grow wherever the soil is moist and the air is humid. 20. We believe that the time will come that every family can afford a computer.
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Problem 25 Placem ent of Adjectives So far you have already learned that in English adjectives usually precede the nouns they modify and that when infinitive phrases, participle phrases, prepositional phrases and attributive clauses are used as attributes, they are usually placed after the nouns they modify. When adjectives pile up in front of a noun, however, Chinese students may sometimes have difficulty arranging them. The order o f adjectives in English is somewhat different from that in Chinese. For example: 1. 2. th e m o d e rn C h in e se lite ra tu re a fa m o u s F r e n c h w r ite r
3. a p r e tty little S w e d ish g ir l Usual order of cumulative adjectives ARTICLE O R O T H E R NOUN M ARKER a, an, the, her, Joes two, many, some EVALUATIVE W ORD attractive, dedicated, delicious, ugly, disgusting SIZE large, enormous, small, little LENGTH O R SHAPE long, short, round, square AGE new, old, young, antique COLOR 193
yellow, blue, crimson NATIONALITY French, Scandinavian, Vietnamese R E LIG IO N Catholic, Protestant, Jewish, Muslim M A TERIA L Silver, walnut, wool, marble NOUN/ADJECTIVE tree(as in tree house), kitchen (as in kitchen table) T H E NOUN MODIFIED House, sweater, bicycle, bread, woman, priest Incorrect: E d g a r S n o w w a s an A m e r ic a n p r o g r e s s iv e journalist. Correct: E d g a r S n o w w a s a p r o g re ss iv e A m e r ic a n jo u rn a list. Incorrect: T h o u sa n d s o f r e d b e a u tifu l r o s e s th a t blo sso m a lm o s t a t th e s a m e tim e m a k e th e p a r k a g r e a t re so rt f o r p e o p le in sp rin g . Corect: T h o u sa n d s o f b e a u tifu l r e d r o s e s th a t b lo sso m a lm o st a t th e s a m e tim e m a k e th e p a r k th e g r e a t reso rt o f p e o p le in s p rin g . Note: Long strings o f cumulative adjectives tend to be awkward. Ad a rule, use no more than two or three o f them between the article (or other noun marker) and the noun modified.
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Exercise 25
After reading through the list -Usual Order o f Cumulative Adjectives, you arrange the following modifiers and nouns in their proper order. 1. new, French, two, bicycles, racing 2. woman, young, an, Vietnamese, attractive 3. dedicated, a, priest, Catholic 4. old, her, sweater, blue, wool 5. delicious, Joes, Scandinavian, bread 6. many, cages, bird, antique, beautiful 7. round, two, marble, tables, large 8. several, yellow, tulips, tiny 9. a, sports, classic, car 10. courtyard, a, square, small, brick 11. charming, restaurants, Italian, several 12. a, pine, old, beautiful, table 13. French, enormous, two, urns 14. an, jungle, purple, exotic, flower 15 blue, some, small medicine, bottles. 16 a, silver, antique, necklace, beautiful
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APPENDIX E FOCAL SKILLS TREATMENT ON READING COMPREHENSION
So far I have covered the major grammar and structure part o f a standardized English proficiency test. In the following I will discuss the 5 steps to advancing Chinese students reading comprehension skills. Problem 26 Unknown W ords Step 1 V ocabulary in Context When you read a passage, some unknown words may sometimes prevent you from comprehending the meaning of the passage. When you encounter an unknown word, you need to read the sentence in which this unknown word is embedded. By using context clues (semantic cues, graphophonemic cues and syntactic cues) you may correctly infer the meaning o f this unknown word. Here are some tips to help you deduce an unknown word from its context. There are four common types of context clues: 1. Examples 1. Synonyms 2. Antonyms 3. General Sense o f the Sentence or Passage In the following sections, you will read about and practice using each type. The practice will sharpen your skills in recognizing and using context clues. They will also help you add new words to your vocabulary. 1. Examples If you are given examples that relate to an unknown word, you can often figure out its meaning. To understand how this type o f clue works, read the sentences below. An italicized word in each sentence is followed by examples that serve as context clues for that word. These examples, which are in boldfaced type, will help you figure out the meaning o f each word. Circle the letter of each meaning you think is correct. Note that examples are often introduced with such signal words and phrases as in c lu d in g and su c h as. (1 )There was obviously a n im o s ity between Carmen and Jack they glared at each other and refused to stay in the same room together. A n im o s ity means a. space b. nothing c. ill will (2) The neighborhood is so a fflu e n t that there are Olympic-sized swimming pools, tennis court, and luxury cars on most properties. A fflu e n t means a. wealthy b. crowded c. faraway In the first sentence, the examples o f Carment and Jacks behavior toward each other suggest that a n im o s ity means ill w i l l In the second sentence, the examplespool, tennis courts, and luxury carsshow that a fflu e n t means w e a lth y 2. Synonyms Context clues are often found in the form o f synonyms: words that mean the same as the unknown word. Synonyms may be purposely included by an author to help readers understand a less familiar word. In such cases, the synonyms are usually set off by special 197
punctuation within the sentence, such as commas, dashes, or parentheses; and they may be introduced by or (Nuptial, or weddings ...) and that is (Our work was arduous, that is, difficult.. A synonym may also appear anywhere in a sentence as a restatement o f the meaning o f the unknown word. In each o f the following sentences, the word to be defined is italicized. Underline the synonym for the italicized word in each sentences. (1) Gaining the help o f a m en to r, that is, a wise and trusted adviser, is helpful when beginning a new job. (2) The five-year old girl must have an in n a te musical talent; playing piano that well at her age requires an inborn gift. ( Hint: In sentence 2, a synonym o f the italicized word is used later in the sentence to restate the words meaning. You should have underlined a w is e a n d tr u s te d a d v is e r as a synonym for m e n to r, and in b o rn as a synonym for in n a te. 3. Antonyms Antonymswords and phrases that mean the opposite o f a wordare also useful as context clues. Antonyms are often signaled by words and phrases such as h ow ever, b u t, y e t, o n the o th e r h a n d , a n d in co n tra st. In the sentences below, underline the words that mean the opposite of the italicized words; then circle the letter o f the meaning o f each word in italics. (1) N o v ic e s at bowling throw more gutter balls than people who are experienced at the
game. Novices means
a. experts b. beginners c. players (3) The teacher would have achieved better results if she had been as quick to commend students for their successes as she was to criticize them for their failures.
commend means a. blame b. grade c. praise
In the first sentence, n o vices is the opposite o f people who are experienced; n o v ic e s thus means " b e g in n e r s ." In the second sentence, the opposite of c o m m e n d is c r itic iz e . 4. G eneral Sense o f the Sentence o r Passage Sometimes it takes a bit more detective work to puzzle out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. In such cases, you must draw conclusions based on the information given. Asking yourself questions about the passage may help you make a fairly accurate guess about the meaning o f the unfamiliar word. Each o f the sentences below is followed by a question. Think about the answer to each question, and then circle the letter o f the meaning you think is correct. (1) Several times Lucy told the a n e c d o te about her winning the hog-calling contest. ( What would we call the telling of an event?) A n e c d o te means a. sermon b. short story c. question (2) One against capital punishment is that if an innocent person is executed, the mistake cannot be re c tifie d . 198
(What cannot be done about a mistake as final as an execution?) The first sentence provides enough evidence for you to guess that anecdote mean s h o r t s to r y . R e c tifie d in the second sentence means c o rre c te d ( You may not hit on the exact dictionary definition of a word by using context clues, but you will often be accurate enough to make good sense of what you are reading.)
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Exercise 26 Practice 1 In each o f the sentences below, underline the examples o f the italicized word. Then circle the letter o f the meaning o f the word intalics. 1. The mayor introduced various str in g e n t financial measures, including cutting the police force in half and reducing the pay o f all city employees. S tr in g e n t means a. minor b. strict c. expensive 2. My grandmother loves gardening, so her garage is filled with such im p le m e n ts as spades, hoes, and rakes. Im p le m e n ts means a. tools b. junk c. boxes 3. Under the new contract, s tip e n d s for top employees, including wages and transportation allowances, were increased by 10 percent. S tip e n d s means a. bonuses b. payments c. charges 4. As they moved westward, early pioneers faced many a d v e r s itie s , including unknown routes and loneliness. A d v e r s itie s means a. criminals b. decisions c. hardships 5. Large crowds, skyscrapers, and subways are characteristic o f an u rb a n environment. U rb a n means a. country b. central c. city Practice 2 Each sentence below includes a word or phrase that is a synonym of the italicized word. Underline the synonym o f the italicized word in each case. 1. I swore not to reveal Anitas secret, but then I did d iv u lg e it to Ted. 2. The children tried to d iv e r t, or distract, the cat until the baby bird could fly to safety. 3. The trappers left e x p lic it directions to their cabin in the mountains. Without those clear directions, we might never have made it there. 4. This is a p o ig n a n t book, as it is filled with touching stories o f the authors days in a small Southern town, wrote the reviewer. 5. Stan was convicted o f several fe lo n ie s ; as a result o f being involved in such serious crimes, he was given a sentence o f twenty years. Practice 3 Each sentence below includes a word or phrase that is an antonym of the italicized word. Underline the antonym of the italicized word in each case. Then, based on each clue, circle the letter o f the meaning o f the word in italics. 1. Those who were in agreement with the mayors tax proposal were in the majority, but there were also some outspoken d issidents. Definition o f d issid en ts: a. those in the majority b. supporters c. people who disagree 2. It was always hard to know what Uncle Harold was really thinking was his
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enthusiasm for the trip fe ig n e d or genuine? F e ig n e d means a. secret b. pretended c. formal 3. My piano teachers criticism was always p r o fu s e , but her praise was scarce. Profuse means a. loud b. well-informed c. plentiful 4. Robertos mother was le n ie n t when he took some money from her dresser drawer, but when he stole candy from the local drugstore, her punishment was harsh. L e n ie n t means a. not strict in punishment b. tough c. complimentary 5. Mom thinks its f u t ile to try to talk Dad into exercising, but I think it could be useful to show him statistics that tell how beneficial exercise is. F u tile means a. unlikely b. useless c. sentimental Practice 4 Try to answer the question that follows each item below. Then, marking a logical guess based on your answer, circle the letter o f the meaning you think is correct. 1. My three-year-old likes to fight for her a u to n o m y by saying, I can do it myself. (What is being sought with the statement I can do it m yself?) A u to n o m y means a. sister b. independence c. toys 2. The puppy had such a ten a cio u s grip on my sneakers that I finally decided to wear my loafers instead. (What kind o f grip would make the speaker choose other footwear?) T e n a c io u s means a. short b. firm c. loose 3. Emilys signature, e m b e llish e d with loops and swirls, was easy to recognize. (What do loops and swirls do to the signature?) E m b e llis h e d means a. hidden b. decorated c. made plain 4. Athletes form all over the world c o n v e n e d in Barcelona, Spain, in order to compete in the 1992 Summer Olympic Games. (What would the athletes do first before actually competing in the Olympic Games? C o n v e n e d means a. gathered b. left c. remembered 5. Hector thought his mothers suggestion to use peanut butter to remove the gum from his hair was lu d ic r o u s but it worked! Ludicrous means a. practical b. delicious c. ridiculous
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Problem 27 Main Ideas Find out Main Ideas More than any other skill, recognizing main ideas leads to good reading comprehension. The basic question you are usually asked to answer on a reading comprehension test is What is the main point the author is trying to make? To begin to better understand how to find an authors main point, read the following paragraph and the explanation that follows it. Does watching violence on television make people more prone to violence themselves? Clearly, TV violence does affect people in negative ways. One study showed that people who watch a great deal o f television are especially fearful and suspicious o f others. They try to protect themselves from the outside world with extra locks on the doors, guard dogs, and guns. That same study also showed that heavy TV watchers become less upset about real-life violence than non-TV watchers become less upset about real-life violence than non-TV watchers. It seems that the constant violence they see on TV makes them less sensitive to the real thing. Another study, o f a group of children, found that TV violence increases aggressive behavior. Children who watched violent shows were more willing to hurt another child in games where they are given a choice between helping and hurting. They were also more likely to select toy weapons over other kinds o f playthings. In a paragraph, authors often give readers the main idea in a single sentence called the topic sentence. For example, look again at the above paragraph. As we have already seen, the topic o f this paragraph is T V violence, and the primary point about TV violence is that it does affect people in negative ways. Both the topic and the point about the topic are expressed in the second sentence, which is therefore the topic sentence. All the sentences that follow provide details about the negative ways in which people are affected by TV violence. The parts of the paragraph can be shown as follows: Topic: TV violence Main idea (expressed in the topic sentence): TV violence does affect people in negative ways. Supporting details: 1. Heavy TV watchers are especially fearful and suspicious. 2. Heavy TV watchers are less upset about real-life violence. 3. Children watching violent shows increase aggressive behavior. Location of the Topic Sentence Generally a topic sentence usually appear at the beginning o f a paragraph. That is a common pattern, but not the only one. Topic sentences may also appear within the paragraph. Topic sentences may also appear at the very end o f a paragraph. Or they may even appear twiceat the beginning and the end. Implied Main Ideas Sometimes a selection lacks a topic sentence, but that does not mean it lacks a main idea. The author has simply decided to let the details of the selection suggest the main idea. You must figure out what that implied main idea is by deciding upon the point o f all the details. For example, read the following paragraph. In ancient times, irrational behavior was considered the result o f demons and evil spirits taking possession o f a person. Later, the Greeks looked upon irrational behavior as a
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physical problemcaused by an imbalance of body fluids called humors or by displacement o f an organ. In the highly superstitious Middle Ages, the theory o f possession by demons was revived. It reached a high point again in the witch hunts of eighteenth century Europe and America. Only in the last one hundred years did true medical explanations o f mental illness gain wide acceptance. You can see that no sentence in the paragraph is a good umbrella statement that covers all the others. We can decide on the main idea by considering all the details and asking, What is the topic o f this paragraph? (In other words, Who or what is this paragraph about?) Once we have the topic in mind, we can ask, What is the primary point the author is trying to make about that topic? When we think we know the main point, we can test it out by asking, Does all or most of the material in the paragraph support this idea? In the paragraph above, all o f the details are about mental illness, so that must be the topic. And what is the general idea all the details are making about mental illness? The details show that people have explained mental illness in many different ways over the years. Although this idea is not stated, you can see that it is a broad enough summary to include all the other material in the paragraphit is the main idea. Exercise 27 The main idea (as expressed in the topic sentence appears at various places in the following paragraphs. Identify the topic sentence o f each paragraph by writing the correct sentence number in the space provided. 1. 1Learning another language may seem more challenge than its worth. 2The advantages to knowing another language, however, make it well worth the hard work. 3A foreign language, for instance, is a window into another culture. 4It expresses the way people in that society think and view the world. sTo know another language is thus to view life through a new lens. 6Knowing another language also provides access to different ways of dealing with problems common to us all. 7It is an advantage in the business world, where multinational partners are becoming more common. 8Finally, understanding a different language enables you to look at your own culture from a fresh perspective. Topic sentence: 2. 'individuals sometimes develop amazing strengths by uniting to overcome trouble.2At the end of World War II, for example, a group of six children who had lost their parents, their homeland, and their native language were freed from a concentration camp. 3They were so strongly attached to one another that they refused to be separated even when one became ill with a contagious disease. 4In the refugee hostel, they resisted being singled out for treats. 5At mealtimes, each made certain the other five had food before eating. 6Only after several months had passed and they knew their safety was assured did they show the competitiveness and need for attention normal children do. Topic sentence: 3. 'When poor countries attempt to set aside land for parks or preserves, they lose the use of valuable natural resource. 2Such resources may help their people fight poverty and 203
starvation. 3One environmentalist has suggested a plan to encourage the establishment of parks and preserves in poor nations. 4According to this plan, rich nations would be taxed to help poor nations that create parks and preserves. sThe taxes would go into a fund that the poor countries could use as they likedto protect the parks, to develop agriculture of industry, or for education. 6In return, the forty-eight tropical forest nations in Africa, Asia, and the America would agree to maintain an extensive park system. 7If they failed to maintain their preserves, they would lose their fund. Topic sentence: Circle the letter of the sentence that best expresses the implied main idea o f paragraph 4. 4. Lack o f gravity changes how astronauts look during their first few days in space. Body fluids at first flow more towards the head, puffing up the face. And no matter how often astronauts brush their hair, it still tends to float loosely around their heads. In addition, because in the absence o f gravity open water floats in the air, astronauts are limited in how they clean themselves in space. For example, they have to swallow their toothpaste rather than rinse their mouths out after brushing. a. Astronauts faces puff up in space at first. b. The absence o f gravity in space influences astronauts looks and grooming habits. c. When astronauts are in space, their hair tends to float loosely about their heads because o f the absence gravity. d. Being in space is very challenging in numerous ways. Write out the implied ideas o f paragraph 5. 5. Once the most popular and affordable form o f public transportation in America, streetcars in the early part o f this century carried record 11 billion passengers on 45,000 miles of track. By 1960, however, trolley systems were virtually extinct. Companies backed by General Motors, Firestone Tire and Rubber, Standard Oil, and others with a financial interest in cars and buses had bought and closed up almost every trolley in America. Now, however, public officials are concerned with finding cheaper, more convenient alternatives or subway system. San Diego was the first to construct a major new trolley line. As ridership soared, second and third lines were added, with more planned for the future. Portland and Sacramento them started theirs, and more than twenty other cities have proposed new trolley lines. Implied main idea:
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Problem 28 P attern of Organization Step 3 Recognize Pattern of O rganization To help you understand their main points, authors try to present supporting details in a clearly organized way. Details might be arranged in any o f several common patterns. Sometimes authors may build a paragraph or longer passage exclusively on one pattern; often the patterns are mixed. By recognizing the patterns, you will be better able to understand and remember what you read. The Five Basic P atterns of Organization Here are the most commonly used patterns o f organization: 1. Time Order 2. List o f Items (Process Pattern) 3. Comparison and/or Contrast 4. Cause and Effect 5. Definition and Example Time O rder As a student, you will see time order used frequently. Textbooks in all fields describe events and processes, such as the events leading to the Boston Tea Party, the 25,000-mile Long March or the Autumn Harvest Uprising. You will find this pattern in history books, biographies or narrative writings. The following transition words often signal that a paragraph or selection is organized according to time order: Time Transitions F irs t next w h ile as b e fo r e Second now d u r in g a fte r Then w h en u n til S in c e soon fin a lly la te r Other signals for this pattern are dates, times, and such words as stages, series, steps, and process. The two most common kinds of time order involve a se rie s o f e v e n ts o r s ta g e s and a s e r ie s o f s te p s o r d ir e c tio n s . List of Items (Process Pattern) A list o f items refers to a series o f details (such as examples, reasons, or facts) that support a point. The items have no time order, so they are listed in the order the author prefers. The transitions used in lists o f items tell us that another supporting detail is added to one or more already mentioned. Following are some transitions that show addition and that often signal a listing pattern o f organization: Addition Transitions and in a d d itio n f i r s t o f a ll fu r th e r m o r e a lso m o reo ver fir s t la s t o f a ll a n o th e r next second fi n a lly Comparison and/or Contrast The comparison-contrast pattern shows how two thins are alike or how they are different, or both. When things are compared, their similarities are pointed out; when they are contrasted, their differences are discussed (for example, the difference in advertising used for new and established products). 205
In our daily lives we compare and contrast things all the time, whether we are aware o f it or not. Here are some common transitions showing comparison and contrast: lik e j u s t lik e ju s t as a lik e lik e w ise e q u a lly r e se m b le s a lso s im ila r ly s im ila r itie s sam e s im ila r Contrast Transitions how ever o n th e o th e r h a n d d iffe r e n t in co n tra st a s o p p o s e d to d iffe r e n tly in ste a d u n lik e d iffe r s fr o m Cause and Effect Arrange the following group of sentences into an order that makes sense. Put a 1 in front of the sentence that should come first, a 2 in front of the sentence that comes next, and a 3 in front of the sentence that should be last. The result will be a short paragraph. Then, if the cold sufferer shakes hands with someone else after touching his nose, he is likely to transfer the germs to the other person. Since the nose is a major source o f cold germs, a cold sufferer can easily become covered with germs by touching his nose. A handshake can result in the passing o f one persons cold germs to another person. As the words sin c e , r e s u lt in, a n d i f . .. then suggest, this paragraph is organized in a causeand-effect pattern. The paragraph begins with the general idea: A handshake can result in the passing o f one persons cold germs to another person. Next comes a more detailed explanation: Since the nose is a major source of cold germs, a cold sufferer can easily become covered with germs by touching his nose. Then, if the cold sufferer shakes hands with someone else after touching his nose, he is likely to transfer the germs to the other person. Information that falls into a cause-effect pattern addresses itself to the questions Why does an event happen? and What are the results o f an event? In other words, this pattern answers the question What are the causes and/or effects o f an event? In some cases, several causes will be a writers focus; in other cases, several effects will be examined; in yet other instances, there will be a whole series o f causes and effects. Explanations o f causes and effects very often use transitions such as the following: th u s because b e c a u se o f ca u se s a s a re su lt r e s u lt in re s u lt e ffects th e re fo re s in c e c o n s e q u e n tly lea d s to Definition and Example To communicate successfully, an author must help readers understand the words and ideas that are being expressed. If a word is likely to be new to readers, the author may take time to include a definition before going on. Then, to clarify the definition, which might be too general to be easily understood, the author may present explanatory details, including one or more examples to help readers better understand what is meant. Textbooks often contain definitions and examples. They introduce students to new words and provide examples of how those words are used to make them clearer and more familiar. 206
Typically, the definition appears first, followed by one or more examples. But sometimes the examples are given first and then the definition. And note that definitions may be given without examples, and examples are frequently used to illustrate general statements other
than definitions.
Examples are often introduced by transitions like the following: F o r e x a m p le to illu s tr a te one F o r in sta n c e such as s p e c ific a lly A s a n illu stra tio n to b e s p e c ific in c lu d in g
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Exercise 28 Label each item with the letter o f its main pattern o f organization. Each pattern is used twice. A time order B list of item C comparison and/or contrast D cause and effect E definition and example ______ 1.While humans grow until they reach maturity, a lobster will continue to grow for as it lives. ______ 2. Our natural environment includes several visible forms o f water: fog, clouds, dew, rain, frost, snow, sleet, and hail. ______ 3. Because Soviet parents believe that being in cold outside air makes it harder to catch cold, they train their children to tolerate below-freezing temperatures. ______ 4. The Tragedy o f Hamlet begins outside the Danish castle, where two officers see the ghost o f the murdered King, Hamlets father. The officers soon decide to tell Hamlet about the ghost. Next we see the new King, Hamlet, and the others enter a room o f state in the castle. ______ 5. Jungles are areas o f land that are densely overgrown with tropical trees and other vegetation. In South America, the Amazon is the largest jungle. ______ 6. If farmers alternate crops which take nitrogen from the soil with those that return nitrogen to the soil, then they can plant the same fields year after year. ______ 7. Newspaper want ads are one o f several excellent sources for secondhand goods. Others are garage sales, flea markets, and thrift shops. ______ 8. Preventive medicine is like changing a cars oil. Just as we must change the oil regularly for a car to operate smoothly, we must have regular checkups with our doctors. ______ 9. Norms are the standards o f behavior accepted as appropriate in a society. In American society, for instance, wearing shoes to places like school and work is a norm. ______ 10. Abe Lincoln took an unusual path to the Presidency. He lost his first job and then declared bankruptcy. He suffered a nervous breakdown and lost seven political contests before finally being elected to the White House.
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Problem 29 Inferences Step 4 M ake Inferences in reading You have probably heard the expression to read between the lines. When you read between the lines, you pick up ideas that are not directly stated in what you are reading. These implied ideas are often important for a full understanding o f what an author means. Discovering the ideas in writing that are not stated directly is called making inferences, or drawing conclusions. Inferences in Everyday Life Consider first how often you make inferences in everyday life. Take a moment now and jot down what you might infer if you experienced the following: A n e le c tr ic a l sto rm c o n tin u e d a ll m orning. W h en y o u g o t h o m e th a t a ftern o o n , y o u d is c o v e re d th a t th e c lo c k s w e re a ll tw e lv e m in u te s s lo w . Your inference:________________________________________________________ In this situation, you probably inferred that the electricity in your home had gone off for twelve minutes. This conclusion is well supported by the fact that an electrical storm had taken place. O f course, its also possible that your roommate turned all the clocks back twelve minutes, but that is much less likely unless your roommate is a practical joker. Inference in Reading In reading, too, we make logical leaps from the information given in a straightforward way to ideas that are not stated directly. As the scholar S.I. Hayakawa has said, inferences are statements about the unknown made on the basis o f the known. To draw inferences, we use all the clues provided by the writer, our own experience, and logic. Inference guidelines 1. Never lose sight of the available information. As much as possible, base your inferences on the facts. 2. Use your background inform ation and experience to help you in making inference. The more background information people have, the more accurate their inferences are likely to be. So keep in mind that if your background information in a particular matter is weak, your inferences may be shaky. A doctors inferences about your rash and fever are likely to be more helpful than those of your car mechanic. 3. Consider the alternatives. Considering alternative interpretations of the facts is one way to zero in on a likely interpretation. Dont simply accept the first inference that comes to mind. Instead, consider all of the facts o f a case and all the possible explanations. Exercise 29 Following is a short story written by Langston Hughes, a poet and fiction writer who emerged as a major literary figure during the Harlem Renaissance o f the 1920s. Read the story, and then circle the letters o f the five inferences most solidly based on it. Early Autum n When Bill was very young, they had been in love. Many nights they had spent walking, talking together. Then something not very important had come between them, and they didnt speak. Impulsively, she had married a man she thought she loved. Bill went away, bitter about women. 209
Yesterday, walking across Washington Square, she saw him for the first time in years. Bill Walker, she said. He stopped. At first he did not recognize her, to him she looked so old. Mary! Where did you come from? Unconsciously, she lifted her face as though wanting a kiss, but he held out his hand. She took it. I live in New York now, she said. Ohsmiling politely. Then a little frown came quickly between his eyes. Always wondered what happened to you, Bill. Im a lawyer. Nice firm, way downtown. Married yet? Sure. Two kids. Oh, she said. A great many people went past them through the park. People they didnt know. It was late afternoon. Nearly sunset. Cold. And your husband? he asked her. We have three children. I work in the bursars office at Columbia. Youre looking very... (he wanted to say old) ... well, he said. She understood. Under the trees in Washington Square, she found herself desperately reaching back into the past. She had been older than he then in Ohio. Now she was not young at all. Bill was still young. We live on Central Park West, she said. Come and see us sometime. Sure, he replied. You and your husband must have dinner with my family some night. Any night. Lucille and Id love to have you. The leaves fell slowly from the trees in the Square. Fell without wind. Autumn dusk. She felt a little sick. Wed love it, she answered. You ought to see my kids. He grinned. Suddenly the lights came on up the whole length o f Fifth Avenue, chains o f misty brilliance in the blue air. Theres my bus, she said. When... she wanted to say, but the bus was ready to pull off. The lights on the avenue blurred, twinkled, blurred. And she was afraid to open her mouth as she entered the bus. Afraid it would be impossible to utter a word. Suddenly she shrieked very loudly, Good-by! But the bus door had closed. The bus started. People came between them outside, people crossing the street, people they didnt know. Space and people. She lost sight o f Bill. Then she remembered she had forgotten to give him her addressor ask him for hisor tell him that her youngest boy was named Bill, too. 1. Authors of fiction often choose settings that symbolically reflect their story. In this case, the characters stage o f life is echoed in the authors choices of a. city and park. b. season and time o f day 210
c. transportation and temperature 2. Hughes portrayed the awkwardness o f the meeting by indicating a contrast between a. the womans and Bills jobs. b. New York City and Ohio. c. what the characters say and what they mean. 3. The suggestion that Bill was still young but the woman was not implies that a. she was actually many, many years older than he. b. her life has aged her more rapidly than his life has aged him. c. he was an exercise buff who had taken especially good care o f himself. 4. The story suggests that Bill a. did not regret having not married the woman. b. plans on inviting the woman and her husband over for dinner. c. still wished nothing had come between him and the woman when they were young. 5. The last few words of the story suggest that a. the boy was really Bills son. b. the woman regretted naming her youngest son Bill. c. the woman had thought o f Bill with so much longing that she named a son after him. Problem 30 P urpose and Tone Step 5 Detect an A uthor's Purpose and tone An important part o f reading critically is realizing that behind everything you read is an author. This author is a person who has a reason for writing a given piece and who works from a personal point of view. To fully understand and evaluate what you read, you must recognize purposethe reason why the author writes. You must also be aware o f tonethe expression o f the authors attitude and feeling. Both purpose and tone are discussed in this chapter.
Purpose
Authors write with a reason in mind, and you can better evaluate what is being said by determining what that reason is. The authors reason for writing is also called the purpose o f a selection. Three common purposes are: To inform to give information about a subject. Authors with this purpose wish to give their readers facts. To persuadeto convince the reader to agree with the authors point o f view on a subject. Authors with this purpose may give facts, but their main goal is to promote an opinion. To entertainto amuse and delight; to appeal to the readers senses and imagination.
Authors with this purpose entertain in various ways, through fiction and nonfiction. Read each o f the three paragraphs that follow and decide whether the authors main purpose is to inform, to persuade, or entertain. Write in your answers and then read the explanations that follow. 1. All states should pass laws protecting our children from being paddled or hit in the classroom. In forty-one states, it is still legal to discipline children in school with physical force. This type of discipline is a disgrace. There are many more humane and effective ways of handling unruly students.
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Purpose:_________________________________________________ The worst recorded epidemic o f all time was the bubonic plague, also called the Black Death. It swept Europe, Asia and Africa from 1346 to 1353. So deadly was this disease that it killed one third of all the population o f these continents. The plague was spread by fleas infected with bacteria from diseased rats. Purpose:_________________________________________________ If business were as good as my aim, Id be on Easy Street. Instead Ive got an office on East Trout Street and a nasty relationship with my creditors. Thats me, Gill catfish, the meanest law enforcer outside o f Sand Valley Fishpolice. Im not the type to flounder around. Yeah, Im a private eye used to muddy water. Purpose:_________________________________________________
In the first paragraph, the writers purpose is to p e r s u a d e readers that states should pass laws against physical punishment in the classroom. This is clear because the author begins by clearly saying what states s h o u ld do. In addition, the author claims that disciplining with physical force is a disgrace and that there are better ways o f handling unruly students. These are statements used to convince us, rather than to inform us. The purpose o f the second paragraph is to in fo rm . The author is mainly providing readers with factual details about the Black Death. Finally, the playful and silly details about the fishy detective tell us that the purpose o f paragraph three is to e n te r ta in with humor. At times, writing may blend two purposes. An informative article on losing weight, for example, may include comic touches, or a persuasive letter to the editor may contain factual information. Remember in such cases to focus on the authors primary purpose. Ask yourself, What is the authors main idea? That will help you determine his or her principal intention. Keep in mind as well that persuasive writing may include numerous factsit can actually be mainly factual. But in such a case, the author may have included only those facts that support his or her point o f view. Tone A writers tone reveals the attitude he or she has toward a subject. Tone is expressed through the words and details the writer selects. Just as a speakers voice can project a range o f feelings, a writers voice can project one or more tones, or feelings: anger, sympathy, hopefulness, sadness, respect, dislike, and so on. Understanding tone is, then, an important part of understanding what an author has written. To appreciate the differences in tone that writers can employ, read the following statements o f employees of fast-food restaurants: I have this job. The customers are rude, the managers are idiots, and the food smells like dog chow. (Tone: bitter, angry.) I have no doubt that flipping burgers and toasting buns will prepare me for a top position on Wall Street. (Tone: mocking, sarcastic.) I love working at Burger Bam. I meet interesting people, earn extra money, and get to eat all the chicken nuggets I want when I go on break. (Tone: enthusiastic, positive.)
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A List of W ords T h at Describe Tone straightforward cheerful matter-of-fact joyous objective amused light-hearted serious formal humorous informal comic solemn playful outspoken bitter sorrowful impassioned depressed tolerant distressed remorseful angry outraged critical sarcastic mocking cruel hesitant scornful fearful ironic anxious arrogant irreverent alarmed tragic cynical self-pitying indignant disbelieving revengeful surprised vindictive regretful malicious sympathetic contemptuous compassionate ambivalent optimistic loving sentimental pessimistic forgiving desperate excited grim A Note on Irony One commonly used tone is that of irony. When writing has an ironic tone, it says one thing but means the opposite. Irony is found in everyday conversation as well as in writing. Following are a few examples; notice that the quotation in each says the opposite o f what is meant. I f y o u r d o g is s lo w to learn, y o u m ig h t sa y, Yeah, R u ss is a r e g u la r A lb e r t E in stein . " I f th e p r ic e ta g o n a s h ir t y o u like is d o u b le w h a t y o u 'd exp e ct, y o u m ig h t m utter, W hat a b a rg a in . Irony also refers to situations in which what happens is the opposite o f what we might expect. We could call it ironic, for example, if a man bites a dog. So another way for a writer to be ironic is to describe such situations. Here are two more examples o f this type o f irony: G ina lo v e d d a n c in g , b u t h e r b o y frie n d E d d ie d id n Vd a n c e w ell. S o s h e in s is te d he ta ke d a n c in g le sso n s. A s a result, h e s ig n e d u p f o r le sso n s a n d f e l l in lo v e w ith his d a n c in g tea ch er. The d o c to r to ld M r. L a w re n c e h e 'd b e tte r e x e rc ise i f h e w a n te d to s ta y h e a lth y . So M r. L a w re n c e b e g a n jo g g in g . O ne w h ile jo g g in g a cro ss a s tr e e t, h e w a s h it b y a tru c k a n d d ie d in sta n tly.
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Exercise 30 Practice 1 In the space provided, indicate whether the primary purpose o f each passage is to inform (I), to persuade(P), or to entertain (E). ______ 1. It is a tragic fact that the annual number o f deaths due to automobile accidents has increased steadily over the years. This is largely because drivers and passengers are careless about using seat belts. So be sure to buckle up, and buckle up your children too. It just might save a life. 2. Identical twins occur in about one in 250 births; fraternal twins happen about twice as often. But scientists now believe that twins are conceived far more often than they are bom. Recent studies show that up to 70 percent o f human pregnancies that start out with two embryos end with only one child bom. The vanishing twin syndrome usually occurs when, for reasons unknown, one o f the twins stops developing and is re-absorbed by the mothers body. _______ 3. Edward took a sip o f the purple potion, and his feet began to glow. One more sip and they disappeared. By the time the glass was empty, it looked like it was floating in airhe was entirely invisible. Figuring he had about two hours, he immediately ran to the car. He went out o f his way to drive the back roads so no one would notice a driverless car. When he reached the apartment building, he parked in back. He glanced up and saw a light in Ritas apartment. ______ 4.When plans are announced to build a residential facility for recovering mental patients, community feeling often runs high. Neighbors worry that the former mental patients will be dangerous or that property values in the area will fall. In fact, recovering mental patients make fine, responsible neighbors. They are very rarely violent; instead, they are people who have sought help for their emotional problems and are dealing successfully with them. As to their effect on property values, that depends almost entirely on the attitude of the new facilitys neighbors. People should welcome such a residence as a constructive addition to their community. Practice 2 This activity will give you practice in recognizing purpose and tone in the same passage. Read each paragraph, and then circle your answers to the questions that follow. A. Umbrellas have feet, invisible little feet. How else can we explain the fact that the rascals are forever sneaking off, stealing away from the spots where we perfect humans are sure we put them? Time and again, its the same story: A crack o f thunder, and the sky unleashes a flood. We reach for our trusty umbrella only to find an empty space. But it was there, we insist. Where did it disappear? Perhaps its next to the sunglasses, which, in case you didnt know, have wings. 1. The primary purpose of this paragraph is to a. teach readers about umbrellas and sunglasses. b. persuade readers to be more careful about where they keep umbrellas. 214
2.
B.
3.
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C.
5.
6.
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c. amuse readers by poking fun at a minor human problem. The tone o f this paragraph can be described as a. playful and humorous. b. surprised and regretful. c. objective. How tired I am o f the constant griping I hear about the United States postal Service. Why cant people recognize a bargain when they see one? Do you realize what services your first class stamp guarantees you? For only pennies, your urgent letter may cross the countryeven to Hawaii or Alaska in only a few days. For that some small amount, you may have your mail forwarded when you move. In some cases, the same piece of mail can be forwarded more than onceall on one stamp. Its high time to stop complaining about the Postal Service and to support it instead. The primary purpose o f this paragraph is to a. inform readers o f postal services that are available. b. persuade readers to appreciate the Postal Service. c. entertain readers with postal anecdotes. The overall tone o f this paragraph can be described as a. matter-of- fact. b. tolerant. c. indignant. Every weekend athlete is acquainted with the sudden crippling pain known as stitch in the side. The stitch is actually a cramp in the diaphragm, the muscle that separates the abdomen from the chest cavity. When you breathe too heavily in a short period of timeas during a burst o f athletic activitythe diaphragm suffers an oxygen shortage and reacts with the painful cramp. To relieve a stitch in your left side, say experts, lift your hands over your head and stretch far to the right while breathing slowly and regularly. Reverse your stretch for a stitch on the right. The primary purpose o f this paragraph is to a. inform readers what a stitch in the side is and how to relieve it. b. persuade readers to recognize the relieve a stitch in the side. c. entertain readers with the silly details o f a stitch in the side. The overall tone o f this paragraph can be described as a. sarcastic. b. sad. c. matter-of-fact. Nothing disturbs me more than those citizens who treat our country like an open garbage pit. I am referring to people who toss from their cars soda cans, crumpled tissues and what have you. I also have in mind the individual who casually drops candy wrappers, empty cigarette packs, and other junk when walking along public streets. This type o f uncaring behavior is also behind our countrys most popular form o f artgraffiti. Americans ought to have more pride in their environment.
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7. The primary purpose of this paragraph is to a. present facts on the environment. b. persuade people not to mess up the environment. c. amuse people with stories about silly behavior. 8. The general tone of this paragraph can be described as a. forgiving. b. critical. c. cheerful.
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APPENDIX F REFERENCES FOR TREATMENTS
REFERENCES
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VITA Chun Hu was bom in Chang Chun, China on June 25, 1954. She was educated in local public schools and graduated from No. 17 High School in 1973. She attended the Northeast Normal University in 1978 and graduated in 1982. Her degree was a Bachelor o f Arts in English and literature. After working as an English instructor in Chang Chun College o f Geology for four years, she enrolled as a graduate student at Jilin University in the fall o f 1987, and in 1990, she was awarded the Master o f Arts degree in linguistics. Upon graduation, Ms. Hu went back to Chang Chun College of Geology to resume teaching English as a second language. In the fall of 1991, Ms. Hu began a masters program in reading education at the University of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC). She received her Master o f Arts degree in Reading in 1993. Ms. Hu went on to obtain her Education Specialist degree in Reading Education at UMKC and graduated in 1995. She began working towards her interdisciplinary Ph.D. program in Education with the emphasis of Language and Literacy and in Urban Leadership and Policy Studies with the emphasis on Higher Education. While studying for her specialist and Ph.D. degree, Ms. Hu worked as a teaching assistant and instructor at UMKC. She also taught reading classes at a community college. She enjoys teaching and conducting research on second language acquisition, 232
cognitive dimensions o f language transfer, improving reading comprehension and critical thinking, integrating elements o f standardized tests into class instruction and discourse analysis. During her pursuit towards her Ph.D. at UMKC, Ms. Hu presented two papers at MIDTESOL conferences regarding second language acquisition and teaching reading and twice received travel awards for the papers presented. Ms. Hu is a member of the Mid-America Teachers o f English to Speakers o f Other Languages (MIDTESOL) Association.
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INFORMATION TO USERS

Kansas City, Missouri 2000

UMI Number 9970739

Copyright 2000 by Hu, Chun All rights reserved.

2000 CHUN HU ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

John E. George, Ph.D., Professor, Language and Literacy School o f Education m

! m Tn 3 George, Ph.D. o f Language and Literacy 1 (^Education Schc >

. i 1 &Q l &QQQ Date

LETTER OF EXEMPTION FROM SOCIAL SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW B O A R D ..........................

For Mother, Father, And Sister, Qing Hu

Group Pre-listening Post listening 1 2 1 2

Mean 169.7 170.5 182.6 175.3

Standard Deviation 12.5 9.5 12.2 11.1

SEM 2.0 2.0 2.1 2.1

Group PreStructure PostStructure 1 2 1 2

Mean 174.8 178.0 205.8 183.2

Standard Deviation 14.4 11.1 12.8 8.1

SEM 2.3 2.3 1.9 1.9

Standard Deviation 8.3 11.6 10.1 12.0

Standard Deviation 21.9 16.4 25.6 22.6

Standard Deviation .58 .46

SEM .10 .09

G roupl Group2 16011 M l I Pre-T est

2.28-: Group 1 Group 2

The researchers view

Figure 6. A-B-C Model o f Emotional Reactions on the Incomprehensible Listening Input.

APPENDIX A LETTER AND CONSENT FORM

Consent Form Dear Students:

APPENDIX B LETTER OF EXEMPTION FROM SOCIAL SCIENCES INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD

IW w wHfo O ftM n i-ltiM M City

Don Reynolds, JD SSIRB Chair C: John E. George, Ph D Enclosure

APPENDIX C FOCAL SKILLS TREATMENT ON LISTENING COMPREHENSION

(A) (B) (C) (D)

Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper:

Mrs. Ross: Jack Harper:

Mrs. Ross: Question: Answer:

Question: Answer: Question: Answer:

A) advanced economics B) biology 110 C) introductory economics D) advanced biology 99

APPENDIX D TREATMENT OF THE CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND CHINESE

Edit the following sentences to eliminate errors in verb tense or mood. If a

Problem 10 Parallel Structure

Avoid using a subject pronoun instead o f an object pronoun after a preposition.

) wbich Chinese students always m isunderstand as m o r e

and hi*ker court (

?7cV while in Chinese these adjectives only

Avoid using in before days and dates.

APPENDIX E FOCAL SKILLS TREATMENT ON READING COMPREHENSION

APPENDIX F REFERENCES FOR TREATMENTS

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