ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE: THE KEY TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP AND WORK MOTIVATION

J. B. PATNAIK
BRM Institute of Management & Information Technology Bhubneshwar Abstract The paper makes a critical analysis of organizational culture and its relationship and work motivation. A rich cultured organization develops and acquires behavior branded as organizational culture. Work motivation as well as organization development programmes, are directly related on executive understanding and are sensitive to organizational culture. The paper has also discussed typologies of organizational culture including Hofsted, Charles handy, Edger Schein, G Johnson, it has also linked with organization culture to principles of leadership, leadership effectiveness, dynamics of work motivation and approaches to motivation. The paper implicates how culture plays an important role in lives of organizations. Keywords: Organizational cultue, Dynamics of Work motivation, leadership effectiveness.

INTRODUCTION Organizational culture is an idea in the field of Organizational studies and management which descrbes the psychology, attitudes, experiences, beliefs and values (personal and cultural values) of an organization. It has been defined as the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and groups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization. This definition continues to explain organizational values, also known as beliefs and ideas about what kinds of goals members of an organization should pursue and

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ideas about the appropriate kinds or standards of behavior organizational members should use to achieve these goals. From organizational values develop organizational norms, guidelines, or expectations that prescribe appropriate kinds of behavior by employees in particular situations and control the behavior of organizational members towards one another. Organizational culture and corporate culture are often used interchangeably but it is a mistake to state that they are different concepts. All corporations are also organizations but not all organizations are corporations. Organizations include religious institutions, not-for-profit groups, and government agencies. Corporations are organizations and are also legal entities. As Schein (2009), Deal & Kennedy (2000), Kotter (1992) and many others state, organizations often have very differing cultures as well as subcultures. Corporate culture is the total sum of the values, customs, traditions, and meanings that make a company unique. Corporate culture is often called the character of an organization, since it embodies the vision of the companys founders. The values of a corporate culture influence the ethical standards within a corporation, as well as managerial behavior. Senior management may try to determine a corporate culture. They may wish to impose corporate values and standards of behavior that specifically reflect the objectives of the organization. In addition, there will also be an extant internal culture within the workforce. Work-groups within the organization have their own behavioral quirks and interactions which, to an extent, affect the whole system. Roger Harrisons four-culture typology, and adapted by Charles Handy, suggests that unlike organizational culture, corporate culture can be imported. For example, computer technicians will have expertise, language and behaviors gained independently of the organization, but their presence can influence the culture of the organization as a whole. Strong culture is said to exist where staff respond to stimulus because of their alignment to organizational values. In such environments, strong cultures help firms operate like well-oiled machines, cruising along with outstanding execution and perhaps minor tweaking of existing procedures here and there. Conversely, there is weak culture where there is little alignment with organizational values and control must be exercised through extensive procedures and bureaucracy. Where culture is strongpeople do things because they believe it is the right thing to do. Typologies of Organizational Cultures Several methods have been used to classify organizational culture. Some are described as follows:
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Hofstede (1980) demonstrated that there are national and regional cultural groupings that affect the behavior of organizations. Hofstede looked for national differences between over 100,000 of IBMs employees in different parts of the world, in an attempt to find aspects of culture that might influence business behavior. Hofstede identified five dimensions of culture in his study of national influences: Power distanceThe degree to which a society expects there to be differences in the levels of power. A high score suggests that there is an expectation that some individuals wield larger amounts of power than others. A low score reflects the view that all people should have equal rights. Uncertainty avoidanceReflects the extent to which a society accepts uncertainty and risk. Individualism vs. collectivismIndividualism is contrasted with Collectivism, and refers to the extent to which people are expected to stand up for themselves, or alternatively act predominantly as a member of the group or organization. However, recent Researches have shown that high individualism may not necessarily mean low collectivism, and vice versa, Research indicates that the two concepts are actually unrelated. Some people and cultures might have both high individualism and high collectivism, for example, someone who highly values duty to his or her group does not necessarily give a low priority to personal freedom and self-sufficiency Masculinity vs. femininityRefers to the value placed on traditionally male or female values. Male values for example include competitiveness, assertiveness, ambition, and the accumulation of wealth and material possessions. Long Term Orientation (LTO) versus short-term orientation: Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift and perseverance; values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting ones face. Deal and Kennedy (1982) defined organizational culture as the way things get done around here. They measured organizations in respect of: FeedbackQuick feedback means an instant response. This could be in monetary terms, but could also be seen in other ways, such as the impact of a great save in a soccer match. RiskRepresents the degree of uncertainty in the organizations activities. Using these parameters, they were able to suggest four classifications of organizational culture:
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The Tough-Guy Macho Culture, feedback is quick and the rewards are high. This often applies to fast moving financial activities such as brokerage, but could also apply to a police force, or athletes competing in team sports. This can be a very stressful culture in which to operate. The Work Hard/Play Hard Culture is characterized by few risks being taken, all with rapid feedback. This is typical in large organizations, which strive for high quality customer service. It is often characterized by team meetings, jargon and buzzwords. The Bet your Company Culture, where big stakes decisions are taken, but it may be years before the results are known. Typically, these might involve development or exploration projects, which take years to come to fruition, such as oil prospecting or military aviation. The Process Culture occurs in organizations where there is little or no feedback. People become bogged down with how things are done not with what is to be achieved. This is often associated with bureaucracies. While it is easy to criticize these cultures for being overly cautious or bogged down in red tape, they do produce a consistent result, which is ideal in, for example, public services. Charles Handy (1985) popularized the 1972 work of Roger Harrison of looking at culture which some scholars have used to link organizational structure to organizational culture. He describes Harrisons four types thus:

Power Culture which concentration of power among a few. Herein Control radiates from the center like a web. Power and influence spread out from a central figure or a group. Power desires from the top person and personal relationships with that individual matters more than any formal title of position. Power Cultures have few rules and little bureaucracy. In a Role Culture, people have clearly delegated authorities within a highly defined structure. Typically, these organizations form hierarchical bureaucracies. Power derives from a persons position and little scope exists for expert power. Controlled by procedures, roles descriptions and authority definitions. Predictable and consistent systems and procedures are highly valued. By contrast, in a Task Culture, teams are formed to solve particular problems. Power derives from expertise as long as a team requires expertise. These cultures often feature the multiple reporting lines of a matrix structure. It is all a small team approach, who are highly skilled and specialist in their own markets of experience.

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A Person Culture exists where all individuals believe themselves superior to the organization. Survival can become difficult for such organizations, since the concept of an organization suggests that a group of like-minded individuals pursue the organizational goals. Some professional partnerships can operate as person cultures, because each partner brings a particular expertise and clientele to the firm. Edgar Schein (1985-2005) Defines organizational culture as:

A pattern of shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way you perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems. According to Schein, culture is the most difficult organizational attribute to change, outlasting organizational products, services, founders and leadership and all other physical attributes of the organization. His organizational model illuminates culture from the standpoint of the Observer, described by three cognitive levels of organizational culture. At the first and most cursory level of Scheins model is organizational attributes that can be seen, felt and heard by the uninitiated observercollectively known as artifacts. Included are the facilities, offices, furnishings, visible awards and recognition, the way that its members dress, how each person visibly interacts with each other and with organizational outsiders, and even company slogans, mission statements and other operational creeds. The next level deals with the professed culture of an organizations members the values . At this level, local and personal values are widely expressed within the organization. Organizational behavior at this level usually can be studied by interviewing the organizations membership and using questionnaires to gather attitudes about organizational membership. At the third and deepest level, the organizations tacit assumptions are found. These are the elements of culture that are unseen and not cognitively identified in everyday interactions between organizational members. Additionally, these are the elements of culture which are often taboo to discuss inside the organization. Many of these unspoken rules exist without the conscious knowledge of the membership. Those with sufficient experience to understand this deepest level of organizational culture usually become acclimatized to its attributes over time, thus reinforcing the invisibility of their existence. Surveys and casual interviews with organizational members cannot draw out these attributesrather much more in-depth means is required to first identify
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then understand organizational culture at this level. Notably, culture at this level is the underlying and driving element often missed by organizational behaviorists. Using Scheins model, understanding paradoxical organizational behaviors becomes more apparent. For instance, an organization can profess highly aesthetic and moral standards at the second level of Scheins model while simultaneously displaying curiously opposing behavior at the third and deepest level of culture. Superficially, organizational rewards can imply one organizational norm but at the deepest level imply something completely different. This insight offers an understanding of the difficulty that organizational newcomers have in assimilating organizational culture and why it takes time to become acclimatized. It also explains why organizational change agents usually fail to achieve their goals: underlying tacit cultural norms are generally not understood before would-be change agents begin their actions. Merely understanding culture at the deepest level may be insufficient to institute cultural change because the dynamics of interpersonal relationships (often under threatening conditions) are added to the dynamics of organizational culture while attempts are made to institute desired change. Elements G. Johnson (1988) described a cultural web, identifying a number of elements that can be used to describe or influence Organizational Culture: The Paradigm: What the organization is about; what it does; its mission; its values. Control Systems: The processes in place to monitor what is going on. Role cultures would have vast rulebooks. There would be more reliance on individualism in a power culture. Organizational Structures: Reporting lines, hierarchies, and the way that work flows through the business. Power Structures: Who makes the decisions, how widely spread is power, and on what is power based? Symbols : These include organizational logos and designs, but also extend to symbols of power such as parking spaces and executive washrooms. Rituals and Routines : Management meetings, board reports and so on may become more habitual than necessary. Stories and Myths: Build up about people and events, and convey a message about what is valued within the organization.

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These elements may overlap. Power structures may depend on control systems, which may exploit the very rituals that generate stories which may not be true. Leadership has been described as the process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. Definitions more inclusive of followers have also emerged. Alan Keith stated that, Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making something extraordinary. Leader is a person who influences a group of people towards the achievement of a goal, a person who rules or guides or inspires others. A simple definition of leadership is that leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal, in simple term the leader is the inspiration and director of the action. He or she is the person in the group that possesses the combination of personality and skills that makes others want to follow his or her direction. Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education, training and experience. To inspire the workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things the leader must be, know, and, do. BE a professional. Examples: Be loyal to the organization, perform selfless service, take personal responsibility. BE a professional who possess good character traits. Examples: Honesty, competence, candor, commitment, integrity, courage, straightforwardness, imagination. KNOW the four factors of leadershipfollower, leader, communication, situation. KNOW yourself. Examples: strengths and weakness of your character, knowledge, and skills. KNOW human nature. Examples: Human needs, emotions, and how people respond to stress. KNOW your job. Examples: be proficient and be able to train others in their tasks. KNOW your organization. Examples: where to go for help, its climate and culture, who the unofficial leaders are.

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DO provide direction. Examples: goal setting, problem solving, decision making, planning. DO implement. Examples: communicating, coordinating, supervising, evaluating. DO motivate. Examples: develop morale and esprit de corps in the organization, train, coach, counsel. So, in simple term: what they are [be] (such as beliefs and character). what they know (such as job, tasks, and human nature). What they do (such as implementing, motivating, and providing direction). THE KEY TO EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP Effective leaders multiply the roots of the vision. If you have the wrong person in leadership the vision becomes corrupted and birth defects are the result. Below are ten characteristics of an effective leader to help you gauge yourself and others: Listen twice as much as you speak. Encourage people to take risks, Assess the facts before making a decision, Demand accountability of yourself and others, Expect people to do their best, Respect those under and above you. Solve problems with action, Honor your word, Include others in the process, Praise publicly, criticize and correct privately. Each letter in the word leadership shines a light on qualities that define a leader: Principles of Leadership When people decide to respect you as a leader, they observe what you do so they can know who you really are. People then use this observation to tell if you are an honorable and trusted leader, or a self-serving person who misuses authority. A good leader has an honorable character that selflessly serves his/her organization. In your employees eyes, your leadership is everything. Your activities affect the organizations objectives and their well-being. 1. Know yourself and seek self-improvementIn order to know yourself, you have to understand your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking self-improvement means continually strengthening your attributes. This can be accomplished through self-study, formal classes, reflection, and interacting with others. Be technically proficientAs a leader, you must know your job and have a solid familiarity with your employees tasks.

2.

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3.

Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actionsSearch for ways to guide your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, they always do sooner or laterdo not blame others. Analyze the situation, take corrective action, and move on to the next challenge. Make sound and timely decisionsUse good problem solving, decision making, and planning tools.

4.

Set the ExampleBe a good role model for your employees. They must not only 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Hear what they are expected to do, but also see. We must become the change we want to seeMahatma Gandhi Know your people and look out for their well-beingKnow human nature and the importance of sincerely caring for your workers. Keep your workers informedKnow how to communicate with not only them, but also seniors and other key people. Develop a sense of responsibility in your workersHelp to develop good character traits that will help them carry out their professional responsibilities. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished Communication is the key to this responsibility. Train as a team Although many so called leaders call their organization, department, section, etc. a team; they are not really teams...they are just a group of people doing their jobs. Use the full capabilities of your organizationBy developing a team spirit, you will be able to employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its fullest capabilities.

7.

The Process of Great Leadership 1. 2. 3. 4. Inspire a shared visionNext, share you vision in words that can be understood by your followers. Challenge the process First, find a process that you believe needs to be improved the most. Enable others to act Give them the tools, authority and methods to solve problems themselves. Model the wayWhen the process gets tough, get your hands dirty. A boss tells others what to do; a leader shows it can be done.
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5.

Encourage the heartShare the glory with your followers heart, keep the pains in your heart.

Human Relations: The six most important words: I admit I made a mistake. The five most important words: You did a good job. The four most important words: What is your opinion? The three most important words: If you please. The two most important words: Thank you. The one most important word: We The least important word: I. Work Motivation Work Motivation is a process to energize employee to the work goal through a specific path. There are a number of different views as to what motivates workers. The most commonly held views or theories are discussed below and have been developed over the last 100 years or so. Unfortunately these theories do not all reach the same conclusions! Frederick Winslow Taylor (18561917) put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management argued the following: Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as efficiently as possible on one set task. Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time-piece-rate pay. As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximize their productivity. Taylors methods were widely adopted as businesses saw the benefits of increased productivity levels and lower unit costs. The most notably advocate was Henry Ford who used them to design the first ever production line, making Ford cars. This was the start of the era of mass production. Taylors approach has close links with the concept of an autocratic management style (Managers take all the decisions and simply give orders to those below them) and Macgregors Theory X approach to workers (workers are viewed as lazy and wish to avoid responsibility).
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However, workers soon came to dislike Taylors approach as they were only given boring, repetitive tasks to carry out and were being treated little better than human machines. Firms could also afford to lay off workers as productivity levels increased. This led to an increase in strikes and other forms of industrial action by disatisfied workers. Elton Mayo (18801949) believed that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work (something that Taylor ignored). He introduced the Human Relation School of thought, which focused on managers taking more of an interest in the workers, treating them as people who have worthwhile opinions and realizing that workers enjoy interacting together. Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorne factory of the Western Electric Company in Chicago He isolated two groups of women workers and studied the effect on their productivity levels of changing factors such as lighting and working conditions. He expected to see productivity levels decline as lighting or other conditions became progressively worse. What he actually discovered surprised him: whatever the change in lighting or working conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or remained the same. From this Mayo concluded that workers are best motivated by: Better communication between managers and workers (Hawthorne workers were consulted over the experiments and also had the opportunity to give feedback) Greater manager involvement in employees working lives (Hawthorne workers responded to the increased level of attention they were receiving) Working in groups or teams. (Hawthorne workers did not previously regularly work in teams) In practice therefore businesses should re-organise production to encourage greater use of team working and introduce personnel departments to encourage greater manager involvement in looking after employees interests. His theory most closely fits in with a paternalistic style of management. Abraham Maslow (19081970) along with Frederick Herzberg (1923) introduced the Neo-Human Relations School in the 1950s, which focused on the psychological
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needs of employees. Maslow put forward a theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work. All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy (see below) and only once a lower level of need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied. For example, a person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to achieve a basic wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure job contract or the respect of others. A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy (see below). Managers should also recognize that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker to worker. Frederick Herzberg (1923) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (Motivators). However there were also factors that would de-motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (Hygiene factors). Motivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. For instance how interesting the work is and how much opportunity it gives for extra responsibility, recognition and promotion. Hygiene factors are factors which surround the job rather than the job itself. For example, a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there. Importantly, Herzberg viewed pay as a hygiene factor which is in direct contrast to Taylor who viewed pay and piece-rate in particular. Herzberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through certain methods. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are: Job enlargementworkers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting. Job enrichmentinvolves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of achievement.
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Empowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over areas of their working life. Approaches to Work Motivation There are many different forces behind a motivated employee, like money, status, and challenging but achievable goals. Employee motivation is a central problem for leaders and managers, as an unmotivated employee is unlikely to expend much effort in the job, producing low-quality work. Frederick W. Taylor, founder of the scientific managerial method, advocated the use of scientifically designed incentives. Motivation is not an exact science: Multiple theories are available that propose sometimes contradictory, but often complementary, approaches toward work motivation. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivators 1. Intrinsic motivation leads to people performing an activity because they find it engaging, and derive spontaneous satisfaction from its performance. In contrast, extrinsic motivation comes from the consequences of the activity, such as material rewards or status acquired. Thus, total work satisfaction calls for a work environment where effective performance leads to both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

Job Characteristics Theory 2. If intrinsic motivators are to be built into the workplace, it is necessary to understand the factors behind an optimally designed job. In 1980, Hackman and Oldham posited a model according to which there are five core attributes required for job satisfaction: personal significance; variety; feedback; responsibility and autonomy; and identity (meaning that the worker can identify a particular piece of work that exists as a result of his efforts).

Goal-setting Theory 3. In 1990, Locke and Lantham advanced a goal-setting theory of motivation, suggesting that motivation comes from represented goals. According to their model, performance is maximized when the worker has specific, difficult goals whose competition is clearly valuable, given that they understand the behaviors that will lead to those goals, and that they feel competent to do those.

Equity Theory 4. Individuals are not only concerned with the absolute amount of rewards they receive for their efforts, but also with what they receive compared to others. The
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equity theory first developed by J.S. Adams asserts that employees will evaluate their inputs, like effort, education and competence, and compare them with outcomes as salary levels and recognition. When the worker perceives an imbalance in his input-output ratios relative to others within or beyond the organization, tension is created. Thus, the challenge for organizations is to create reward systems that are perceived to be fair and equitable. CONCLUSION This study seeks to investigate the association between different types of organizational culture and leadership behaviors and organizational commitment, job satisfaction and employee performance. Since time immoral culture has been playing a phenomenal role in understanding the social inherited body of learning characteristics of human society and groups. Organizational culture becomes a metaphor for understanding the organization when viewed as embedded in the wider socio cultural system. It can be seen alternatively as an organizational variable with in the organizational context, as a tool to be managed to achieve better control and organizational effectiveness. Culture plays an important role in the lives of organizational members, revolves around in a set of shared values, beliefs, myths, tradition and norms of meanings, it helps to promote organizational objectives. The culture of an organization as Hunt (1986) claims, is the collective of shared values, ideologies and beliefs including the transmitting media of language, stories, symbols, myths and legends and manifestation of those values in rituals, rites and ceremonies. Organizational culture can be described as a conceptualization through which characterizes and interpret the collectives that ultimately lead to work motivation. Culture is not just a buzz word, rather, it is a rich construct for understanding OB, OD, HRD and HRM. References
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