Q1. What are the advantages of database system? Explain them briefly. Jan Feb 200 !

! J"l 200# Controlling Redundancy: Storing same data multiple times leads to several problems. First, there is need to perform single logical update multiple times. Second, storage space is wasted when the same data is stored repeatedly. Third, files that represent the same data may become inconsistent. This may happen because an update is applied to some of the files but not to others. In the database approach, the views of different user groups are integrated during database design so that it stores each logical data item such as name or birth date in only one place in the database. This does not permit any inconsistency ! it saves storage space. "# Restricting $nauthori%ed &ccess: 'hen multiple users share a database, ()& can define authori%ation chec*s li*e passwords to be carried out whenever access to sensitive data is attempted. (ifferent chec*s can be established for each type of access +retrieve, modify, delete, etc# to each piece of information in the database. ,# -ersistent Storage for ob.ects ! (ata Structures: /b.ects in an ob.ect oriented program language e0ist only during the program e0ecution. &n ob.ect oriented database provides capabilities so that ob.ects can be created to e0ist permanently or persist ! be shared by numerous programs. 1ence ob.ect oriented database +//()# store persistent ob.ects permanently on secondary storage ! allow the sharing of these ob.ects among multiple programs ! applications. 2# (atabase Inferencing $sing (eduction Rules: (atabase systems provide capabilities for defining deduction rules for inferencing new information from the stored database facts. Such systems are called as deductive database systems. 30ample: There may be comple0 rules for determining when a student is on probation. These can be specified declaratively as deduction rules which when e0ecuted can determine all students on probation. 4# -roviding 5ultiple $ser Interfaces )ecause many types of users use the database, a ()5S should provide a variety of user interfaces. These include 6uery languages for casual users, programming language interfaces for application programmers, forms ! command codes for parametric users ! menu driven interfaces for stand alone users. 7# Representing Comple0 Relationships among (ata: & (atabase may include numerous varieties of data that are interrelated in many ways. & ()5S must have the capability to represent a variety of comple0 relationships among data easily ! efficiently. 8# 3nforcing Integrity Constraints: 5ost database applications have certain integrity constraints that must hold for data. The simplest type of integrity constraint involves specifying a data type for each data item. 9# -roviding )ac* up ! Recovery: & ()5S must provide facilities for recovering from hardware ! software failures. The bac*up ! recovery sub systems of the ()5S is responsible for recovery. Q2$ %efine %&'(. %e)* Jan 200+ &ns: & database management +()5S# is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The ()5S is hence a general purpose software system that facilitates the process of defining, constructing manipulating and sharing databases for various applications. %efining a database involves specifying the data types, structures and constraints for the data to be stored in the database. ,onstr")ting the database is the process of storing the data itself on some storage media that is controlled

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by the ()5S. 'anip"lating a database includes function such as 6uerying the database to retrieve specific data, updating the database and generating reports from the data. Q-. What are the f"n)tions of %&.. Jan Feb 200/! J"l 200#! J"n*J"l 200+ (atabase administrators: In any organi%ations where many persons use the same resources, there is a need for a chief administrator to oversee ! manage these resources. In a database environment, the primary resource is the database itself ! the secondary resource is the ()5S ! related software. &dministrating these resources is the responsibility of (atabase &dministrator +()&#. The ()& is responsible for authori%ing access to the database, for coordinating ! monitoring its use ! for ac6uiring software ! hardware resources as needed. The ()& is accountable for problems such as breach of security or poor system response time. Q0. 1ame the different types of end "sers. &ns: 3nd users are the persons who access the database for 6uerying, updating ! generating reports. The following are the distinct categories of end users. a# Casual 3nd $sers: They occasionally access the database but they may need different information each time. 30: 5iddle ! high level managers or other occasional browsers. b# :a;ve or -arametric 3nd users: They constantly 6uery ! update the database using standard 6ueries ! updates called ,anned 2ransa)tions that have been carefully programmed ! tested. 30: )an* tellers chec* balances, post withdrawals ! deposits, Reservation cler*s for airlines, hotels etc. c# Sophisticated 3nd $sers: This category includes engineers, scientists, business analysts! others who thoroughly familiari%e themselves with the facilities of ()5S so as to meet their re6uirements. d# Stand &lone $sers: They maintain personal databases using ready made program pac*ages that provide easy to use menu ! graphics based interfaces. 30: The user of ta0 pac*age that stores a variety of personal financial data for ta0 purpose Q $ What are the )hara)teristi)s of %atabase approa)h? &ns: Following are the characteristics of database approach: ".Self describing nature of a database system ,.Insulation between programs ! data , data abstraction 2.Support for multiple views of the data <.Sharing of data ! multiuser transaction processing
Self describing nature of a database system: & ()5S )atalog stores the description of the database. The description is called meta*data#. This allows the ()5S software to wor* with different databases. Insulation between programs and data: Called programdata independen)e. &llows changing data storage structures and operations without having to change the ()5S access programs. (ata &bstraction: & data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a conceptual view of the database. Support of multiple views of the data: 3ach user may see a different view of the database, which describes only the data of interest to that user.

Sharing of data and multi user transaction processing : allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve and to update the database. Concurrency control within the ()5S guarantees that each transa)tion is correctly e0ecuted or completely aborted. /=T- +/nline Transaction -rocessing# is a ma.or part of database applications.

Q/. With a neat blo)3 diagram! explain -*()hema ar)hite)t"re of %&'(. J"l ."g 200 ! J"l 200/ &ns: Following figure depicts the 2 Schema architecture of ()5S

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30ternal ?iew "

3nd $sers @@@@@@

30ternal ?iew n

30ternal A conceptual 5apping Conceptual Schema

C/:C3-T$&= =3?3= Conceptual A internal 5apping

Internal

Schema

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Stored (atabase ". The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the physical storage structure of the database. The internal schema uses physical data model and describes the complete details of data storage ! access path for the database. ,. The conceptual level has a conceptual schema which describes the structure of the whole database for a community of users. The conceptual schema hides the details of physical storage structures ! describes entities, data types, relationships, user operation ! constraints. 2. The e0ternal or view level includes a number of e0ternal schemas or user views. 3ach e0ternal schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested in ! hides the rest of the database from that user group. & high level data model or an implementation data model can be used at this level. Q#$ %efine data independen)e. .lso explain its types. &ns:(ata independence can be defined as the capacity to change the schema at one level of the database system without having to change the schema at the ne0t higher level. There are , types of data independence.

". =ogical (ata Independence: ItBs the capacity to change the conceptual schema without having to change e0ternal schemas or application programs. Conceptual schema may change, to e0pand the database or to reduce the database the database. In either case only the view definition ! the mapping need to be changed in a ()5S that supports logical data independence. &pplication program that references the e0ternal schema constructs wor* as before after the conceptual schema undergoes a logical reorgani%ation. ,. -hysical (ata Independence : ItBs the capacity to change to the interval schema without having to change the conceptual ! e0ternal schemas. Changes to the internal schema may be needed because some physical files had to be reorgani%ed. 30: )y creating additional access structure to improve the performance of retrieval or update. Q+$ %efine the terms i4 %%5 ii4 %'5 iii4 6ost 5ang"age iv4 %ata ("blang"age &ns: (ata (efinition =anguage +((=#: ((= is used +by the ()& ! by database designers# to define both schemas. The ()5S will have a ((= compiler which process ((= statements in order to identify description of the schema constructs ! to store schema description in the ()5S catalog. (ata 5anipulation =anguage +(5=#: There are two main types of (5=s. & 1igh C =evel or :on C -rocedural (5= can be used on its own to specify comple0 database operations in a concise manner. 1igh level (5= statements can be either entered interactively from a terminal or to be embedded in a general purpose programming language. 1igh level (5=s can specify ! retrieve many records in a single statement ! are hence called set*at*a time or set*oriented (5=s. =ow level or procedural (5= must be embedded in a general purpose programming language. This type of (5= retrieves individual records from the database ! processes each record separately. )ecause of this property they are also called as re)ord*at*a*time (5=s. (ata Sub =anguage ! 1ost =anguage :'henever (5= commands +whether high level or low level# are embedded in a general purpose programming language, that language is called host lang"age ! (5= is called data s"blang"age. DIn never ()5Ss such as E.E. systems the host ! data sublanguages typically form are integrated languages such as cFFG. Q7$ 5ist o"t the vario"s interfa)es s"pported by %&'( J"n*J"l 200+ &ns: 5enu )ased Interface: These interfaces present the user with lists of options called menus, which lead the user through the formation of a re6uest. Hraphical Interfaces: & graphical interface displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic form. The user can then specify a 6uery by manipulating the diagram. In many cases, graphical interfaces are combined with menus. Forms )ased Interfaces: It displays a form to each user. $ser can fill out all of the form entries to insert new data or they fill out only certain entries in which case the ()5S will retrieve matching data for the remaining entries. 5any ()5Ss have special languages called forms. :atural =anguage Interfaces: These interfaces accept re6uests written in english or some other language ! attempt understand them. & natural language interface usually has its own schema which is similar to the database conceptual schema. The interface refers to the words in its schema as well as to a set of standard words in interpreting the re6uest. If the interpretation is successful, the interface generates a high level 6uery corresponding to the natural language re6uest ! submits it to the ()5S for processing. /therwise user will be as*ed to classify the re6uest.

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Interface for -arametric $sers: -arametric users such as ban* tellers often have a small set of operations that they must perform repeatedly. 1ere usually function *eys in a terminal are programmed to initiate various commands this allows the parametric user to proceed with a minimal number of *ey stro*es. Interface for ()&: 5ost database systems contain privileged commands that can be used only by the ()& staff. These include commands for creating accounts, setting system parameters, granting account authori%ation, changing a schema ! reorgani%ing the storage structure of a database.

Q10$ Explain %&'( )omponent mod"le along 8ith its diagram. Jan Feb 200 ! J"n*J"l 200+ &ns: The following fig. illustrates typical ()5S components.
&pplication -rogram Casual users &pplication -rogrammers -arametric $sers

()& Staff

-recompiler

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Statement

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Interactive Iuery

1ost =anguage compiler

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Stored (ata 5anager

Concurrency control A bac*up Recovery subsystems

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The database ! the ()5S catalog are stored on dis*. &ccess to dis* is controlled by o.s. which schedules dis* inputAout put. The stored data manager of ()5S controls access to ()5S information stored on dis*, whether its part of database or of the catalog. The dotted lines ! circles mar*ed by &, ), C, ( ! 3 in the fig. illustrate accesses that are under the control of this stored data manager. The ((= compiler process schema definitions specified in the ((= ! stores 5eta C data in the ()5S catalog. The run time data processor handles database accesses at run time. It receives different operations ! carries them out on the database. The 6uery compiler handles high level 6ueries that are entered interactively. It passes ! analy%es a 6uery ! then generates calls to the run time processor for e0ecuting the re6uest. The precompiler e0tracts (5= commands from an application program written in a host programming language. These commands are sent to the (5= compiler for compilation into ob.ect code for database access. The rest of the program is sent to the host language compiler. The ob.ect codes for the (5= commands ! the rest of the program are lin*ed forming a canned transaction whose e0ecutable code includes calls to the run time database processor.

Q11$ %efine the terms i4 %ata model ii4 ()hema iii4 9nstan)e. Jan Feb 200 &ns: (ata 5odel: & data model is the set of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a data
structure. The structure of a database includes the data type, relationships ! constraints that should hold for data.

Schema: The description of a database is called the %atabase ()hemas or 'etadata which is specified
during database design and is not e0pected to change fre6uently. 'hen a schema is displayed diagrammatically, it is called schema diagram. Instance: The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called a %atabase (tate or :))"rren)e or 9nstan)es or snap shot. Q12$ 1ame the different database "tilities. &ns: ": =oading: & loading utility is used to load e0isting data files such as te0t files or se6uential files into the (atabase. $sually the source format of the data file ! the target data file structure are specified to the utility which then automatically reformats the data ! stores it in the database. ,: )ac*up: & bac*up utility creates a bac*up copy of the database which can be used to restore the (atabase in case of any failure. 2: File Reorgani%ation: This utility can be used to reorgani%e a database file into a different file organi%ation to improve performance. <: -erformance 5onitoring: Such a utility monitors database usage ! provides statistics to the ()&. The ()& use the statistics in ma*ing decisions such as whether or not to reorgani%e files to improve performance. 4: (ata (ictionary System: It stores information such as schemas, constraints, design decision, application description !

user information. & combined catalogA data dictionary which can be accessed by both users ! the ()5S is called data directory or an active data directory. & data dictionary that can be accessed by users ! the ()& but not by the ()5S is called passive data directory. 7. Communication Facilities: The ()5S can also be interfaced with communication software, whose function is to allow user at remote locations from the database system site to access the database through computer terminals, wor*stations etc. these are connected to the database site through data communications hardware such as phone lines, long haul networ*s or satellite communication devices. The integrated ()5S ! data communication system is called a db A dc system.

Q1-$ Write a note on )lassifi)ation of %&'(. &ns:

()5Ss are categori%ed as relational networ* hierarchical ! ob.ect oriented based on the data model that ()5S is using. The second criterion used to classify is the number of users supported by the system. Single user systems support only one user at a time. 'hile multi user systems support many users concurrently. & third criterion is the number of sites over which the database is distributed. Centrali%ed ()5S: their data is stored at a single computer site & distributed ()5S +(()5S# can have the actual database ! ()5S software distributed over many sites, connected by a computer networ*. 1omogeneous (()5Ss use the same ()5S software at multiple sites, ()5Ss can be also classified on the basis of types of access path options available for storing files. 30. ()5S based on inverted file structures. 'hen ()5S is designed ! built for a specific application itBs called special purpose ()5S. It can not be used for other application. 30: &irline reservations, telephone directory system etc. In such cases, ()5S is also called as :n line transaction processing +/=T-# systems.

Q10$ 8rite a short note on %ata model. &ns: & data model is the set of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a data structure.
The structure of a database includes the data type, relationships ! constraints that should hold for data. 5ost data models include a set of basic operation for specifying retrievals ! update on the data base &nd behavior which refers to specifying a set of valid user defined operation that are allowed on the database. (ata models are categori%ed based on the types of concepts they provide to describe the database structure. 1igh =evel or Conceptual data models provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data. 1igh level models use concepts such as entities, attributes ! relationships.

=ow =evel or -hysical data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data is stored in the computer. -hysical data models describe how data is stored in the computer by representing information such as record formats, record orderings ! access paths. Representational or implementation data models provide concepts that may be understood by end users but that are not too for removed from the way data is organi%ed within the computer. Representational data model hide some details of data storage +but can be implemented on a computer system in a direct way#. Representational data models include 2 most widely used data models C relational, networ* ! hierarchical. They represent data by using record structures ! have are some times called record C based data models. Q1 $ Write a note on .)tors on the s)ene. .ns$ (atabase administrators: responsible for authori%ing access to the database, for co coordinating and monitoring its use, ac6uiring software and hardware resources, controlling its use and monitoring efficiency of operations. (atabase (esigners: responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints, and functions or transactions against the database. They must communicate with the end users and understand their needs. 3nd users: they use the data for 6ueries, reports and some of them actually update the database content. Q1/$ What are the impli)ations of "sing data base approa)h? &ns: -otential for enforcing standards: this is very crucial for the success of database applications in large organi%ations Standards refer to data item names, display formats, screens, report structures, meta data +description of data# etc. Reduced application development time: incremental time to add each new application is reduced. Fle0ibility to change data structures: database structure may evolve as new re6uirements are defined. &vailability of up to date information C very important for on line transaction systems such as airline, hotel, car reservations. 3conomies of scale: by consolidating data and applications across departments wasteful overlap of resources and personnel can be avoided.