INTRODUCTION

Earthquake

Earthquake, shaking of the Earths surface caused by rapid movement of the Earths rocky outer layer. Earthquakes occur when energy stored within the Earth, usually in the form of strain in rocks, suddenly releases. This energy is transmitted to the surface of the Earth by earthquake waves. The study of earthquakes and the waves they create is called seismology (from the Greek seismos, to shake). Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists. The destruction an earthquake causes depends on its magnitude and duration, or the amount of shaking that occurs. A structures design and the materials used in its construction also affect the amount of damage the structure incurs. Earthquakes vary from small, imperceptible shaking to large shocks felt over thousands of kilometers. Earthquakes can deform the ground, make buildings and other structures collapse, and create tsunamis (large sea waves). Lives may be lost in the resulting destruction.

National Earthquake Information Center Glossary Terms Earthquakes, or seismic tremors, occur at a rate of several hundred per day around the world. A worldwide network of seismographs (machines that record movements of the Earth) detects about 1 million small earthquakes per year. Very large earthquakes, such as the 1964 Alaskan earthquake, which caused millions of dollars in damage, occur worldwide once every few years. Moderate earthquakes, such as the 1989 tremor in Loma Prieta, California, and the 1995 tremor in Kbe, Japan, occur about 20 times a year. Moderate earthquakes also cause millions of dollars in damage and can harm many people.

In the last 500 years, several million people have been killed by earthquakes around the world, including over 240,000 in the 1976 Tang-Shan, China, earthquake. Worldwide, earthquakes have also caused severe property and structural damage. Adequate precautions, such as education, emergency planning, and constructing stronger, more flexible, safely designed structures, can limit the loss of life and decrease the damage caused by earthquakes. II. ANATOMY OF AN EARTHQUAKE

A.

Focus and Epicenter

Earthquake Sidebars WORLD OF SCIENCE Plate Tectonics: This Changing Earth Plate tectonics, the theory that the earths crust is a patchwork of moving plates, came together in the 1950s and 1960s like a connect-the-dot puzzle. It explained why volcanoes ring the Pacific Ocean, why the tallest mountains are composed of rock created on the ocean floor, and whyand wherethere are earthquakes. It accounts for the very shape of the continents and for the depths of the oceans. In this 1973 article, National Geographic staff writer Samuel Matthews tracked the emergence of what had already become geologic gospel. Although earth scientists have learned a great deal more about plate tectonics since 1973, Matthewss article still adequately describes many of the important findings that transformed earth science forever. open sidebar

B.

Faults

Fault

San Andreas Fault, California The San Andreas Fault emerges from the Pacific Ocean and traverses hundreds of miles of land. It runs through California for about 1000 km (about 600 mi) from Point Arena to the Imperial Valley. The fault marks the boundary between the North American and Pacific tectonic plates.

C.

Waves

Sidebars POINTS OF THE COMPASS 1989 Earthquake This article from National Geographic examines the damage caused by the San Francisco earthquake of 1989, and the new techniques seismologists are using to study such quakes. open sidebar III. CAUSES

A. Elastic Rebound Theory

In 1911 American seismologist Harry Fielding Reid studied the effects of the April 1906 California earthquake. He proposed the elastic rebound theory to explain the generation of certain earthquakes that scientists now know occur in tectonic areas, usually near plate boundaries. This theory states that during an earthquake, the rocks under strain suddenly break, creating a fracture along a fault. When a fault slips, movement in the crustal rock causes vibrations. The slip changes the local strain out into the surrounding rock. The change in strain leads to aftershocks (smaller earthquakes that occur after the initial earthquake),

which are produced by further slips of the main fault or adjacent faults in the strained region. The slip begins at the focus and travels along the plane of the fault, radiating waves out along the rupture surface. On each side of the fault, the rock shifts in opposite directions. The fault rupture travels in irregular steps along the fault; these sudden stops and starts of the moving rupture give rise to the vibrations that propagate as seismic waves. After the earthquake, strain begins to build again until it is greater than the forces holding the rocks together, then the fault snaps again and causes another earthquake. B. Human Activities

Fault rupture is not the only cause of earthquakes; human activities can also be the direct or indirect cause of significant earthquakes. Injecting fluid into deep wells for waste disposal, filling reservoirs with water, and firing underground nuclear test blasts can, in limited circumstances, lead to earthquakes. These activities increase the strain within the rock near the location of the activity so that rock slips and slides along pre-existing faults more easily. While earthquakes caused by human activities may be harmful, they can also provide useful information. Prior to the Nuclear Test Ban treaty, scientists were able to analyze the travel and arrival times of P waves from known earthquakes caused by underground nuclear test blasts. Scientists used this information to study earthquake waves and determine the interior structure of the Earth. Scientists have determined that as water level in a reservoir increases, water pressure in pores inside the rocks along local faults also increases. The increased pressure may cause the rocks to slip, generating earthquakes. Beginning in 1935, the first detailed evidence of reservoirinduced earthquakes came from the filling of Lake Mead behind Hoover Dam on the NevadaArizona state border. Earthquakes were rare in the area prior to construction of the dam, but seismographs registered at least 600 shallow-focus earthquakes between 1936 and 1946. Most reservoirs, however, do not cause earthquakes. IV. DISTRIBUTION

A. Tectonic Earthquakes

Tectonic earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy stored within the rocks along a fault. The released energy is produced by the strain on the rocks due to movement within the Earth, called tectonic deformation. The effect is like the sudden breaking and snapping back of a stretched elastic band. B. Volcanic Earthquakes Sidebars SIDEBAR

Cascadia: Living on Fire The Pacific Northwest evokes images of forests and mist-shrouded coves, of snowy peaks and rivers teeming with salmon. But as National Geographic writer Rick Gore discovered, the inviting scenery belies a turbulent geologic foundation. Cascadia is the name geologists have adopted for the Pacific Northwest: a land shaped by active tectonic forces and poised for destructive earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic mudslides. In this 1998 article, Gore follows researchers from Californias Mount Shasta to an isolated coastal settlement in Canadas British Columbia to learn about Cascadias past and its uncertain future. open sidebar Volcanic earthquakes occur near active volcanoes but have the same fault slip mechanism as tectonic earthquakes. Volcanic earthquakes are caused by the upward movement of magma under the volcano, which strains the rock locally and leads to an earthquake. As the fluid magma rises to the surface of the volcano, it moves and fractures rock masses and causes continuous tremors that can last up to several hours or days. Volcanic earthquakes occur in areas that are associated with volcanic eruptions, such as in the Cascade Mountain Range of the Pacific Northwest, Japan, Iceland, and at isolated hot spots such as Hawaii. V. LOCATIONS

Locating Epicenters Locating Epicenters Seismologists can locate the epicenter of an earthquake by triangulation, a method that involves taking seismographic measurements from at least three separate seismic stations. Seismologists measure the time it takes seismic waves to reach the recording stations, as well as the magnitude of the waves, and triangulate the measurements to calculate the location of the epicenter.

Seismologists use global networks of seismographic stations to accurately map the focuses of earthquakes around the world. After studying the worldwide distribution of earthquakes, the pattern of earthquake types, and the movement of the Earths rocky crust, scientists proposed that plate tectonics, or the shifting of the plates as they move over another weaker rocky layer, was the main underlying cause of earthquakes. The theory of plate tectonics arose from several previous geologic theories and discoveries. Scientists now use the plate tectonics theory to describe the movement of the Earths plates and how this movement causes earthquakes. They also use the knowledge of plate tectonics to explain the locations of earthquakes, mountain formation, and deep ocean trenches, and to predict which areas will be damaged the most by earthquakes. It is clear that major earthquakes occur most frequently in areas with features that are found at plate boundaries: high mountain ranges and deep ocean trenches. Earthquakes within plates, or intraplate tremors, are rare compared with the thousands of earthquakes that occur at plate boundaries each year, but they can be very large and damaging. Earthquakes that occur in the area surrounding the Pacific Ocean, at the edges of the Pacific plate, are responsible for an average of 80 percent of the energy released in earthquakes worldwide. Japan is shaken by more than 1,000 tremors greater than 3.5 in magnitude each year. The western coasts of North and South America are also very active earthquake zones, with several thousand small to moderate earthquakes each year. Intraplate earthquakes are less frequent than plate boundary earthquakes, but they are still caused by the internal fracturing of rock masses. The New Madrid, Missouri, earthquakes of 1811 and 1812 were extreme examples of intraplate seismic events. Scientists estimate that the three main earthquakes of this series were about magnitude 8.0 and that there were at least 1,500 aftershocks. VI.EFFECTS Sidebars POINTS OF THE COMPASS Earthquake in Alaska, 1964 The March 27, 1964, earthquake in Alaska was one of the most destructive natural disasters in the states history, causing more than $500 million in damage and claiming over 100 lives. The disaster prompted extensive relief efforts by the federal government under President Lyndon B. Johnson. In this 1964 National Geographic article, staff writer William P. E. Graves reports on the earthquake and the survivors plans to rebuild in its aftermath. Some of the information in this article may not reflect current accounts of the earthquake. open sidebar A. Ground Shaking and Landslides

Earthquake Destruction

Earthquake Destruction In September 1985 a devastating earthquake shook Mexico City, Mexico, causing severe damage and destroying many of the citys buildings. The quake left at least 9,500 people dead and about 30,000 more homeless. Encarta Encyclopedia George Chan/Photo Researchers, Inc. Full Size Alaskan Earthquake The Alaskan earthquake of 1964 was rated 9.2 on the Richter scale. One of the most powerful earthquakes ever known to hit North America, it claimed 131 lives and devastated parts of Anchorage and Valdez. The quake liquefied foundations and left gaping cracks in the cement of this street. Encarta Encyclopedia Anchorage Museum of History and Art Full Size Loma Prieta Earthquake Centered south of San Francisco, the October 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake measured 7.1 on the Richter scale. The quake shook the entire San Francisco Bay Area, causing extensive damage to older buildings in the Marina District, shown here. The quake also caused the collapse of a highway in Oakland and part of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge.

Earthquake Effects A major earthquake hit Armenias second largest city, Leninakan (now Gyumri), in December 1988, killing thousands of people and leveling most of the citys tall buildings. More than 400,000 people were left homeless. SOVFOTO-EASTFOTO

Kbe Earthquake In January 1995 an expressway connecting Kbe with saka collapsed during the most deadly earthquake to hit Japan since 1923. The quake ignited firestorms and caused massive destruction in Kbe. In all, more than 6,400 people were killed and hundreds of thousands were left homeless.

Earthquake waves make the ground move, shaking buildings and causing poorly designed or weak structures to partially or totally collapse. The ground shaking weakens soils and foundation materials under structures and causes dramatic changes in fine-grained soils. During an earthquake, water-saturated sandy soil becomes like liquid mud, an effect called liquefaction. Liquefaction causes damage as the foundation soil beneath structures and buildings weakens. Shaking may also dislodge large earth and rock masses, producing dangerous landslides, mudslides, and rock avalanches that may lead to loss of lives or further property damage. B.Fire Sidebars HISTORIC HEADLINES San Francisco Earthquake Spreads Destruction This stunning account was one of the first to tell the rest of the nation about San Francisco's devastating earthquake. The quake and the resulting tidal wave and fire destroyed nearly all of San Francisco's city center. open sidebar Another post-earthquake threat is fire, such as the fires that happened in San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake and after the devastating 1923 Tokyo earthquake. In the 1923 earthquake, about 130,000 lives were lost in Tokyo, Yokohama, and other cities, many in firestorms fanned by high winds. The amount of damage caused by post-earthquake fire depends on the types of building materials used, whether water lines are intact, and whether natural gas mains have been broken. Ruptured gas mains may lead to numerous fires, and fire fighting cannot be effective if the water mains are not intact to transport water to the fires. Fires can be significantly reduced with pre-earthquake planning, fire-resistant building materials, enforced fire codes, and public fire drills. C. Tsunami Waves and Flooding

Tsunami

Tsunami A tsunami is a very large sea wave that is generated by a disturbance along the ocean floor. This disturbance can be an earthquake, a landslide, or a volcanic eruption. A tsunami is undetectable far out in the ocean, but once it reaches shallow water, this fasttraveling wave grows very large.

Historically Significant Tsunamis Earth movement, especially under the sea, can cause tsunamis, or large sea waves. Tsunamis can travel at very high rates of speed across hundreds of kilometers of ocean. When a tsunami reaches coastal regions, the wave size increases as the wave travels up from the deep ocean to the shallow coastal areas. Historically, tsunamis have caused much property destruction and loss of life.

Tsunami Wave A tsunami wave flows toward the shore after a small earthquake in the Sunda Strait of Indonesia. Tsunamis are often mistakenly called tidal waves, but they are not caused by the gravitational forces involved in tides. Instead, tsunamis are believed to be caused by a tilting of the ocean floor, undersea landslides, or undersea volcanic eruptions.

Along the coasts, sea waves called tsunamis that accompany some large earthquakes centered under the ocean can cause more death and damage than ground shaking. Tsunamis are usually made up of several oceanic waves that travel out from the slipped fault and arrive one after the other on shore. They can strike without warning, often in places very distant from the epicenter of the earthquake. Tsunami waves are sometimes inaccurately referred to as tidal waves, but tidal forces do not cause them. Rather, tsunamis occur when a major fault under the ocean floor suddenly slips. The displaced rock pushes water above it like a giant paddle, producing powerful water waves at the ocean surface. The ocean waves spread out from the vicinity of the earthquake source and move across the ocean until they reach the coastline, where their height increases as they reach the continental shelf, the part of the Earths crust that slopes, or rises, from the ocean floor up to the land. Tsunamis wash ashore with often disastrous effects such as severe flooding, loss of lives due to drowning, and damage to property.

Sidebars POINTS OF THE COMPASS Tsunami Devastates Japanese Coast On June 15, 1896, a tsunami (a seismic sea wave) caused by an undersea earthquake crashed against the shores of Sanriku, Japan, killing about more than 27,000 people. At first a tsunami moves quickly in the open ocean, with wave heights or amplitudes often no more than 91 cm (36 in) high. The wave grows in height as the ocean depth decreases near the shoreline, creating waves as high as 20m (50 ft), like some of those that struck Sanriku. In this article from the September 1896 issue of National Geographic, the author details the destruction caused by the tsunami along with the stories of those fortunate enough to survive it. open sidebar Earthquakes can also cause water in lakes and reservoirs to oscillate, or slosh back and forth. The water oscillations are called seiches (pronounced saysh). Seiches can cause retaining walls and dams to collapse and lead to flooding and damage downstream.

D.Disease

Catastrophic earthquakes can create a risk of widespread disease outbreaks, especially in underdeveloped countries. Damage to water supply lines, sewage lines, and hospital facilities as well as lack of housing may lead to conditions that contribute to the spread of contagious diseases, such as influenza (the flu) and other viral infections. In some instances, lack of food supplies, clean water, and heating can create serious health problems as well.

Volcano, mountain or hill formed by the accumulation of materials erupted through one or more openings (called volcanic vents) in the earth's surface. The term volcano can also refer to the vents themselves. Most volcanoes have steep sides, but some can be gently sloping mountains or even flat tablelands, plateaus, or plains. The volcanoes above sea level are the best known, but the vast majority of the world's volcanoes lie beneath the sea, formed along the global oceanic ridge systems that crisscross the deep ocean floor (see Plate Tectonics). According to the Smithsonian Institution, 1,511 above-sea volcanoes have been active during the past 10,000 years, 539 of them erupting one or more times during written history. On average, 50 to 60 above-sea volcanoes worldwide are active in any given year; about half of these are continuations of eruptions from previous years, and the rest are new.

Volcanic Eruption

Volcanic Eruption The 1983 eruption of Kilauea crater spilled molten, basaltic lava down the flanks of Mauna Loa volcano on Hawaii Island, Hawaii. Hawaiian volcanoes are examples of broad shield volcanoes that form from lava eruptions. Composite volcanoes form when lava eruptions alternate with violent ash eruptions. Encarta Encyclopedia Soames Summerhays/Photo Researchers, Inc. Full Size Erupting Lava Volcanic eruptions occur when magma, or molten rock, rises from deep within Earth. The magma, combined with volcanic gases, creates pressure beneath the surface. When the pressure becomes great enough, the volcano erupts and spews a range of materials, including liquid lava, volcanic gas, cinders and ash, and large rock fragments that are sometimes called bombs. Encarta Encyclopedia USGS-Hawaii Volcano Observatory/Corbis Full Size

Volcanic eruptions in populated regions are a significant threat to people, property, and agriculture. The danger is mostly from fast-moving, hot flows of explosively erupted materials, falling ash, and highly destructive lava flows and volcanic debris flows (see Volcano Hazards below). In addition, explosive eruptions, even from volcanoes in unpopulated regions, can eject ash high into the atmosphere, creating drifting volcanic ash clouds that pose a serious hazard to airplanes