Antenna (radio)

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Whip antenna on car

Diagram of the electric fields (blue) and magnetic fields (red) radiated by a dipole antenna (black rods) during transmission.

Large parabolic antenna for communicating with spacecraft

ooftop television antennas in !srael. "agi#$da antennas like these si% are widely used at &'F and $'F fre(uencies.

)n antenna *or aerial+ is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves, and vice versa. !t is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. !n transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio fre(uency electric current to the antenna,s terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves *radio waves+. !n reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. )n antenna can be used for both transmitting and receiving. )ntennas are essential components of all e(uipment that uses radio. -hey are used in systems such as radio broadcasting, broadcast television, two#way radio, communications receivers, radar, cell phones, and satellite communications, as well as other devices such as garage door openers, wireless microphones, bluetooth enabled devices, wireless computer networks, baby monitors, and F!D tags on merchandise. -ypically an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors *.elements.+, electrically connected *often through a transmission line+ to the receiver or transmitter. )n oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of the electrons also creates an oscillating electric field along the elements. -hese time#varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving electromagnetic field wave. /onversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio wave e%ert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth, creating oscillating currents in the antenna. )ntennas may also contain reflective or directive elements or surfaces not connected to the transmitter or receiver, such as parasitic elements, parabolic reflectors or horns, which serve to direct the radio waves into a beam or other desired radiation pattern. )ntennas can be designed to transmit or receive radio waves in all directions e(ually *omnidirectional antennas+, or transmit them in a beam in a particular direction, and receive from that one direction only *directional or high gain antennas+. -he first antennas were built in 0111 by 2erman physicist 'einrich 'ert3 in his pioneering e%periments to prove the e%istence of electromagnetic waves predicted by the theory of James /lerk 4a%well. 'ert3 placed dipole antennas at the focal point of parabolic reflectors for both transmitting and receiving. 'e published his work in Annalen der Physik und Chemie *vol. 56, 0117+.

Contents
8hide9
o

0 -erminology : ;verview 5 eciprocity < =arameters <.0 esonant antennas <.0.0 /urrent and voltage distribution

 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

<.0.: >andwidth <.: 2ain <.5 ?ffective area or aperture <.< adiation pattern <.@ !mpedance <.6 ?fficiency <.A =olari3ation <.1 !mpedance matching

@ >asic antenna models 6 =ractical antennas A ?ffect of ground 1 4utual impedance and interaction between antennas 7 )ntenna gallery 7.0 )ntennas and antenna arrays 7.: )ntennas and supporting structures 7.5 Diagrams as part of a system 0B Cee also 00 Dotes 0: eferences 0:.0 2eneral references 0:.: .=ractical antenna. references 0:.5 -heory and simulations 0:.< =atents and $C=-; 05 Further reading

[edit] Terminology
-he words antenna *plural: antennas809+ and aerial are used interchangeablyE but usually a rigid metallic structure is termed an antenna and a wire format is called an aerial. !n the $nited Fingdom and other >ritish ?nglish speaking areas the term aerial is more common,

even for rigid types. -he noun aerial is occasionally written with a diaeresis markGarialG in recognition of the original spelling of the adHective arial from which the noun is derived. -he origin of the word antenna relative to wireless apparatus is attributed to !talian radio pioneer 2uglielmo 4arconi. !n 017@, while testing early radio apparatus in the Cwiss )lps at Calvan, Cwit3erland in the 4ont >lanc region, 4arconi e%perimented with long wire ,aerials,. 'e used a :.@ meter vertical pole, with a wire attached to the top running down to the transmitter, as a radiating and receiving aerial element. !n !talian a tent pole is known as l'antenna centrale, and the pole with the wire was simply called l'antenna. $ntil then wireless radiating transmitting and receiving elements were known simply as aerials or terminals. >ecause of his prominence, 4arconi,s use of the word antenna *!talian for pole+ spread among wireless researchers, and later to the general public.8:9 !n common usage, the word antenna may refer broadly to an entire assembly including support structure, enclosure *if any+, etc. in addition to the actual functional components. ?specially at microwave fre(uencies, a receiving antenna may include not only the actual electrical antenna but an integrated preamplifier andIor mi%er.

. abbit ears. dipole antenna for television reception

/ell phone base station antennas

=arabolic antenna by 'imalaya -elevision Depal

"agi antenna used for mobile military communications station, Dresden, 2ermany, 07@@

-urnstile type transmitting antenna for &'F low band television broadcasting station, 2ermany.

Folded dipole antenna

Large "agi antenna used by amateur radio hobbyist

) mast radiator antenna for an )4 radio station, /hapel 'ill, Dorth /arolina

[edit] Overview

)ntennas are re(uired by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to the electromagnetic field. adio waves are electromagnetic waves which carry signals through the air *or through space+ at the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. adio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals *information+ in systems including broadcast *audio+ radio, television, mobile telephones, wi#fi *WL)D+ data networks, trunk lines and point#to#point communications links *telephone, data networks+, satellite links, many remote controlled devices such as garage door openers, and wireless remote sensors, among many others. adio waves are also used directly for measurements in technologies including )D) , 2=C, and radio astronomy. !n each and every case, the transmitters and receivers involved re(uire antennas, although these are sometimes hidden *such as the antenna inside an )4 radio or inside a laptop computer e(uipped with wi#fi+. )ccording to their applications and technology available, antennas generally fall in one of two categories: 0. ;mnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which receive or radiate more or less in all directions. -hese are employed when the relative position of the other station is unknown or arbitrary. -hey are also used at lower fre(uencies where a directional antenna would be too large, or simply to cut costs in applications where a directional antenna isn,t re(uired. 2. Directional or beam antennas which are intended to preferentially radiate or receive in a particular direction or directional pattern. !n common usage .omnidirectional. usually refers to all hori3ontal directions, typically with reduced performance in the direction of the sky or the ground *a truly isotropic radiator is not even possible+. ) .directional. antenna usually is intended to ma%imi3e its coupling to the electromagnetic field in the direction of the other station, or sometimes to cover a particular sector such as a 0:BJ hori3ontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site. ;ne e%ample of omnidirectional antennas is the very common vertical antenna or whip antenna consisting of a metal rod *often, but not always, a (uarter of a wavelength long+. ) dipole antenna is similar but consists of two such conductors e%tending in opposite directions, with a total length that is often, but not always, a half of a wavelength long. Dipoles are typically oriented hori3ontally in which case they are weakly directional: signals are reasonably well radiated toward or received from all directions with the e%ception of the direction along the conductor itselfE this region is called the antenna blind cone or null.

'alf#wave dipole antenna >oth the vertical and dipole antennas are simple in construction and relatively ine%pensive. -he dipole antenna, which is the basis for most antenna designs, is a balanced component, with e(ual but opposite voltages and currents applied at its two terminals through a balanced transmission line *or to a coa%ial transmission line through a so#called balun+. -he vertical

antenna, on the other hand, is a monopole antenna. !t is typically connected to the inner conductor of a coa%ial transmission line *or a matching network+E the shield of the transmission line is connected to ground. !n this way, the ground *or any large conductive surface+ plays the role of the second conductor of a dipole, thereby forming a complete circuit.859 Cince monopole antennas rely on a conductive ground, a so#called grounding structure may be employed to provide a better ground contact to the earth or which itself acts as a ground plane to perform that function regardless of *or in absence of+ an actual contact with the earth. )ntennas fancier than the dipole or vertical designs are usually intended to increase the directivity and conse(uently the gain of the antenna. -his can be accomplished in many different ways leading to a plethora of antenna designs. -he vast maHority of designs are fed with a balanced line *unlike a monopole antenna+ and are based on the dipole antenna with additional components *or elements+ which increase its directionality. For instance, a phased array consists of two or more simple antennas which are connected together through an electrical network. -his often involves a number of parallel dipole antennas with a certain spacing. Depending on the relative phase introduced by the network, the same combination of dipole antennas can operate as a .broadside array. *directional normal to a line connecting the elements+ or as an .end#fire array. *directional along the line connecting the elements+. )ntenna arrays may employ any basic *omnidirectional or weakly directional+ antenna type, such as dipole, loop or slot antennas. -hese elements are often identical. 'owever a log#periodic dipole array consists of a number of dipole elements of different lengths in order to obtain a somewhat directional antenna having an e%tremely wide bandwidth: these are fre(uently used for television reception in fringe areas. -he dipole antennas composing it are all considered .active elements. since they are all electrically connected together *and to the transmission line+. ;n the other hand, a superficially similar dipole array, the "agi#$da )ntenna *or simply ."agi.+, has only one dipole element with an electrical connectionE the other so#called parasitic elements interact with the electromagnetic field in order to reali3e a fairly directional antenna but one which is limited to a rather narrow bandwidth. -he "agi antenna has similar looking parasitic dipole elements but which act differently due to their somewhat different lengths. -here may be a number of so#called .directors. in front of the active element in the direction of propagation, and usually a single *but possibly more+ .reflector. on the opposite side of the active element. 2reater directionality can be obtained using beam#forming techni(ues such as a parabolic reflector or a horn. Cince the si3e of a directional antenna depends on it being large compared to the wavelength, very directional antennas of this sort are mainly feasible at $'F and microwave fre(uencies. ;n the other hand, at low fre(uencies *such as )4 broadcast+ where a practical antenna must be much smaller than a wavelength, significant directionality isn,t even possible. ) vertical antenna or loop antenna small compared to the wavelength is typically used, with the main design challenge being that of impedance matching. With a vertical antenna a loading coil at the base of the antenna may be employed to cancel the reactive component of impedanceE small loop antennas are tuned with parallel capacitors for this purpose. )n antenna lead#in is the transmission line *or feed line+ which connects the antenna to a transmitter or receiver. -he antenna feed may refer to all components connecting the antenna

to the transmitter or receiver, such as an impedance matching network in addition to the transmission line. !n a so#called aperture antenna, such as a horn or parabolic dish, the .feed. may also refer to a basic antenna inside the entire system *normally at the focus of the parabolic dish or at the throat of a horn+ which could be considered the one active element in that antenna system. ) microwave antenna may also be fed directly from a waveguide in lieu of a *conductive+ transmission line. )n antenna counterpoise or ground plane is a structure of conductive material which improves or substitutes for the ground. !t may be connected to or insulated from the natural ground. !n a monopole antenna, this aids in the function of the natural ground, particularly where variations *or limitations+ of the characteristics of the natural ground interfere with its proper function. Cuch a structure is normally connected to the return connection of an unbalanced transmission line such as the shield of a coa%ial cable. )n electromagnetic wave refractor in some aperture antennas is a component which due to its shape and position functions to selectively delay or advance portions of the electromagnetic wavefront passing through it. -he refractor alters the spatial characteristics of the wave on one side relative to the other side. !t can, for instance, bring the wave to a focus or alter the wave front in other ways, generally in order to ma%imi3e the directivity of the antenna system. -his is the radio e(uivalent of an optical lens. )n antenna coupling network is a passive network *generally a combination of inductive and capacitive circuit elements+ used for impedance matching in between the antenna and the transmitter or receiver. -his may be used to improve the standing wave ratio in order to minimi3e losses in the transmission line *especially at higher fre(uencies andIor over longer distances+ and to present the transmitter or receiver with a standard resistive impedance *such as A@ ohms+ that it e%pects to see for optimum operation.

[edit] Reciprocity
!t is a fundamental property of antennas that the electrical characteristics of an antenna described in the ne%t section, such as gain, radiation pattern, impedance, bandwidth, resonant fre(uency and polari3ation, are the same whether the antenna is transmitting or receiving. For e%ample, the .receiving pattern. *sensitivity as a function of direction+ of an antenna when used for reception is identical to the radiation pattern of the antenna when it is driven and functions as a radiator. -his is a conse(uence of the reciprocity theorem of electromagnetics. -herefore in discussions of antenna properties no distinction is usually made between receiving and transmitting terminology, and the antenna can be viewed as either transmitting or receiving, whichever is more convenient. ) necessary condition for the aforementioned reciprocity property is that the materials in the antenna and transmission medium are linear and reciprocal. eciprocal *or bilateral+ means that the material has the same response to an electric current or magnetic field in one direction, as it has to the field or current in the opposite direction. 4ost materials used in antennas meet these conditions, but some microwave antennas use8citation needed9 high#tech components such as isolators and circulators, made of nonreciprocal materials such as ferrite or garnet. -hese can be used to give the antenna a different behavior on receiving than it has on transmitting, which can be useful in applications like radar.

[edit] Parameters
!ain article" Antenna measurement )ntennas are characteri3ed by a number of performance measures which a user would be concerned with in selecting or designing an antenna for a particular application. /hief among these relate to the directional characteristics *as depicted in the antenna,s radiation pattern+ and the resulting gain. ?ven in omnidirectional *or weakly directional+ antennas, the gain can often be increased by concentrating more of its power in the hori3ontal directions, sacrificing power radiated toward the sky and ground. -he antenna,s power gain *or simply .gain.+ also takes into account the antenna,s efficiency, and is often the primary figure of merit. esonant antennas are e%pected to be used around a particular resonant fre#uencyE an antenna must therefore be built or ordered to match the fre(uency range of the intended application. ) particular antenna design will present a particular feedpoint impedance. While this may affect the choice of an antenna, an antenna,s impedance can also be adapted to the desired impedance level of a system using an matching network while maintaining the other characteristics *e%cept for a possible loss of efficiency+. )lthough these parameters can be measured in principle, such measurements are difficult and re(uire very speciali3ed e(uipment. >eyond tuning a transmitting antenna using an CW meter, the typical user will depend on theoretical predictions based on the antenna design andIor on claims of a vendor. )n antenna transmits and receives radio waves with a particular polari3ation which can be reoriented by tilting the a%is of the antenna in many *but not all+ cases. -he physical si3e of an antenna is often a practical issue, particularly at lower fre(uencies *longer wavelengths+. 'ighly directional antennas need to be significantly larger than the wavelength. esonant antennas use a conductor, or a pair of conductors, each of which is about one (uarter of the wavelength in length. )ntennas that are re(uired to be very small compared to the wavelength sacrifice efficiency and cannot be very directional. Fortunately at higher fre(uencies *$'F, microwaves+ trading off performance to obtain a smaller physical si3e is usually not re(uired.

[edit] Resonant antennas

While there are broadband designs for antennas, the vast maHority of antennas are based on the half#wave dipole which has a particular resonant fre(uency. )t its resonant fre(uency, the wavelength *figured by dividing the speed of light by the resonant fre(uency+ is slightly over twice the length of the half#wave dipole *thus the name+. -he (uarter#wave vertical antenna consists of one arm of a half#wave dipole, with the other arm replaced by a connection to ground or an e(uivalent ground plane *or counterpoise+. ) "agi#$da array consists of a number of resonant dipole elements, only one of which is directly connected to the transmission line. -he (uarter#wave elements of a dipole or vertical antenna imitate a series# resonant electrical element, since if they are driven at the resonant fre(uency a standing wave is created with the peak current at the feed#point and the peak voltage at the far end. ) common misconception is that the ability of a resonant antenna to transmit *or receive+ fails at fre(uencies far from the resonant fre(uency. -he reason a dipole antenna needs to be used at the resonant fre(uency has to do with the impedance match between the antenna and the

transmitter or receiver *and its transmission line+. For instance, a dipole using a fairly thin conductor8<9 will have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance of about 65 ohms at its design fre(uency. Feeding that antenna with a current of 0 ampere will re(uire 65 volts of F, and the antenna will radiate 65 watts *ignoring losses+ of radio fre(uency power. !f that antenna is driven with 0 ampere at a fre(uency :BK higher, it will still radiate as efficiently but in order to do that about :BB volts would be re(uired due to the change in the antenna,s impedance which is now largely reactive *voltage out of phase with the current+. ) typical transmitter would not find that impedance acceptable and would deliver much less than 65 watts to itE the transmission line would be operating at a high *poor+ standing wave ratio. >ut using an appropriate matching network, that large reactive impedance could be converted to a resistive impedance satisfying the transmitter and accepting the available power of the transmitter. -his principle is used to construct vertical antennas substantially shorter than the 0I< wavelength at which the antenna is resonant. >y adding an inductance in series with the vertical antenna *a so#called loading coil+ the capacitative reactance of this antenna can be cancelled leaving a pure resistance which can then be matched to the transmission line. Cometimes the resulting resonant fre(uency of such a system *antenna plus matching network+ is described using the construct of .electrical length. and the use of a shorter antenna at a lower fre(uency than its resonant fre(uency is termed .electrical lengthening.. For e%ample, at 5B 4'3 *wavelength L 0B meters+ a true resonant monopole would be almost :.@ meters *0I< wavelength+ long, and using an antenna only 0.@ meters tall would re(uire the addition of a loading coil. -hen it may be said that the coil has .lengthened. the antenna to achieve an .electrical length. of :.@ meters, that is, 0I< wavelength at 5B 4'3 where the combined system now resonates. 'owever, the resulting resistive impedance achieved will be (uite a bit lower than the impedance of a resonant monopole, likely re(uiring further impedance matching. [edit] Current and voltage distribution -he antenna conductors have the lowest feed#point impedance at the resonant fre(uency where they are Hust under 0I< wavelength longE two such conductors in line fed differentially thus reali3es the familiar .half#wave dipole.. When fed with an F current at the resonant fre(uency, the (uarter wave element contains a standing wave with the voltage and current largely *but not e%actly+ in phase (uadrature, as would be obtained using a (uarter wave stub of transmission line. -he current reaches a minimum at the end of the element *where it has nowhere to goM+ and is ma%imum at the feed#point. -he voltage, on the other hand, is the greatest at the end of the conductor and reaches a minimum *but not 3ero+ at the feedpoint. 4aking the conductor shorter or longer than 0I< wavelength means that the voltage pattern reaches its minimum somewhere beyond the feed#point, so that the feed#point has a higher voltage and thus sees a higher impedance, as we have noted. Cince that voltage pattern is almost in phase (uadrature with the current, the impedance seen at the feed#point is not only much higher but mainly reactive. !t can be seen that if such an element is resonant at f$ to produce such a standing wave pattern, then feeding that element with %f$ *whose wavelength is 0I5 that of f$+ will lead to a standing wave pattern in which the voltage is likewise a minimum at the feed#point *and the current at a ma%imum there+. -hus, an antenna element is also resonant when its length is 5I< of a wavelength *5I: wavelength for a complete dipole+. -his is true for all odd multiples of 0I< wavelength, where the feed#point impedance is purely resistive, though larger than the resistive impedance of the 0I< wave element. )lthough such an antenna is resonant and works

perfectly well at the higher fre(uency, the antenna radiation pattern is also altered compared to the half#wave dipole. -he use of a monopole or dipole at odd multiples of the fundamental resonant fre(uency, however, does not e%tend to even multiples *thus a 0I: wavelength monopole or 0 wavelength dipole+. Dow the voltage standing wave is at its peak at the feed#point, while that of the current *which must be 3ero at the end of the conductor+ is at a minimum *but not e%actly 3ero+. -he antenna is anti&resonant at this fre(uency. )lthough the reactance at the feedpoint can be cancelled using such an element length, the feed#point impedance is very high, and is highly dependent on the diameter of the conductor *which makes only a small difference at the actual resonant fre(uency+. Cuch an antenna does not match the much lower characteristic impedance of available transmission lines, and is generally not used. 'owever some e(uipment where transmission lines are not involved which desire a high driving point impedance may take advantage of this anti#resonance. [edit] Bandwidt )lthough a resonant antenna has a purely resistive feed#point impedance at a particular fre(uency, many *if not most+ applications re(uire using an antenna over a range of fre(uencies. )n antenna,s band'idth specifies the range of fre(uencies over which its performance does not suffer due to a poor impedance match. )lso in the case of a "agi#$da array, the use of the antenna very far away from its design fre(uency reduces the antenna,s directivity, thus reducing the usable bandwidth regardless of impedance matching. ?%cept for the latter concern, the resonant fre(uency of a resonant antenna can always be altered by adHusting a suitable matching network. -o do this efficiently one would re(uire remotely adHusting a matching network at the site of the antenna, since simply adHusting a matching network at the transmitter *or receiver+ would leave the transmission line with a poor standing wave ratio. !nstead, it is often desired to have an antenna whose impedance does not vary so greatly over a certain bandwidth. !t turns out that the amount of reactance seen at the terminals of a resonant antenna when the fre(uency is shifted, say, by @K, depends very much on the diameter of the conductor used. ) long thin wire used as a half#wave dipole *or (uarter wave monopole+ will have a reactance significantly greater than the resistive impedance it has at resonance, leading to a poor match and generally unacceptable performance. 4aking the element using a tube of a diameter perhaps 0I@B of its length, however, results in a reactance at this altered fre(uency which is not so great, and a much less serious mismatch which will only modestly damage the antenna,s net performance. -hus rather thick tubes are typically used for the solid elements of such antennas, including "agi#$da arrays. ather than Hust using a thick tube, there are similar techni(ues used to the same effect such as replacing thin wire elements with cages to simulate a thicker element. -his widens the bandwidth of the resonance. ;n the other hand, amateur radio antennas need to operate over several bands which are widely separated from each other. -his can often be accomplished simply by connecting resonant elements for the different bands in parallel. 4ost of the transmitter,s power will flow into the resonant element while the others present a high *reactive+ impedance and draw little current from the same voltage. ) popular solution uses so#called traps consisting of parallel resonant circuits which are strategically placed in breaks along each antenna element. When used at one particular fre(uency band the trap presents a

very high impedance *parallel resonance+ effectively truncating the element at that length, making it a proper resonant antenna. )t a lower fre(uency the trap allows the full length of the element to be employed, albeit with a shifted resonant fre(uency due to the inclusion of the trap,s net reactance at that lower fre(uency. -he bandwidth characteristics of a resonant antenna element can be characteri3ed according to its N, Hust as one uses to characteri3e the sharpness of an L#/ resonant circuit. 'owever it is often assumed that there is an advantage in an antenna having a high N. )fter all, ( is short for .(uality factor. and a low N typically signifies e%cessive loss *due to unwanted resistance+ in a resonant L#/ circuit. 'owever this understanding does not apply to resonant antennas where the resistance involved is the radiation resistance, a desired (uantity which removes energy from the resonant element in order to radiate it *the purpose of an antenna, after allM+. -he N is a measure of the ratio of reactance to resistance, so with a fi%ed radiation resistance *an element,s radiation resistance is almost independent of its diameter+ a greater reactance off#resonance corresponds to the poorer bandwidth of a very thin conductor. -he N of such a narrowband antenna can be as high as 0@. ;n the other hand a thick element presents less reactance at an off#resonant fre(uency, and conse(uently a N as low as @. -hese two antennas will perform e(uivalently at the resonant fre(uency, but the second antenna will perform over a bandwidth 5 times as wide as the .hi#N. antenna consisting of a thin conductor.

[edit] !ain
!ain article" Antenna gain 2ain is a parameter which measures the degree of directivity of the antenna,s radiation pattern. ) high#gain antenna will preferentially radiate in a particular direction. Cpecifically, the antenna gain, or po'er gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity *power per unit surface+ radiated by the antenna in the direction of its ma%imum output, at an arbitrary distance, divided by the intensity radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna. -he gain of an antenna is a passive phenomenon # power is not added by the antenna, but simply redistributed to provide more radiated power in a certain direction than would be transmitted by an isotropic antenna. )n antenna designer must take into account the application for the antenna when determining the gain. 'igh#gain antennas have the advantage of longer range and better signal (uality, but must be aimed carefully in a particular direction. Low#gain antennas have shorter range, but the orientation of the antenna is relatively inconse(uential. For e%ample, a dish antenna on a spacecraft is a high#gain device that must be pointed at the planet to be effective, whereas a typical Wi#Fi antenna in a laptop computer is low#gain, and as long as the base station is within range, the antenna can be in any orientation in space. !t makes sense to improve hori3ontal range at the e%pense of reception above or below the antenna. -hus most antennas labelled .omnidirectional. really have some gain.8@9 !n practice, the half#wave dipole is taken as a reference instead of the isotropic radiator. -he gain is then given in dBd *decibels over dipole+: D;-?: " dBd # $%&' dBi. !t is vital in e%pressing gain values that the reference point be included. Failure to do so can lead to confusion and error.

[edit] ())ective area or aperture

!ain article" Antenna effective area -he effective area or effective aperture of a receiving antenna e%presses the portion of the power of a passing electromagnetic wave which it delivers to its terminals, e%pressed in terms of an e(uivalent area. For instance, if a radio wave passing a given location has a flu% of 0 pW I m: *0BO0: watts per s(uare meter+ and an antenna has an effective area of 0: m:, then the antenna would deliver 0: pW of F power to the receiver *5B microvolts rms at A@ ohms+. Cince the receiving antenna is not e(ually sensitive to signals received from all directions, the effective area is a function of the direction to the source. Due to reciprocity *discussed above+ the gain of an antenna used for transmitting must be proportional to its effective area when used for receiving. /onsider an antenna with no loss, that is, one whose electrical efficiency is 0BBK. !t can be shown that its effective area averaged over all directions must be e(ual to P:I<Q, the wavelength s(uared divided by <Q. 2ain is defined such that the average gain over all directions for an antenna with 0BBK electrical efficiency is e(ual to 0. -herefore the effective area )eff in terms of the gain 2 in a given direction is given by:

For an antenna with an efficiency of less than 0BBK, both the effective area and gain are reduced by that same amount. -herefore the above relationship between gain and effective area still holds. -hese are thus two different ways of e%pressing the same (uantity. )eff is especially convenient when computing the power that would be received by an antenna of a specified gain, as illustrated by the above e%ample.

[edit] Radiation pattern

!ain article" adiation pattern

polar plots of the hori3ontal cross sections of a *virtual+ "agi#$da#antenna. ;utline connects points with 5db field power compared to an !C; emitter. -he radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the relative field strength of the radio waves emitted by the antenna at different angles. !t is typically represented by a three

dimensional graph, or polar plots of the hori3ontal and vertical cross sections. -he pattern of an ideal isotropic antenna, which radiates e(ually in all directions, would look like a sphere. 4any nondirectional antennas, such as monopoles and dipoles, emit e(ual power in all hori3ontal directions, with the power dropping off at higher and lower anglesE this is called an omnidirectional pattern and when plotted looks like a torus or donut. -he radiation of many antennas shows a pattern of ma%ima or .lobes. at various angles, separated by .nulls., angles where the radiation falls to 3ero. -his is because the radio waves emitted by different parts of the antenna typically interfere, causing ma%ima at angles where the radio waves arrive at distant points in phase, and 3ero radiation at other angles where the radio waves arrive out of phase. !n a directional antenna designed to proHect radio waves in a particular direction, the lobe in that direction is designed larger than the others and is called the .main lobe.. -he other lobes usually represent unwanted radiation and are called .sidelobes.. -he a%is through the main lobe is called the .principle a)is. or .boresight a)is..

[edit] *mpedance
)s an electro#magnetic wave travels through the different parts of the antenna system *radio, feed line, antenna, free space+ it may encounter differences in impedance *?I', &I!, etc.+. )t each interface, depending on the impedance match, some fraction of the wave,s energy will reflect back to the source,869 forming a standing wave in the feed line. -he ratio of ma%imum power to minimum power in the wave can be measured and is called the standing wave ratio *+,R+. ) CW of 0:0 is ideal. ) CW of 0.@:0 is considered to be marginally acceptable in low power applications where power loss is more critical, although an CW as high as 6:0 may still be usable with the right e(uipment. 4inimi3ing impedance differences at each interface *impedance matching+ will reduce CW and ma%imi3e power transfer through each part of the antenna system. /omple% impedance of an antenna is related to the electrical length of the antenna at the wavelength in use. -he impedance of an antenna can be matched to the feed line and radio by adHusting the impedance of the feed line, using the feed line as an impedance transformer. 4ore commonly, the impedance is adHusted at the load *see below+ with an antenna tuner, a balun, a matching transformer, matching networks composed of inductors and capacitors, or matching sections such as the gamma match.

[edit] ())iciency
!ain article" Antenna efficiency *fficiency of a transmitting antenna is the ratio of power actually radiated *in all directions+ to the power absorbed by the antenna terminals. -he power supplied to the antenna terminals which is not radiated is converted into heat. -his is usually through loss resistance in the antenna,s conductors, but can also be due to dielectric or magnetic core losses in antennas *or antenna systems+ using such components. Cuch loss effectively robs power from the transmitter, re(uiring a stronger transmitter in order to transmit a signal of a given strength.

For instance, if a transmitter delivers 0BB W into an antenna having an efficiency of 1BK, then the antenna will radiate 1B W as radio waves and produce :B W of heat. !n order to radiate 0BB W of power, one would need to use a transmitter capable of supplying 0:@ W to the antenna. Dote that antenna efficiency is a separate issue from impedance matching, which may also reduce the amount of power radiated using a given transmitter. !f an CW meter reads 0@B W of incident power and @B W of reflected power, that means that 0BB W have actually been absorbed by the antenna *ignoring transmission line losses+. 'ow much of that power has actually been radiated cannot be directly determined through electrical measurements at *or before+ the antenna terminals, but would re(uire *for instance+ careful measurement of field strength. Fortunately the loss resistance of antenna conductors such as aluminum rods can be calculated and the efficiency of an antenna using such materials predicted. 'owever loss resistance will generally affect the feedpoint impedance, adding to its resistive *real+ component. -hat resistance will consist of the sum of the radiation resistance r and the loss resistance loss. !f an rms current ! is delivered to the terminals of an antenna, then a power of !: r will be radiated and a power of !: loss will be lost as heat. -herefore the efficiency of an antenna is e(ual to r I * r R loss+. ;f course only the total resistance r R loss can be directly measured.

)mount of atmospheric noise at various elevation angles versus fre(uency according //! 5:: )ccording to reciprocity, the efficiency of an antenna, when used as a receiving antenna, is identical to the efficiency as defined above. -he power that an antenna will deliver to a receiver *with a proper impedance match+ is reduced by the same amount. 'owever often in a receiving application, inefficiency of an antenna may be of lesser conse(uence or even of no conse(uence, notably at lower fre(uencies or when used to receive signals in .crowded. bands. -hat is true in cases where the received signal competes not against receiver noise, but against atmospheric noise or interference received by the antenna itself. -he loss within the antenna will affect the intended signal and the noiseIinterference identically, leading to no reduction in signal to noise ratio *CD +. )ccording to the graph shown illustrating the fre(uency dependence of

atmospheric and man#made noise, one can see that using a receiving antenna with an efficiency of only 0BK at fre(uencies below 0B 4'3 will still supply a signal to the receiver which includes noise well above the thermal limit. ) decent F amplifier in the receiver will not significantly add to this noise level or reduce the resulting CD . -his is fortunate, since antennas at lower fre(uencies which are not rather large *a good fraction of a wavelength in si3e+ are inevitably inefficient *due to the small radiation resistance r of small antennas+. 4ost )4 broadcast radios *e%cept for car radios+ take advantage of this principle by including a small loop antenna for reception which has an e%tremely poor efficiency. $sing such an inefficient antenna at this low fre(uency *@5BS06@B k'3+ thus has little effect on the receiver,s net performance, but simply re(uires greater amplification by the receiver,s electronics. /ontrast this tiny component to the massive and very tall towers used at )4 broadcast stations for transmitting at the very same fre(uency, where every percentage point of reduced antenna efficiency entails a substantial cost. -he definition of antenna gain or po'er gain already includes the effect of the antenna,s efficiency. -herefore if one is trying to radiate a signal toward a receiver using a transmitter of a given power, one need only compare the gain of various antennas rather than considering the efficiency as well. -his is likewise true for a receiving antenna at very high *especially microwave+ fre(uencies, where the point is to receive a signal which is strong compared to the receiver,s noise temperature. 'owever in the case of a directional antenna used for receiving signals with the intention of re+ecting interference from different directions, one is no longer concerned with the antenna efficiency, as discussed above. !n this case, rather than (uoting the antenna gain, one would be more concerned with the directive gain which does not include the effect of antenna *in+efficiency. -he directive gain of an antenna can be computed from the published gain divided by the antenna,s efficiency.

[edit] Polari-ation
!ain article" Polari,ation ('aves) -he polari,ation of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field *?#plane+ of the radio wave with respect to the ?arth,s surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation. !t has nothing in common with antenna directionality terms: .hori3ontal., .vertical., and .circular.. -hus, a simple straight wire antenna will have one polari3ation when mounted vertically, and a different polari3ation when mounted hori3ontally. .?lectromagnetic wave polari3ation filters.8citation needed9 are structures which can be employed to act directly on the electromagnetic wave to filter out wave energy of an undesired polari3ation and to pass wave energy of a desired polari3ation. eflections generally affect polari3ation. For radio waves the most important reflector is the ionosphere # signals which reflect from it will have their polari3ation changed unpredictably. For signals which are reflected by the ionosphere, polari3ation cannot be relied upon. For line#of#sight communications for which polari3ation can be relied upon, it can make a large difference in signal (uality to have the transmitter and receiver using the same polari3ationE many tens of d> difference are commonly seen

and this is more than enough to make the difference between reasonable communication and a broken link. =olari3ation is largely predictable from antenna construction but, especially in directional antennas, the polari3ation of side lobes can be (uite different from that of the main propagation lobe. For radio antennas, polari3ation corresponds to the orientation of the radiating element in an antenna. ) vertical omnidirectional WiFi antenna will have vertical polari3ation *the most common type+. )n e%ception is a class of elongated waveguide antennas in which vertically placed antennas are hori3ontally polari3ed. 4any commercial antennas are marked as to the polari3ation of their emitted signals. =olari3ation is the sum of the ?#plane orientations over time proHected onto an imaginary plane perpendicular to the direction of motion of the radio wave. !n the most general case, polari3ation is elliptical, meaning that the polari3ation of the radio waves varies over time. -wo special cases are linear polari3ation *the ellipse collapses into a line+ and circular polari3ation *in which the two a%es of the ellipse are e(ual+. !n linear polari3ation the antenna compels the electric field of the emitted radio wave to a particular orientation. Depending on the orientation of the antenna mounting, the usual linear cases are hori3ontal and vertical polari3ation. !n circular polari3ation, the antenna continuously varies the electric field of the radio wave through all possible values of its orientation with regard to the ?arth,s surface. /ircular polari3ations, like elliptical ones, are classified as right#hand polari3ed or left#hand polari3ed using a .thumb in the direction of the propagation. rule. ;ptical researchers use the same rule of thumb, but pointing it in the direction of the emitter, not in the direction of propagation, and so are opposite to radio engineers, use. !n practice, regardless of confusing terminology, it is important that linearly polari3ed antennas be matched, lest the received signal strength be greatly reduced. Co hori3ontal should be used with hori3ontal and vertical with vertical. !ntermediate matchings will lose some signal strength, but not as much as a complete mismatch. -ransmitters mounted on vehicles with large motional freedom commonly use circularly polari3ed antennas8citation needed9 so that there will never be a complete mismatch with signals from other sources.

[edit] *mpedance matc ing

!ain article" -mpedance matching 4a%imum power transfer re(uires matching the impedance of an antenna system *as seen looking into the transmission line+ to the comple% conHugate of the impedance of the receiver or transmitter. !n the case of a transmitter, however, the desired matching impedance might not correspond to the dynamic output impedance of the transmitter as analy3ed as a source impedance but rather the design value *typically @B ohms+ re(uired for efficient and safe operation of the transmitting circuitry. -he intended impedance is normally resistive but a transmitter *and some receivers+ may have additional adHustments to cancel a certain amount of reactance in order to .tweak. the match. When a transmission line is used in between the antenna and the transmitter *or receiver+ one generally would like an antenna system whose impedance is resistive and near the characteristic impedance of that transmission line in order to minimi3e

the standing wave ratio *CW + and the increase in transmission line losses it entails, in addition to supplying a good match at the transmitter or receiver itself. )ntenna tuning generally refers to cancellation of any reactance seen at the antenna terminals, leaving only a resistive impedance which might or might not be e%actly the desired impedance *that of the transmission line+. )lthough an antenna may be designed to have a purely resistive feedpoint impedance *such as a dipole 7AK of a half wavelength long+ this might not be e%actly true at the fre(uency that it is eventually used at. !n some cases the physical length of the antenna can be .trimmed. to obtain a pure resistance. ;n the other hand, the addition of a series inductance or parallel capacitance can be used to cancel a residual capacitative or inductive reactance, respectively. !n some cases this is done in a more e%treme manner, not simply to cancel a small amount of residual reactance, but to resonate an antenna whose resonance fre(uency is (uite different than the intended fre(uency of operation. For instance, a .whip antenna. can be made significantly shorter than 0I< wavelength long, for practical reasons, and then resonated using a so#called loading coil. -his physically large inductor at the base of the antenna has an inductive reactance which is the opposite of the capacitative reactance that such a vertical antenna has at the desired operating fre(uency. -he result is a pure resistance seen at feedpoint of the loading coilE unfortunately that resistance is somewhat lower than would be desired to match commercial coa%8citation needed9. Co an additional problem beyond canceling the unwanted reactance is of matching the remaining resistive impedance to the characteristic impedance of the transmission line. !n principle this can always be done with a transformer, however the turns ratio of a transformer is not adHustable. ) general matching network with at least two adHustments can be made to correct both components of impedance. 4atching networks using discrete inductors and capacitors will have losses associated with those components, and will have power restrictions when used for transmitting. )voiding these difficulties, commercial antennas are generally designed with fi%ed matching elements andIor feeding strategies to get an appro%imate match to standard coa%, such as @B or A@ ;hms. )ntennas based on the dipole *rather than vertical antennas+ should include a balun in between the transmission line and antenna element, which may be integrated into any such matching network. )nother e%treme case of impedance matching occurs when using a small loop antenna *usually, but not always, for receiving+ at a relatively low fre(uency where it appears almost as a pure inductor. esonating such an inductor with a capacitor at the fre(uency of operation not only cancels the reactance but greatly magnifies the very small radiation resistance of such a loop8citation needed9. -his is implemented in most )4 broadcast receivers, with a small ferrite loop antenna resonated by a capacitor which is varied along with the receiver tuning in order to maintain resonance over the )4 broadcast band

[edit] Basic antenna models

-ypical $C multiband -& antenna *aerial+ -here are many variations of antennas. >elow are a few basic models. 4ore can be found in /ategory: adio fre(uency antenna types.

-he isotropic radiator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates e(ually in all directions. !t is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. -his antenna cannot physically e%ist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with all other antennas. 4ost antennas, gains are measured with reference to an isotropic radiator, and are rated in d>i *decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator+. -he dipole antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either hori3ontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other end hanging free in space. Cince this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a reference model for other antennasE gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as d>d. 2enerally, the dipole is considered to be omnidirectional in the plane perpendicular to the a%is of the antenna, but it has deep nulls in the directions of the a%is. &ariations of the dipole include the folded dipole, the half wave antenna, the ground plane antenna, the whip, and the J#pole. -he "agi#$da antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses *directors+ to focus a filament light bulb. -he random wire antenna is simply a very long *at least one (uarter wavelength8citation needed9+ wire with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way most convenient for the space available. Folding will reduce effectiveness and make theoretical analysis e%tremely difficult. *-he added length helps more than the folding typically hurts.+ -ypically, a random wire antenna will also re(uire an antenna tuner, as it might have a random impedance that varies non#linearly with fre(uency. -he horn antenna is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short *microwave+ and space is not an issue. 'orns can be narrow band or wide band, depending on their shape. ) horn can be built for any fre(uency, but horns for lower fre(uencies are typically impractical. 'orns are also fre(uently used as reference antennas. -he parabolic antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Like the horn it is used for high gain, microwave applications, such as satellite dishes.

-he patch antenna consists mainly of a s(uare conductor mounted over a groundplane. )nother e%ample of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna *-C)+, as the &ivaldi#antenna.

[edit] Practical antennas

. abbit ears. set#top antenna )lthough any circuit can radiate if driven with a signal of high enough fre(uency, most practical antennas are specially designed to radiate efficiently at a particular fre(uency. )n e%ample of an inefficient antenna is the simple 'ert3ian dipole antenna, which radiates over wide range of fre(uencies and is useful8citation needed9 for its small si3e. ) more efficient variation of this is the half#wave dipole, which radiates with high efficiency when the signal wavelength is twice the electrical length of the antenna. ;ne of the goals of antenna design is to minimi3e the reactance of the device so that it appears as a resistive load. )n .antenna inherent reactance. includes not only the distributed reactance of the active antenna but also the natural reactance due to its location and surroundings *as for e%ample, the capacity relation inherent in the position of the active antenna relative to ground+. eactance can be eliminated by operating the antenna at its resonant fre(uency, when its capacitive and inductive reactances are e(ual and opposite, resulting in a net 3ero reactive current. !f this is not possible, compensating inductors or capacitors can instead be added to the antenna to cancel its reactance as far as the source is concerned. ;nce the reactance has been eliminated, what remains is a pure resistance, which is the sum of two parts: the ohmic resistance of the conductors, and the radiation resistance. =ower absorbed by the ohmic resistance becomes waste heat, and that absorbed by the radiation resistance becomes radiated electromagnetic energy. -he greater the ratio of radiation resistance to ohmic resistance, the more efficient the antenna.

[edit] ())ect o) ground

)ntennas are typically used in an environment where other obHects are present that may have an effect on their performance. 'eight above ground has a very significant effect on the radiation pattern of some antenna types.

)t fre(uencies used in antennas, the ground behaves mainly as a dielectric8citation needed9. -he conductivity of ground at these fre(uencies is negligible. When an electromagnetic wave arrives at the surface of an obHect, two waves are created: one enters the dielectric and the other is reflected. !f the obHect is a conductor, the transmitted wave is negligible and the reflected wave has almost the same amplitude as the incident one. When the obHect is a dielectric, the fraction reflected depends *among other things+ on the angle of incidence. When the angle of incidence is small *that is, the wave arrives almost perpendicularly+ most of the energy traverses the surface and very little is reflected. When the angle of incidence is near 7BJ *gra3ing incidence+ almost all the wave is reflected. 4ost of the electromagnetic waves emitted by an antenna to the ground below the antenna at moderate *say T 6BJ+ angles of incidence enter the earth and are absorbed *lost+. >ut waves emitted to the ground at gra3ing angles, far from the antenna, are almost totally reflected. )t gra3ing angles, the ground behaves as a mirror. Nuality of reflection depends on the nature of the surface. When the irregularities of the surface are smaller than the wavelength, reflection is good.

-he wave reflected by earth can be considered as emitted by the image antenna. -his means that the receptor .sees. the real antenna and, under the ground, the image of the antenna reflected by the ground. !f the ground has irregularities, the image will appear fu33y. !f the receiver is placed at some height above the ground, waves reflected by ground will travel a little longer distance to arrive to the receiver than direct waves. -he distance will be the same only if the receiver is close to ground. !n the drawing at right, the angle has been drawn far bigger than in reality. -he distance between the antenna and its image is . -he situation is a bit more comple% because the reflection of electromagnetic waves depends on the polari3ation of the incident wave. )s the refractive inde% of the ground *average value + is bigger than the refractive inde% of the air * +, the direction of the component of the electric field parallel to the ground inverses at the reflection. -his is e(uivalent to a phase shift of radians or 01BJ. -he vertical component of the electric field reflects without changing direction. -his sign inversion of the parallel component and the non#inversion of the perpendicular component would also happen if the ground were a good electrical conductor.

-he vertical component of the current reflects without changing sign. -he hori3ontal component reverses sign at reflection. -his means that a receiving antenna .sees. the image antenna with the current in the same direction if the antenna is vertical or with the current inverted if the antenna is hori3ontal. For a vertical polari3ed emission antenna the far electric field of the electromagnetic wave produced by the direct ray plus the reflected ray is:

-he sign inversion for the parallel field case Hust changes a cosine to a sine:

!n these two e(uations:

is the electrical field radiated by the antenna if there were no ground. is the wave number. is the wave length. is the distance between antenna and its image *twice the height of the center of the antenna+.

adiation patterns of antennas and their images reflected by the ground. )t left the polari3ation is vertical and there is always a ma%imum for . !f the polari3ation is hori3ontal as at right, there is always a 3ero for . For emitting and receiving antennas situated near the ground *in a building or on a mast+ far from each other, distances traveled by direct and reflected rays are nearly the same. -here is no induced phase shift. !f the emission is polari3ed vertically, the two fields *direct and reflected+ add and there is ma%imum of received signal. !f the emission is polari3ed hori3ontally, the two

signals subtract and the received signal is minimum. -his is depicted in the image at right. !n the case of vertical polari3ation, there is always a ma%imum at earth level *left pattern+. For hori3ontal polari3ation, there is always a minimum at earth level. Dote that in these drawings the ground is considered as a perfect mirror, even for low angles of incidence. !n these drawings, the distance between the antenna and its image is Hust a few wavelengths. For greater distances, the number of lobes increases. Dote that the situation is differentGand more comple%Gif reflections in the ionosphere occur. -his happens over very long distances *thousands of kilometers+. -here is not a direct ray but several reflected rays that add with different phase shifts. -his is the reason why almost all public address radio emissions have vertical polari3ation. )s public users are near ground, hori3ontal polari3ed emissions would be poorly received. ;bserve household and automobile radio receivers. -hey all have vertical antennas or hori3ontal ferrite antennas for vertical polari3ed emissions. !n cases where the receiving antenna must work in any position, as in mobile phones, the emitter and receivers in base stations use circular polari3ed electromagnetic waves. /lassical *analog+ television emissions are an e%ception. -hey are almost always hori3ontally polari3ed, because the presence of buildings makes it unlikely that a good emitter antenna image will appear8citation needed9. 'owever, these same buildings reflect the electromagnetic waves and can create ghost images. $sing hori3ontal polari3ation, reflections are attenuated because of the low reflection of electromagnetic waves whose magnetic field is parallel to the dielectric surface near the >rewster,s angle. &ertically polari3ed analog television has been used in some rural areas. !n digital terrestrial television reflections are less obtrusive, due to the inherent robustness of digital signalling and built#in error correction.

[edit] .utual impedance and interaction between antennas

4utual impedance between parallel dipoles not staggered. /urves Re and *m are the resistive and reactive parts of the impedance. /urrent circulating in any antenna induces currents in all others. ;ne can postulate a mutual impedance between two antennas that has the same significance as the in ordinary coupled inductors. -he mutual impedance between two antennas is defined as:

where is the current flowing in antenna 0 and is the voltage that would have to be applied to antenna :Swith antenna 0 removedSto produce the current in the antenna : that was produced by antenna 0. From this definition, the currents and voltages applied in a set of coupled antennas are:

where:

is the voltage applied to the antenna i is the impedance of antenna i is the mutual impedance between antennas i and +

Dote that, as is the case for mutual inductances,

-his is a conse(uence of Lorent3 reciprocity. !f some of the elements are not fed *there is a short circuit instead a feeder cable+, as is the case in television antennas *"agi#$da antennas+, the corresponding are 3ero. -hose elements are called parasitic elements. =arasitic elements are unpowered elements that either reflect or absorb and reradiate F energy. !n some geometrical settings, the mutual impedance between antennas can be 3ero. -his is the case for crossed dipoles used in circular polari3ation antennas.

[edit] Antenna gallery

[edit] Antennas and antenna arrays

) "agi#$da beam antenna.

) multi#band rotary directional antenna for amateur radio use.

ooftop -& antenna. !t is actually three "agi antennas. -he longest elements are for the low band, while the medium and short elements are for the high and $'F band.

) terrestrial microwave radio antenna array.

?%amples of $C 056#0A< 4'3 base station antennas.

Low cost LF time signal receiver, antenna *left+ and receiver *right+.

otatable log#periodic array for &'F and $'F.

Chortwave antennas in Delano, /alifornia.

)n old &'F#band "agi#type television antenna.

) -:FD broadband antenna, covering the @#5B4'3 band.

) $C multiband .aerial. -& antenna.

. abbit ears. antenna

)4 loop antenna

[edit] Antennas and supporting structures

) building rooftop supporting numerous dish and sectored mobile telecommunications antennas *Doncaster, &ictoria, )ustralia+.

) water tower in =almerston, Dorthern -erritory with radio broadcasting and communications antennas.

) three#sector telephone site in 4e%ico /ity.

-elephone site concealed as a palm tree.

[edit] /iagrams as part o) a system

)ntennas may be connected through a multiple%ing arrangement in some applications like this trunked two#way radio e%ample.

)ntenna network for an emergency medical services base station.

[edit] +ee also

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[edit] 0otes
0. 1 !n the conte%t of engineering and physics, the plural of antenna is antennas, and it has been this way since about 07@B

*or earlier+, when a cornerstone te%tbook in this field, Antennas, was published by John D. Fraus of the ;hio Ctate $niversity. >esides the title, Dr. Fraus noted this in a footnote on the first page of his book. !nsects may have .antennae., but this form is not used in the conte%t of electronics. :. 1 ./alvan" Cradle of 0ireless, 1o' !arconi Conducted *arly 0ireless *)periments in the /'iss Alps., 2red 3ardiol 4 5ves 2ournier, !icro'ave 6ournal, 2ebruary 7$$8, pp. 97:&9%8. 5. 1 -esla said during the development of radio that .;ne of the terminals of the source 'ould be connected to *arth 8as a electric ground connection ...9 the other to an insulated body of large surface. For more information, see .;n <ight and ;ther 1igh 2re#uency Phenomena.. Delivered before the Franklin !nstitute, =hiladelphia, February 0175, and before the Dational ?lectric Light )ssociation, Ct. Louis, 4issouri, 4arch 0175. <. 1 -his e%ample assumes a length to diameter ratio of 0BBB. @. 1 .2uide to Wi#Fi Wireless Detwork )ntenna Celection... Detwork>its.net. http:IInetworkbits.netIwireless# printingIwireless#network#antenna#guideI. etrieved )pril 1, :BB1. 6. 1 !mpedance is caused by the same physics as refractive inde% in optics, although impedance effects are typically one dimensional, where effects of refractive inde% is three dimensional.

[edit] Re)erences
[edit] !eneral re)erences

)ntenna -heory *5rd edition+, by /. >alanis, Wiley, :BB@, !C>D B#<A0#66A1:#UE )ntenna -heory and Design *:nd edition+, by W. Ctut3man and 2. -hiele, Wiley, 077A, !C>D B#<A0#B:@7B#7E )ntennas *5rd edition+, by J. Fraus and . 4arhefka, 4c2raw#'ill, :BB0, !C>D B#BA:#5:0B5#:E )ntennenbuch, by Farl othammel, publ. Franck,sche &erlagshandlung Ctuttgart, 0770, !C>D 5#<<B#B@1@5#BE other editions *in 2erman+ )ntennas for portable Devices, Vhi Ding /hen *edited+, John Wiley W Cons in 4arch :BBA >roadband =lanar )ntennas: Design and )pplications, Vhi Ding /hen and 4. ". W. /hia, John Wiley W Cons in February :BB6 -he ) L )ntenna >ook *0@th edition+, ) B#1A:@7#:BA#@ L, 0711, !C>D

[edit] 2Practical antenna2 re)erences

Antenna =heory antenna#theory.com Patch Antenna" 2rom /imulation to eali,ation ?4 -alk 0hy an Antenna adiates at ) L

0hy Antennas adiate, Ctuart 2. Downs, W"6?? *=DF+ >nderstanding electromagnetic fields and antenna radiation takes (almost) no math, on Cchmitt, ?DD 4aga3ine, 4arch : :BBB *=DF+ -ests of F4I&'F receiving antennas. http:IIwww.tvantennasperth.com.auIDiyantennas.html :.)nte nna 2ain. )ntennas: 2eneralities, =rinciple of operation, )s electronic component, 'ert3 4arconi and ;ther types )ntennas etc etc

[edit] T eory and simulations

http:IIwww.dipoleanimator.com ?4 -alk, .4icrostrip =atch )ntenna., *-heory and simulation of microstrip patch antenna+ .;nline /alculations and /onversions . Formulas for simulating and optimi3ing )ntenna specs and placement .4icrowave )ntenna Design /alculator. =rovides (uick estimation of antenna si3e re(uired for a given gain and fre(uency. 5 d> and 0B d> beamwidths are also derivedE the calculator additionally gives the far#field range re(uired for a given antenna. Cophocles J. ;rfanidis, .?lectromagnetic Waves and )ntennas., utgers $niversity *:B =DF /haps. >asic theory, definitions and reference+ 'ans Lohninger, .Learning by Cimulations: =hysics: /oupled adiators.. vias.org, :BB@. *ed. !nteractive simulation of two coupled antennas+ D?/ Lab # D?/ Lab is a tool that uses Dumerical ?lectromagnetics /ode and )rtificial !ntelligence to design and simulate antennas. Justin Cmith .)erials.. ).-.& *)erials and -elevision+, :BB7. *ed. )rticle on the *basic+ theory and use of F4, D)> W -& aerials+

)ntennas esearch 2roup, .&irtual * eality+ )ntennas.. Democritus $niversity of -hrace, :BB@. .Cupport X Fnowledgebase X F >asics X )ntennas I /ables X d>i vs. d>d detail.. 4a%Ctream, !nc., :BB@. *ed. 'ow to measure antenna gain+ "agis and Log =eriodics, )strosurf article. aines, J. F., .&irtual ;uter /onductor for Linear )ntennas,. 4icrowave Journal, &ol. @:, Do. 0, January, :BB7, pp. A6S16 -ests of F4I&'F receiving antennas.

?ffect of ground references ?lectronic adio and ?ngineering. F.?. -erman. 4c2raw# 'ill Lectures on physics. Feynman, Leighton and Cands. )ddison# Wesley

/lassical ?lectricity and 4agnetism. W. =anofsky and 4. =hillips. )ddison#Wesley

[edit] Patents and 3+PTO

/L)CC 5<5, /ommunication: adio Wave )ntenna

[edit] 4urt er reading

)ntennas for >ase Ctations in Wireless /ommunications, edited by Vhi Ding /hen and Fwai#4an Luk, 4c2raw#'ill /ompanies, !nc, $C) in 4ay :BB7

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Ch(ip Cicilianu Cimple ?nglish Clovenina Clovenina gijs I Crpski Cuomi Cvenska -rke jgfijf a -i ng &it -his page was last modified on 07 January :B0: at 0:::@. -e%t is available under the /reative /ommons )ttribution#Chare)like LicenseE additional terms may apply. Cee -erms of use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, !nc., a non#profit organi3ation. /ontact us =rivacy policy )bout Wikipedia Disclaimers 4obile view