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Leisure, the Basis of Culture

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Leisure
The Basis of Culture
Josef Pieper
Introduction by Roger Scruton
New translation by Gerald Malsbary
St. Augustines Press
South Bend, Indiana
1998
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Copyright c 1948 by Kosel-Verlag
Translation copyright c 1998 by St. Augustines Press, Inc.
Originally published in German as Musse und Kult and Was heisst Philosophieren?
by K osel-Verlag. Authors preface is from the rst English edition, published by Pantheon
Books, a division of Random House, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record-
ing, or otherwise, without the prior permission of St. Augustines Press.
Manufactured in the United States of America.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Pieper, Josef, 1904 - 1997
[Musse und Kult. English] Leisure, the basis
of culture / Josef Pieper: introduction by
Roger Scruton; new translation by Gerlad
Malsbary.
p. cm.
Consists of a translation of the authors Musse und Kult, and of his Was heisst Philoso-
phieren?
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 1-890318-35-3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Leisure. 2. God - Worship and love. 3. Culture. 4. Philosophy. I. Malsbary, Gerald.
II. Pieper, Josef, 1904 - 1997 Was heisst Philosophieren? English. III. Title.
BJ1498.P513 1998 175 - dc21
98-15340 CIP
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the American
National Standard for Information Sciences - Permanence of Paper for Printed Materials,
ANSI Z39.48-1984.
6
INTRODUCTION
by T. S. ELIOT
Thc comjaint i- trcqucnty hcard that our timc ha- ittc to oa-t
ot in thc way ot jhio-ojhy \hcthcr thi- dccicncy i- duc to -omc
aimcnt ot jhio-ojhy it-ct, or to thc divcr-ion ot ac jhio-ojhica
mind- toward- othcr -tudic-, or -imjy to a -hortac ot jhio-ojhcr-,
i- ncvcr madc ccar thc-c arc divi-ion- ot thc quc-tion which arc ajt
to ccomc contu-cd Ccrtainy, \hcrc arc thc rcat jhio-ojhcr-
i- a rhctorica quc-tion ottcn a-kcd y tho-c who jur-ucd thcir jhio-
-ojhica -tudic- torty or tty ycar- ao Aowin tor thc jo--iiity
that thc rcat urc- ot our youth havc ccomc manicd y thc
ja--ac ot timc, and tor thc jroaiity that mo-t ot tho-c who a-k
thc quc-tion havc not toowcd modcrn jhio-ojhica dcvcojmcnt-
vcry co-cy, thcrc rcmain- -omc ,u-tication ot thc amcnt lt may c
mcrcy a onin tor thc ajjcarancc ot a jhio-ojhcr who-c writin-,
ccturc- and jcr-onaity wi arou-c thc imaination a- Lcr-on, tor
in-tancc, arou-cd it torty ycar- ao. ut it may c a-o thc cxjrc--ion
ot a nccd tor jhio-ojhy in an odcr mcanin ot thc word thc nccd
tor ncw authority to cxjrc-- insight and wisdom
To tho-c who jinc tor jhio-ojhy in thi- amjcr -cn-c, oica
jo-itivi-m i- thc mo-t con-jicuou- o,cct ot ccn-urc Ccrtainy, o-
7
ica jo-itivi-m i- not a vcry nouri-hin dict tor morc than thc -ma
minority which ha- ccn conditioncd to it \hcn thc timc ot it- cx-
hau-tion arrivc-, it wi jroay ajjcar, in rctro-jcct, to havc ccn
tor our ac thc countcrjart ot -urrcai-m tor a- -urrcai-m -ccmcd to
jrovidc a mcthod ot jroducin work- ot art without imaination, -o
oica jo-itivi-m -ccm- to jrovidc a mcthod ot jhio-ojhizin with-
out in-iht and wi-dom Thc attraction which it thu- ocr- to thc
immaturc mind may havc untortunatc rc-ut- tor -omc ot tho-c who
jur-uc thcir undcrraduatc -tudic- undcr it- inucncc Yct l cicvc
that in thc oncr vicw, oica jo-itivi-m wi havc jrovcd ot -crvicc
y cxjoration- ot thouht which wc -ha, in tuturc, c unac to
inorc. and cvcn it -omc ot it- avcnuc- turn out to c ind acy-,
it i-, attcr a, worth whic cxjorin a ind acy, it ony to di-covcr
that it is ind And, what i- morc imjortant tor my thcmc, l c-
icvc that thc -icknc-- ot jhio-ojhy, an o-curc rcconition ot which
movc- tho-c who comjain ot it- dccinc, ha- ccn jrc-cnt too on
to c attriutac to any jarticuar contcmjorary -choo ot thouht
At thc timc whcn l my-ct wa- a -tudcnt ot jhio-ojhy l -jcak
ot a jcriod -omc thirty-vc to torty ycar- ao thc jhio-ojhcr
wa- cinnin to -ucr trom a tccin ot intcriority to thc cxact -ci-
cnti-t It was felt that the mathematician was the man
best qualied to philosophize. Tho-c -tudcnt- ot jhio-ojhy
who had not comc to jhio-ojhy trom mathcmatic- did thcir c-t
(at ca-t, in thc univcr-ity in which my -tudic- wcrc conductcd) to
try to ccomc imitation mathcmatician- at ca-t to thc cxtcnt
ot acquaintin thcm-cvc- with thc jarajhcrnaia ot -ymoic oic
(l rcmcmcr onc cnthu-ia-tic contcmjorary who dcvi-cd a Symoic
Lthic-, tor which hc had to invcnt -cvcra -ymo- not tound in thc
Principia Mathematica) Lcyond thi-, -omc tamiiarity with con-
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tcmjorary jhy-ic- and with contcmjorary iooy wa- a-o jrizcd a
jhio-ojhica arumcnt -ujjortcd y iu-tration- trom onc ot thc-c
-cicncc- wa- morc rc-jcctac than onc which ackcd thcm cvcn it
thc -ujjortin cvidcncc wa- -omctimc- irrccvant `ow l am quitc
awarc that to thc jhio-ojhcr no cd ot knowcdc -houd comc
ami-- Thc idca jhio-ojhcr woud c at ca-c with cvcry -cicncc,
with cvcry ranch ot art, with cvcry anuac, and with thc whoc
ot human hi-tory Such cncycojacdic knowcdc miht jrc-crvc him
trom cxcc--ivc awc ot tho-c di-cijinc- in which hc wa- untraincd,
and cxcc--ivc ia- toward- tho-c in which hc wa- wc cxcrci-cd Lut
in an ac in which cvcry ranch ot -tudy ccomc- morc -udividcd
and -jcciaizcd, thc idca ot omni-cicncc i- morc and morc rcmotc
trom rcaization Yct ony omni-cicncc i- cnouh, oncc thc jhio-o-
jhcr cin- to rcy ujon -cicncc `o onc today, l imainc, woud
toow thc cxamjc ot Lo-anquct, who in hi- Logic cant -o hcav-
iy ujon iu-tration- drawn trom Linnacan Lotany Lut whic thc
jhio-ojhcr- cxjoitation ot -cicncc i- now ikcy to mcct with -cvcrc
critici-m, wc arc jcrhaj- too rcady to acccjt thc concu-ion- ot thc
-cicnti-t whcn hc jhio-ojhizc-
Onc ccct ot thi- -trivin ot jhio-ojhy toward- thc condition ot
thc cxact -cicncc- wa- that it jroduccd thc iu-ion ot a jrorc-- ot
jhio-ojhy, ot a kind to which jhio-ojhy -houd not jrctcnd lt
turncd out jhio-ojhica jcdaouc- inorant, not mcrcy ot hi-tory
in thc cncra -cn-c, ut ot thc hi-tory ot jhio-ojhy it-ct lt our
attitudc toward- jhio-ojhy i- inucnccd y an admiration tor thc
cxact -cicncc-, thcn thc jhio-ojhy ot thc ja-t i- -omcthin that ha-
ccn -ujcr-cdcd lt i- junctuatcd y individua jhio-ojhcr-, -omc
ot whom had momcnt- ot undcr-tandin, ut who-c work a- a whoc
comc- to c rcardcd a- quaint and jrimitivc Ior thc jhio-ojhy ot
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thc jrc-cnt, trom thi- joint ot vicw, i- atocthcr cttcr than that
ot thc ja-t, whcn -cicncc wa- in it- intancy. and thc jhio-ojhy ot
thc tuturc wi jrocccd trom thc di-covcric- ot our own ac lt i-
truc that thc hi-tory ot jhio-ojhy i- now admittcd a- a ranch ot
-tudy in it-ct, and that thcrc arc -jcciai-t- in thi- -u,cct ut l
-u-jcct that in thc ojinion ot a jhio-ojhcr ot thc modcrn -choo,
thc hi-torian ot jhio-ojhy i- rathcr an hi-torian than a jhio-ojhcr
Thc root cau-c ot thc vaaric- ot modcrn jhio-ojhy and jcr-
haj-, thouh l wa- uncon-ciou- ot it, thc rca-on tor my di--ati-taction
with jhio-ojhy a- a profession l now cicvc to ic in thc divorcc
ot jhio-ojhy trom thcooy lt i- vcry nccc--ary to anticijatc thc
rc-i-tancc to -uch an armation a rc-i-tancc -jrinin trom an
immcdiatc cmotiona rc-jon-c, and cxjrc--cd y -ayin that any dc-
jcndcncc ot jhio-ojhy ujon thcooy woud c a imitation ot thc
trccdom ot thouht ot thc jhio-ojhcr lt i- nccc--ary to makc ccar
what onc mcan- y thc nccc--ary rcation ctwccn jhio-ojhy and
thcooy, and thc imjication in jhio-ojhy ot -omc rciiou- taith
Thi- l -ha not attcmjt, ccau-c it i- donc vcry much cttcr y
!o-ct licjcr l dc-irc ony to ca attcntion to thi- ccntra joint in
hi- thouht Lc i- him-ct a Cathoic jhio-ojhcr, roundcd on lato,
Ari-totc and thc -choa-tic- and hc makc- hi- jo-ition quitc ccar to
hi- rcadcr- Lut hi- writin- do not con-titutc a Chri-tian apologetic
that, in hi- vicw, i- a ta-k tor thc thcooian Ior him, a jhio--
ojhy rcatcd to thc thcooy ot -omc othcr communion than that
ot lomc, or to that ot -omc othcr rciion thcn Chri-tianity, woud
-ti c a cnuinc jhio-ojhy lt i- -inicant that hc jay- a ja--in
word ot ajjrova to thc cxi-tcntiai-m ot Sartrc, on thc round that
hc nd- in it rciiou- jrc-ujjo-ition- uttcry dicrcnt a- thcy arc
trom tho-c which Lr licjcr hod- him-ct
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Thc c-tai-hmcnt ot a riht rcation ctwccn jhio-ojhy and thco-
oy, which wi cavc thc jhio-ojhcr quitc autonomou- in hi- own
arca, i- l think onc ot thc mo-t imjortant inc- ot invc-tiation which
Lr licjcr ha- jur-ucd ln a morc cncra way, hi- inucncc -houd
c in thc dircction ot rc-torin jhio-ojhy to a jacc ot imjortancc
tor cvcry cducatcd jcr-on who think-, in-tcad ot connin it to c-o-
tcric activitic- which can acct thc juic ony indirccty, in-idiou-y
and ottcn in a di-tortcd torm Lc rc-torc- to thcir jo-ition in jhi-
o-ojhy what common -cn-c o-tinatcy tc- u- ouht to c tound
thcrc insight and wisdom Ly armin thc dcjcndcncc ot jhi-
o-ojhy ujon rcvcation, and a jrojcr rc-jcct tor thc wi-dom ot
thc ancicnt-, hc jut- thc jhio-ojhcr him-ct in a jrojcr rcation
to othcr jhio-ojhcr- dcad and ivin Two dancr- to jhio-ojhy
arc thu- avcrtcd Onc i- thc con-ciou- or uncon-ciou- imitation ot
cxact -cicncc, thc a--umjtion that jhio-ojhcr- -houd c oranizcd
a- tcam- ot workcr-, ikc -cicnti-t- in thcir aoratoric-, invc-tiatin
variou- jart- ot a jrocm which i- conccivcd a- -ouc in thc -amc
way a- a jrocm in jhy-ic- Thc ojjo-itc crror i- that ot an odcr
and morc romantic attitudc, which jroduccd what l may ca thc
onc-man jhio-ojhy that i- to -ay, a word vicw which wa- a jro-
,cction ot thc jcr-onaity ot it- author, a di-ui-cd imjo-ition ot hi-
own tcmjcramcnt with a it- cmotiona ia-, ujon thc rcadcr l do
not wi-h to dimini-h thc randcur or thc vauc ot thc rcatc-t onc-
man jhio-ojhic- \hcn -uch a jhio-ojhy i- donc -ujcry wc, a-
y Sjinoza, it rctain- a jcrmancnt imjortancc tor humanity tor an
acquaintancc with Sjinoza, and a tcmjorary -umi--ion to hi- inu-
cncc, i- an cxjcricncc ot rcat vauc On thc othcr hand, thc coo--a
and rotc-quc achicvcmcnt ot Lcc may continuc in conccacd or
dcrivativc torm- to cxcrci-c a ta-cination ujon many mind- l woud
mcntion a-o thc work ot -uch a writcr a- I L Lradcy, which owc-
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it- jcr-ua-ivcnc-- to a ma-tcry jro-c -tyc Thc charm ot thc au-
thor- jcr-onaity -timuatc- an arccac -tatc ot tccin and -uch
ook- wi continuc to c rcad a- itcraturc, tor thc cnarcmcnt ot
our cxjcricncc throuh a contact with jowcrtu and individua mind-
Lr licjcr a-o ha- -tyc howcvcr dicut hi- thouht may -omc-
timc- c, hi- -cntcncc- arc admiray con-tructcd, hi- idca- cxjrc--cd
with thc maximum carity Lut hi- mind i- -umi--ivc to what hc
cicvc- to c thc rcat, thc main tradition ot Lurojcan thouht. hi-
oriinaity i- -uducd and uno-tcntatiou- And a- hc i- a jhio-ojhcr
who acccjt- cxjicity a domatic thcooy, hi- jrc-ujjo-ition- arc
in tu vicw, in-tcad ot cin, a- with -omc jhio-ojhcr- who jro-
tc-- comjctc dctachmcnt, conccacd trom oth author and rcadcr
Thc attitudc toward- jhio-ojhy which hc maintain-, and which di--
tinui-hc- him trom mo-t ot our contcmjoraric-, i- cnouh to ac-
count tor hi- jrctcrcncc tor cxjrc--ion in rict and conccntratcd c--
-ay- rathcr than in con-truction- ot rcatcr uk Ot -uch c--ay- hc
ha- arcady jui-hcd an imjrc--ivc i-t thc two hcrc jrc-cntcd arc
tho-c which author, tran-ator and jui-hcr- arccd ujon a- thc
mo-t -uitac introduction to hi- thouht
T. S. Eliot
12
INTRODUCTION
by Roger Scruton
Lont ,u-t do -omcthin -tand thcrc' Thc command ot an Amcr-
ican lrc-idcnt to a tu--y ocia wa- onc ot tho-c rarc momcnt- in
Amcrican joitic- whcn truth jrcvaicd ovcr indu-try !o-ct licjcr-
-crcnc rccction- on thc art ot cin -crcnc ouht to c rcad y cvcry
jractica jcr-on and thc morc that jcr-on i- invovcd in u-inc--,
joitic-, and juic itc, thc morc u-ctu wi licjcr c to him Ior
hcrc, in a -uccinct yct carncd arumcnt, arc a thc rca-on- tor think-
in that thc trcnzicd nccd to work, to jan, and to chanc thin- i-
nothin ut idcnc-- undcr othcr namc- mora, intccctua, and
cmotiona idcnc-- ln ordcr to dctcnd it-ct trom -ct-knowcdc, thi-
aitatcd idcnc-- i- u-y -ma-hin a thc mirror- in thc hou-c
Lci-urc ha- had a ad jrc-- Ior thc juritan it i- thc -ourcc ot vicc.
tor thc caitarian a -in ot jrivicc Thc `arxi-t rcard- ci-urc a-
thc un,u-t -urju-, cn,oycd y thc tcw at thc cxjcn-c ot thc many
`oody in a dcmocracy i- at ca-c with ci-urc, and amo-t cvcry
jcr-on, howcvcr ittc u-c hc may havc tor hi- timc, wi -ay that hc
work- hard tor a ivin curiou- cxjrc--ion, whcn thc rca thin to
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work tor i- dyin
Thc caumnic-, howcvcr, do not ajjy -o aruc- !o-ct licjcr \c
mi-takc ci-urc tor idcnc--, and work tor crcativity Ot cour-c, work
may c crcativc Lut ony whcn intormcd y ci-urc \ork i- thc
mcan- ot itc. ci-urc thc cnd \ithout thc cnd, work i- mcaninc--
a mcan- to a mcan- to a mcan- and -o on torcvcr, ikc \a
Strcct or Cajito Li Lci-urc i- not thc cc--ation ot work, ut work
ot anothcr kind, work rc-torcd to it- human mcanin, a- a cccra-
tion and a tc-tiva
Thi- i- what rciion tcachc- u-, and thc tcachin i- a- imjortant
tor thc uncicvcr a- tor thc jcr-on ot taith \c win through to
ci-urc At thc cnd ot a our -trivin wc rc,oicc in our cin and
ocr thank- lt i- thcn, catin a mca amon tho-c wc ovc, dancin
tocthcr at a wcddin, -ittin -idc y -idc with jcojc -icnccd y
mu-ic, that wc rcconizc our jccuiar -ovcrcin jo-ition in thc word
Our taiurc to undcr-tand ci-urc, licjcr makc- ccar, i- onc with
our taiurc to undcr-tand thc dicrcncc ctwccn man and thc othcr
anima- Think ony ot mca-timc- and on thi- -u,cct licjcr
writc- with uncommon jcrccjtivcnc-- Thc mca, a- licjcr jut- it,
ha- a -jiritua or cvcn a rciiou- charactcr That i- to -ay, it i- an
ocrin, a -acricc, and a-o - in thc hihc-t in-tancc a -acramcnt,
-omcthin ocrcd to u- trom on hih, y thc vcry Lcin to whom wc
ocr it Anima- cat, ut thcrc i- nothin in thcir ivc- to corrc-jond
to thi- cxjcricncc ot thc mca, a- a cccration and cndor-cmcnt ot
our itc hcrc on carth \hcn wc -it down to cat, wc arc con-ciou-y
rcmovin our-cvc- trom thc word ot work and mcan- and indu-try,
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and tacin outward-, to thc kindom ot cnd- Ica-t, tc-tiva, and
taith itt u- trom idcnc--, and cndow our ivc- with -cn-c
licjcr- ook i- a-o a tca-t \ith a-toni-hin rcvity, hc cxtract-
trom thc idca ot ci-urc not ony a thcory ot cuturc and it- -init-
icancc, not ony a natura thcooy tor our di-cnchantcd timc-, ut
a-o a jhio-ojhy ot jhio-ojhy - an account ot what jhio-ojhy can
do tor u-, and what it ouht to do tor u-, in a word whcrc -cicncc
and tcchnooy havc tricd to u-urj thc divinc command And hc
rcitcratc- that command a- it camc in a -ti -ma voicc to Li,ah,
and aain to la-ca and Iicrkcaard in hi- own cntc way, licjcr
tc- u- to Lc -ti
Roger Scruton
Malmesbury, March 1998
15
16
Authors Preface
to the English Edition
Thc-c two c--ay- wcrc jui-hcd -cjaratcy in Gcrmany, thc -cc-
ond havin ccn oriinay writtcn in thc torm ot ccturc-, ivcn in
Lonn in thc -ummcr ot 19! Thcy arc intimatcy conncctcd and
jrojcry con tocthcr Thi- i- not ony truc in thc -cn-c that
thcy wcrc oth writtcn in thc -amc -ummcr, in a -inc rcath, -o to
-ay. thcy oth -jrin trom thc -amc thouht
Thcir common oriin or toundation miht c -tatcd in thc to-
owin word- Cuturc dcjcnd- tor it- vcry cxi-tcncc on ci-urc, and
ci-urc, in it- turn, i- not jo--ic unc-- it ha- a durac and con-c-
qucnty ivin ink with thc cultus with divinc wor-hij
Thc word cut in Lni-h i- u-cd cxcu-ivcy, or amo-t cxcu-
-ivcy, in a dcrivativc -cn-c Lut hcrc it i- u-cd, aon with wor-hij,
in it- jrimary -cn-c lt mcan- -omcthin c-c than, and -omcthin
morc than, rciion lt rcay mcan- tuin thc ritua ot juic -ac-
ricc That i- a notion which contcmjorary modcrn man a--ociatc-
amo-t cxcu-ivcy and uncon-ciou-y with unciviizcd, jrimitivc jco-
jc- and with ca--ica antiquity Ior that vcry rca-on it i- ot thc r-t
imjortancc to -cc that thc cultus, now a- in thc di-tant ja-t, i- thc
jrimary -ourcc ot man- trccdom, indcjcndcncc and immunity within
17
-ocicty Sujjrc-- that a-t -jhcrc ot trccdom, and trccdom it-ct, and
a our icrtic-, wi in thc cnd vani-h into thin air
Cuturc, in thc -cn-c in which it i- u-cd aovc, i- thc quintc--cncc
ot a thc natura ood- ot thc word and ot tho-c itt- and quaitic-
which, whic conin to man, ic cyond thc immcdiatc -jhcrc ot
hi- nccd- and want- A that i- ood in thi- -cn-c, a man- itt- and
tacutic- arc not nccc--ariy u-ctu in a jractica way. thouh thcrc
i- no dcnyin that thcy con to a truy human itc, not -tricty
-jcakin nccc--ary, cvcn thouh hc coud not do without thcm
Amon thc bona non utilia sed honesta which arc at homc in thc
rcam ot trccdom, in it- inncrmo-t circc indccd, i- jhio-ojhy, thc
jhio-ojhica act, which mu-t c undcr-tood in thc traditiona -cn-c
ot lato, Ari-totc, Auu-tinc and Aquina-, and a- thcy undcr-tood
it Grant thi- oriina -cn-c ot thc word jhio-ojhizin to c thc
truc onc, and it i- no oncr jo--ic to -jcak ot thc jhio-ojhica
a-jcct in thc -amc way that onc miht -jcak ot a -ociooica and
hi-torica or a joitica a-jcct a- thouh onc coud takc uj thc onc
or thc othcr at wi ln thc tradition ot which l am -jcakin, thc
jhio-ojhica act i- a tundamcnta rcation to rcaity, a tu, jcr-ona
attitudc which i- y no manncr ot mcan- at thc -oc di-jo-a ot thc
ratio. it i- an attitudc which jrc-ujjo-c- -icncc, a contcmjativc
attcntion to thin-, in which man cin- to -cc how worthy ot vcn-
cration thcy rcay arc And it i- jcrhaj- ony in thi- way that it i-
jo--ic to undcr-tand how it wa- that lato- jhio-ojhica -choo,
thc Acadcmy in Athcn-, wa- at thc -amc timc a -ort ot cu or -oci-
cty tor thc cccration ot thc cutu- ln thc a-t rc-ort jurc thcory,
jhio-ojhica theoria, cntircy trcc trom jractica con-idcration- and
18
intcrtcrcncc and that i- what thcory i- can ony c jrc-crvcd
and rcaizcd within thc -jhcrc ot ci-urc, and ci-urc, in it- turn, i-
trcc ccau-c ot it- rcation to wor-hij, to thc cultus
Josef Pieper,
1952
19
20
Part I
Leisure, the Basis of Culture
21
But the Gods, taking pity on human beings -
a race born to labor - gave them regularly
recurring divine festivals, as a means of
refreshment from their fatigue; they gave
them the Muses, and Apollo and Dionysus as
the leaders of the Muses, to the end that,
after refreshing themselves in the company of
the Gods, they might return to an upright
posture.
- Plato
Be at leisure - and know that I am God.
- Psalm 45
23
24
I
\c can cin, ikc thc Schoa-tic ma-tcr-, with an o,cction vide-
tur qued non ... lt -ccm- not to c truc that And thi- i- thc
o,cction a timc ikc thc jrc-cnt |ic, a tcw ycar- attcr thc Sccond
\ord \ar, in Gcrmany| -ccm-, ot a timc-, not to c a timc to
-jcak ot ci-urc \c arc cnacd in thc rc-uidin ot a hou-c, and
our hand- arc tu Shoudnt a our cort- c dircctcd to nothin
othcr than thc comjction ot that hou-c
Thi- i- no -ma o,cction Lut thcrc i- a-o a ood an-wcr to it
To uid our hou-c at thi- timc imjic- not ony -ccurin -urviva,
ut a-o juttin in ordcr aain our cntirc mora and intccctua hcr-
itac And ctorc any dctaicd jan aon thc-c inc- can -uccccd,
our ncw cinnin, our rc-toundation, ca- out immcdiatcy tor a
dctcn-c ot ci-urc
Ior, whcn wc con-idcr thc toundation- ot \c-tcrn Lurojcan cu-
turc (i- it, jcrhaj-, too ra-h to a--umc that our rc-uidin wi in
tact c carricd out in a \c-tcrn -jirit lndccd, thi- and no othcr
i- thc vcry a--umjtion that i- at i--uc today), onc ot thc-c toun-
dation- i- ci-urc \c can rcad it in thc r-t chajtcr ot Ari-totc-
Metaphysics And thc vcry hi-tory ot thc mcanin ot thc word car-
a -imiar mc--ac Thc Grcck word tor ci-urc (o ) i- thc oriin
25
ot Latin scola, Gcrman Schule, Lni-h school Thc namc tor thc
in-titution- ot cducation and carnin mcan- leisure
Ot cour-c, thc oriina mcanin ot thc conccjt ot ci-urc ha-
jracticay ccn torottcn in today- ci-urcc-- cuturc ot tota
work in ordcr to win our way to a rca undcr-tandin ot ci-urc,
wc mu-t contront thc contradiction that ri-c- trom our ovcrcmjha-i-
on thc word ot work Onc doc- not ony work in ordcr to ivc,
ut onc ivc- tor thc -akc ot onc- work, thi- -tatcmcnt, quotcd y
`ax \ccr
1
, makc- immcdiatc -cn-c to u-, and ajjca- to currcnt
ojinion lt i- dicut tor u- to -cc how in tact it turn- thc ordcr ot
thin- uj-idc-down
And what woud c our rc-jon-c to anothcr -tatcmcnt \c
work in ordcr to c at ci-urc \oud wc hc-itatc to -ay thct hcrc
thc word i- rcay turncd uj-idc-down Loc-nt thi- -tatcmcnt aj-
jcar amo-t imorral to thc man and woman ot thc word ot tota
work l- it not an attack on thc a-ic jrincijc- ot human -ocicty
`ow, l havc not mcrcy con-tructcd a -cntcncc to jrovc a joint
Thc -tatcmcnt wa- actuay madc - y Ari-totc
2
Yc-, Ari-totc thc
-ocr, indu-triou- rcai-t, and thc tact that he -aid it, ivc- thc -tatc-
mcnt -jccia -inicancc \hat hc -ay- in a morc itcra tran-ation
woud c \c arc notatleisure in ordcr to beatleisure Ior thc
Grcck-, notci-urc wa- thc word tor thc word ot cvcryday work.
and not ony to indicatc it- hu-tc and u-tc, ut thc work it-ct
Thc Grcck anuac had ony thi- ncativc tcrm tor it ( o),
a- did Latin (neg-otium, notci-urc)
Thc contcxt not ony ot thi- -cntcncc ut a-o ot anothcr onc trom
1
The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism [transl. by Talcott Parsons] (New York: Charles
Scribners Sons, 1958, p. 264, note 24). Weber is quoting Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf.
2
Nicomachean Ethics X, 7 (1177b4-6).
26
Ari-totc- Politics (-tatin that thc jivot around which cvcry-
thin turn- i- ci-urc
3
) -how- that thc-c notion- wcrc not con-idcrcd
cxtraordinary, ut ony -ct-cvidcnt thc Grcck- woud jroay not
havc undcr-tood our maxim- aout work tor thc -akc ot work
Coud thi- a-o imjy that jcojc in our day no oncr havc dircct
accc-- to thc oriina mcanin ot ci-urc
Ot cour-c, wc can cxjcct an o,cction hcrc too how -criou-y
mu-t wc takc Ari-totc anyway \c can admirc thc ancicnt writcr-,
ot cour-c, ut that doc-nt mcan wc arc oicd to toow thcm
On thc othcr -idc, con-idcr thc toowin thc Chri-tian conccjt
ot thc contcmjativc itc (thc vita contemplativa) wa- uit on thc
Ari-totcian conccjt ot ci-urc Iurthcr, thc di-tinction ctwccn thc
Licra Art- and thc Scrvic Art- ha- it- oriin jrcci-cy hcrc
Lut i- not -uch a di-tinction ot intcrc-t ony to thc hi-torian \c,
at ca-t onc -idc ot thc di-tinction comc- to thc torc in cvcryday itc,
whcn thc i--uc ot -crvic work ari-c-, thc kind ot activity that i-
dccmcd inajjrojriatc tor thc hoy rc-t ot thc Saath, Sunday-,
or Loiday- Low many arc awarc that thc cxjrc--ion -crvic work
can not c tuy undcr-tood without contra-tin it with thc Licra
Art- And what doc- it mcan to -ay that -omc art- arc icra
or trcc Thi- i- -ti in nccd ot carication
Thi- cxamjc miht -ucc, it wc wantcd to -how, at ca-t, that
Ari-totc- word- do havc -omc rccvancc to our timc- And yct thi-
i- -ti not cnouh to oic u- in any way
Thc rca rca-on tor mcntionin it wa- to -how how -harjy thc
modcrn vauation ot work and ci-urc dicr- trom that ot Antiquity
and thc `iddc Ac- Thc dicrcncc i- -o rcat, in tact, that wc can
no oncr undcr-tand with any immcdiacy ,u-t what thc ancicnt and
mcdicva mind undcr-tood y thc -tatcmcnt, \c arc notatleisure
3
Politics VII, 3 (1337b33)
27
in ordcr to beatleisure
`ow, thc vcry tact ot thi- dicrcncc, ot our inaiity to rccovcr
thc oriina mcanin ot ci-urc, wi -trikc u- a thc morc whcn wc
rcaizc how cxtcn-ivcy thc ojjo-in idca ot work ha- invadcd and
takcn ovcr thc whoc rcam ot human action and ot human cxi-tcncc
a- a whoc. whcn wc rcaizc, a- wc, how rcady wc arc to rant a
caim- madc tor thc jcr-on who work-
ln thc toowin di-cu--ion, thc word workcr wi not c u-cd in
thc -cn-c ot a di-tinct kind ot occujation, with thc -ociooica and
-tati-tica -cn-c ot thc jroctarian workcr, athouh thc amiu-
ity i- not coincidcnta \orkcr wi c u-cd in an anthrojooica
-cn-c a- a cncra human idca lt i- with thi- mcanin in mind that
Lrn-t `icki-ch
4
-jokc ot thc workcr a- an imjcria urc, and
Lrn-t ! uncr
5
-kctchcd a jortrait ot that workcr-tyjc which ha-
arcady cun to dctcrminc thc tuturc ot humanity
An atcrcd conccjtion ot thc human cin as such, and a ncw
intcrjrctation ot thc mcanin ot human cxi-tcncc as such, oom- c-
hind thc ncw caim- cin madc tor work and thc workcr And
a- wc miht cxjcct, thc hi-torica cvoution which rc-utcd in thi-
chancd conccjtion i- dicut to toow, and amo-t imjo--ic to
rccovcr in dctai lt -omcthin ot rca imjort i- oin to c -aid on
thc mattcr, it wi c achicvcd not y rccon-tructin a hi-torica nar-
rativc, ut y diin morc dccjy to thc vcry root- ot a jhio-ojhica
and thcooica undcr-tandin ot thc human jcr-on
4
Ernst Niekisch, Die dritte imperiale Figur (Berlin, 1935).
5
Ernst J unger, Der Arbeiter. Herrschaft und Gestalt (Hamburg,1932).
28
II
lntccctua work, intccctua workcr - thc-c tcrm- charactcr-
izc thc atc-t -trctch ot thc road wc havc travccd, rinin u- at a-t
to thc modcrn idca ot work in it- mo-t cxtrcmc tormuation
j unti thi- timc (at ca-t trom thc joint ot vicw ot -omconc who
workcd with hi- hand-) thc jrovincc ot intccctua cntcrjri-c tcndcd
to c ookcd ujon a- a kind ot jaradi-c, whcrc noody nccdcd to
work. at thc hcart ot thi- jriviccd jrovincc ay jhio-ojhy, -omc-
thin at turthc-t rcmovc trom thc workin word
`ow, thc takcovcr ot thi- rcion ot intccctua action (incudin
thc jrovincc ot jhio-ojhica cuturc) and it- cxcu-ivc jo--c--ion y
thc rcam ot tota work, torm- ony thc mo-t rcccnt jha-c ot a whoc
-cric- ot conquc-t- madc y thc imjcria urc ot thc \orkcr
And thc conccjt- intellectual worker and intellectual work (with
thc cvauativc caim- that o with thcm) makc thc tact ot that con-
quc-t c-jcciay ccar and c-jcciay chacnin to our timc-
ln thi- a-t jart ot thc ,ourncy, howcvcr, thc -inicancc ot thc
whoc hi-torica jrocc-- ha- athcrcd it-ct tocthcr to torm an cx-
jrc--ion ot utmo-t jrcci-ion and carity Ior, in tuy cxjicatin thc
inncr -tructurc ot thc conccjt intccctua work, wc comc tacc to
tacc with thc word ot tota work and it- rca mcanin
29
Thc conccjt ot intccctua work ha- a numcr ot hi-torica an-
tcccdcnt-, which can -crvc to carity it
Iir-t, it i- a-cd on a ccrtain intcrjrctation ot thc human knowin
jrocc--
\hat hajjcn- whcn our cyc -cc- a ro-c \hat do wc do whcn
that hajjcn- Our mind doc- -omcthin, to c -urc, in thc mcrc
tact ot takin in thc o,cct, ra-jin it- coor, it- -hajc, and -o on
\c havc to c awakc and activc Lut a thc -amc, it i- a rcaxcd
ookin, -o on a- wc arc mcrcy ookin at it and not observing or
studying it, countin or mca-urin it- variou- tcaturc- Such o-crva-
tion woud not c a rcaxcd action it woud c what Lrn-t ! uncr
tcrmcd an act ot arc--ion
1
Lut -imjy ookin at -omcthin,
azin at it, takin it in, i- mcrcy to ojcn our cyc- to rcccivc thc
thin- that jrc-cnt thcm-cvc- to u-, that comc to u- without any
nccd tor cort on our jart to jo--c-- thcm
Thcrc woud -carccy c any di-jutc aout thi-, it wc wcrc -jcak-
in aout an act ot -cn-c jcrccjtion
Lut what aout an act ot knowin \hcn a human cin con-id-
cr- -omcthin imjcrccjtic to thc -cn-c-, i- thcrc thcn -uch a thin
a- mcrc ookin Or, to u-c thc -choa-tic tcchnica tcrminooy,
i- thcrc -uch a thin a- intccctua vi-ion
Thc ancicnt and mcdicva jhio-ojhcr- an-wcrcd, Yc- `odcrn
jhio-ojhcr- havc tcndcd to -ay, `o
To Iant, tor in-tancc, thc human act ot knowin i- cxcu-ivcy di--
cur-ivc, which mcan- not mcrcy ookin Thc undcr-tandin
cannot ook ujon anythin
2
Thi- doctrinc ha- ccn charactcrizcd,
1
Blatter und Steine (Hamburg, 1934), p. 202.
2
I. Kant, Kritik der reinen Vernunft, ed. R. Schmidt (Leipzig, 1944) p. 91.
30
in rict, a- onc ot thc mo-t momcntou- domatic a--umjtion- ot
Iantian cji-tcmooy
3
ln Iant- vicw, thcn, human knowin con-
-i-t- c--cntiay in thc act ot invc-tiatin, articuatin, ,oinin, com-
jarin, di-tinui-hin, a-tractin, dcducin, jrovin - a ot which
arc -o many tyjc- and mcthod- ot activc mcnta cort Accordin
to Iant, knowin (intellectual knowin, that i-, y thc human
cin) i- activity, and nothin ut activity
lt i- no wondcr that, -tartin trom thi- a-i-, Iant wa- ac to
concudc that a knowin, cvcn jhio-ojhy it-ct (-incc jhio-ojhy i-
at thc rcatc-t rcmovc trom -cn-c jcrccjtion), -houd c undcr-tood
a- a torm ot work
And hc -aid -o cxjrc--y in 19o, tor cxamjc, in an articc writ-
tcn to rctutc thc lomantic vi-ion and intuitivc jhio-ojhy ot
!acoi, Scho--cr, and Stocr
4
ln jhio-ojhy, Iant o,cct-, thc
aw ot rca-on i- -ujrcmc, whcrcy jrojcrty i- jo--c--cd throuh a-
or And thi- lomantic jhio-ojhy cannot truy c a jhio-ojhy
ccau-c it i- not work Thi- accu-ation hc dircct- cvcn aain-t
lato, that Iathcr ot a ravin cnthu-ia-m in lhio-ojhy, whic,
Iant -ay- with rcconition and ajjrova, Ari-totc- jhio-ojhy i-
truy work Irom -uch a jcr-jcctivc, oriinatin trom thc cxata-
tion ot a jhio-ojhy ot work, thc rcccnty cxatcd, jriviccd tonc
ot lhio-ojhy i- randcd a- a ta-c jhio-ojhy, in which onc doc-
not work ut mcrcy i-tcn- with dciht to thc oracc within onc-
-ct, in ordcr to comc into comjctc jo--c--ion ot thc whoc wi-dom
jromi-cd y jhio-ojhy And -uch a j-cudojhio-ojhy think-
it-ct -ujcrior to thc -trcnuou- aor ot thc truc jhio-ojhcr'
3
Bernhard Jansen, Die Geschichte der Erkenntislehre in der neueren Philosophie bis Kant (Paderborn,
1940), p. 235.
4
Von einem neuerdings erhobenen vornehmen Ton in der Philosophie, Akademie-Ausgabe 8, pp. 387-
406.
31
`ow, ancicnt and mcdicva jhio-ojhy had quitc thc ojjo-itc vicw,
without, ot cour-c, ,u-tityin any charc that jhio-ojhy wa- -omc-
thin ca-y `ot ony thc Grcck- in cncra - Ari-totc no c-- than
lato - ut thc rcat mcdicva thinkcr- a- wc, a hcd that thcrc wa-
an ccmcnt ot jurcy rcccjtivc ookin, not ony in -cn-c jcrccjtion
ut a-o in intccctua knowin or, a- Lcracitu- -aid, Listening-in
to the being of things.
5
Thc mcdicva- di-tinui-hcd ctwccn thc intccct a- ratio and thc
intccct a- intellectus Ratio i- thc jowcr ot di-cur-ivc thouht, ot
-carchin and rc--carchin, a-tractin, rcnin, and concudin |cf.
Latin dis-currere, to run to and tro|, whcrca- intellectus rctcr- to
thc aiity ot -imjy ookin (simplex intuitus), to which thc truth
jrc-cnt- it-ct a- a and-cajc jrc-cnt- it-ct to thc cyc Thc -jiritua
knowin jowcr ot thc human mind, a- thc ancicnt- undcr-tood it, i-
rcay two thin- in onc ratio and intellectus, a knowin invovc-
oth Thc jath ot di-cur-ivc rca-onin i- accomjanicd and jcnc-
tratcd y thc intellectus untirin vi-ion, which i- not activc ut
ja--ivc, or cttcr, receptive - a rcccjtivcy ojcratin jowcr ot thc
intccct
And -omcthin c-c mu-t c addcd thc ancicnt- ikcwi-c con-id-
crcd thc activc cort- ot thc di-cur-ivc ratio to c thc c--cntiay
human ccmcnt ot human knowin. ratio a- thc dcci-ivcy human
activity wa- contra-tcd with thc intellectus, which had to do with
what -urja--c- human imit- Ot cour-c, thi- -ujcr-human jowcr
ncvcrthcc-- doc- con to man, and what i- c--cntiay human
aonc doc- not cxhau-t thc knowin jowcr ot human naturc. tor it i-
5
Diels-Kranz, ed., Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, frag. 112.
32
c--cntia to thc human jcr-on to rcach cyond thc jrovincc ot thc
human and into thc or dcr ot anc-, thc truy intccctua cin-
Athouh human knowin rcay takc- jacc in thc modc ot ra-
tio, ncvcrthcc-- it i- a kind ot jarticijation in that -imjc knowin
which takc- jacc in hihcr naturc-, and wc can thu- concudc that
human cin- jo--c-- a jowcr ot intccctua vi-ion Thc-c arc thc
word- ot Thoma- Aquma-, Disputed Questions on Truth
6
Thi-
-tatcmcnt mcan- that human knowin i- a jartakin in thc non-
di-cur-ivc jowcr ot vi-ion cn,oycd y thc anc-, to whom it ha-
ccn rantcd to takc in thc immatcria a- ca-iy a- our cyc- takc
in iht or our car- -ound Luman knowin ha- an ccmcnt ot thc
non-activc, jurcy rcccjtivc -ccin, which i- not thcrc in virtuc ot
our humanity a- -uch, ut in virtuc ot a tran-ccndcncc ovcr what i-
human, ut which i- rcay thc hihc-t tumcnt ot what it i- to c
human, and i- thu- truy human attcr a (in thc -amc way, aain
accordin to Thoma- Aquina-, thc vita contemplativa a- thc hih-
c-t torm ot human ivin i- not jrojcry human, ut -ujcrhuman
non proprie humana, sed superhumana)
7
Ior thc ancicnt and mcdicva jhio-ojhcr- thc aorin naturc
ot thc human ratio wa- ikcwi-c a mark ot it- humannc-- Thc ojcr-
ation ot thc ratio, it- di-cur-ivc thinkin jrocc--, rcay i- work, and
a dicut activity
Lut thc -imjc act ot thc intellectus i- not work And whocvcr
think-, aon with thc ancicnt-, that human knowin i- a mutua in-
tcrjay ot ratio and intellectus. whocvcr can rcconizc an ccmcnt ot
intccctua vi-ion within di-cur-ivc rca-onin. whocvcr, nay, can
rctain in jhio-ojhy an ccmcnt ot contcmjation ot cin a- a whoc
- -uch a jcr-on wi havc to rant that a charactcrization ot knowin
6
Q.XV,1.
7
Quaestio disputata de virtutibus cardinalibus 1.
33
and jhio-ojhy a- work i- not ony not cxhau-tivc, ut doc- not
cvcn rcach thc corc ot thc mattcr, and that -omcthin c--cntia i-
in tact mi--in trom -uch a dcnition Ccrtainy, knowin in cncra
and jhio-ojhica knowin in jarticuar cannot takc jacc without
thc cort and activity ot di-cur-ivc rca-onin, without thc nui-ancc
ot aor (labor improbus) invovcd in a intccctua work Lvcn
-o, thcrc i- -omcthin c-c in it, and -omcthin c--cntia to it, that
i- not work
Thc -tatcmcnt, knowin i- work, or knowin i- an activity, i-
a -tatcmcnt with two -idc- to it lt imjic- a dcmand on thc human
cin, and a dcmand made y thc human cin lt you want to un-
dcr-tand -omcthin, you havc to work. in jhio-ojhy, Iant- Law ot
thc Luman lca-on, that jrojcrty i- acquircd throuh aor,
8
hod-
truc - and that i- a caim on man
Thc othcr, hiddcn, -idc ot thc -amc dictum - thc -idc that doc-
not immcdiatcy -how it-ct - i- thc caim made by man it know-
in i- work, cxcu-ivcy work, thcn thc onc who know-, know- ony
thc truit ot hi- own, -u,cc tivc activity, and nothin c-c Thcrc i-
nothin in hi- knowin that i- not thc truit ot hi- own cort-. thcrc
i- nothin rcccivcd in it
To -um uj thc arumcnt thank- to a ccrtain undcryin a--umj-
tion, thc conccjt ot intccctua work ha- aincd a rcat dca ot
inucncc - thc a--umjtion that human knowin i- accomji-hcd in
an cxcu-ivcy activc,di-cur-ivc ojcration ot thc ratio
And whcn wc ook into thc tacc ot thc workcr, it i- thc trait- ot
cort and -trc-- that wc -cc ccomin morc jronounccd thcrc
8
Kant, op. cit (see note 4 above), p. 393.
34
and, -o to -jcak, jcrmancnty ctchcd lt i- thc mark ot a-outc ac-
tivity (which Gocthc -aid makc- onc ankrujt, in thc cnd
9
). thc
hard quaity ot notbeingabletoreceive. a -toninc-- ot hcart, that
wi not rook any rc-i-tancc - a- cxjrc--cd oncc, mo-t radicay, in
thc toowin tcrrityin -tatcmcnt Lvcry action makc- -cn-c, cvcn
crimina act- a ja--ivity i- -cn-cc--
10
Lut it i- -imjy not thc ca-c that di-cur-ivc thinkin and intc-
cctivc vi-ion arc a- cxcu-ivcy ojjo-cd to onc anothcr a- activity
to rcccjtivity, or a- activc cort to rcccjtivc a-orjtion lathcr,
thcy arc rcatcd to cach othcr a- cort and -truc, on thc onc hand,
arc rcatcd to cortc--nc-- and cam jo--c--ion, on thc othcr
Irom thc contra-t ,u-t mcntioncd - ctwccn cort and cortc---
nc-- - ajjcar- a second -ourcc ot cmjha-i- on thc conccjt intc-
cctua work \c -jcak hcrc ot a jccuiar critcrion tor dctcrminin
thc vauc ot action a- -uch \hcn Iant -jokc ot jhio-ojhy a- a
Lcrcucan aor,
11
hc wa- ony u-in a convcnicnt urc ot -jccch
Ior, in thi- aoriou- a-jcct, hc -aw a kind ot citimation ot jhio-o-
jhy jhio-ojhy i- cnuinc, insofar a- it i- a Lcrcucan aor Thc
tact that intccctivc vi-ion didnt cost anything i- what madc it
-o -u-jiciou- to him Iant cxjcctcd no rca ain in knowcdc trom
intccctua vi-ion, because it i- thc vcry naturc ot vi-ion to c cort-
c--
\oud not -uch a vicwjoint rin u- to thc concu-ion, or at ca-t,
co-c to thc concu-ion, that thc truth ot what i- known i- dctcrmincd
y thc eort jut into knowin it
9
Maximen und Reexionen, ed. G unther M uller (Stuttgart, 1943), no. 1415.
10
Hermann Rauschning, Gesprache mit Hitler (Zurich/New York, 1940), quoted according to the selections
published in the journal Die Wandlung (I, 1945/6), pp. 684 .
11
Kant, op. cit., p. 390.
35
`ow, thi- i- not -o vcry di-tant trom thc cthica doctrinc that
hod- that whatcvcr -omconc doc- y incination - and that mcan-,
without cort - i- a ctraya ot truc moraity lndccd, accordin to
Iant, thc mora aw y dcnition i- ojjo-cd to natura incination
lt i- -imjy jart ot thc naturc ot thin- that thc Good i- dicut
and that thc vountary cort jut into torcin onc-ct to do -omc-
thin ccomc- thc -tandard tor mora oodnc-- Thc morc dicut
thin mu-t c thc hihcr Good Schicr- ironic vcr-c- joint out thc
jrocm
I help my friends, and it feels nice
Until I fear that its a vice.
12
So, cort i- ood Thi- wa- a thouht tormuatcd on ao y
thc Cynic jhio-ojhcr Anti-thcnc-
13
, onc ot lato- tricnd- and a tc-
ow di-cijc ot Socratc- Anti-thcnc-, y thc way, wa- a -urjri-iny
modcrn urc Lc wa- rc -jon-ic tor thc r-t jaradim ot thc
workcr - or rathcr, hc rcjrc-cntcd it him-ct Lc not ony camc uj
with thc cquation ot cort with oodnc--, hc a-o cxtocd Lcrcuc-
a- thc Accomji-hcr ot Sujcrhuman Action-
14
`ow, thi- i- an imac
that -ti (or, oncc morc) ha- a ccrtain comjcin attraction trom
thc motto ot Lra-mu-
15
to thc jhio-ojhy ot Iant, who u-cd thc word
Lcrcucan to jrai-c thc hcroi-m ot jhio-ojhcr-, and on to Thoma-
Caryc, thc jrojhct ot thc rciion ot \ork You mu-t aor ikc
Lcrcuc-
16
A- an cthici-t ot indcjcndcncc, thi- Anti-thcnc- had
12
Die Philosophen (Gewissenskrupel): Gerne dient ich den Freunden, doch tu ich es leider mit Neigung
/Und so wurmt es mir oft, dass ich nicht tugendhaft bin.
13
Antisthenes statement is found in Diogenes Laertius, The Lives and Teachings of the Philosophers, VI,
1, 2.
14
Ibid.; a work of Antisthenes (no longer extant) bore the title, The Greater Hercules, or On Power.
15
Anton Gail told me of a portrait of Erasmus, painted by Hans Holbein, in which Erasmus has his hands
resting on a book with the title Herakleou Ponoi [Greek for the Labors of Hercules] - Erasmi Roterodami.
16
Carlyle, as quoted by Robert Langewiesche (in an anthology of Carlyles writings, in German translation
36
no tccin tor cutic cccration, which hc jrctcrrcd attackin with
cnihtcncd wit.
17
hc wa- a-mu-ica (a toc ot thc `u-c- joctry
ony intcrc-tcd him tor it- mora contcnt).
18
hc tct no rc-jon-ivcnc--
to Lro- (hc -aid hc woud ikc to ki Ajhroditc).
19
a- a at lcai-t,
hc had no cict in immortaity (what rcay mattcr-, hc -aid, wa-
to ivc rihty on thi- carth)
20
Thi- cocction ot charactcr trait-
ajjcar amo-t jurjo-cy dc-incd to iu-tratc thc vcry tyjc ot thc
modcrn workahoic
Lort i- ood o,cctin to thi- thc-i- in thc Summa theolo-
giae, Thoma- Aquina- wrotc a- toow- Thc c--cncc ot virtuc con-
-i-t- morc in thc Good than in thc Licut
21
\hcn -omcthin i-
morc dicut, it i- not tor that rca-on nccc--ariy morc worthwhic,
ut it mu-t c morc dicut in -uch a way, a- a-o to c at a hihcr
cvc ot oodnc--
22
Thc `iddc Ac- had -omcthin to -ay aout
virtuc that wi c hard tor u-, tcow countrymcn ot Iant, to undcr-
-tand And what wa- thi- That virtuc makc- it jo--ic tor u-
to ma-tcr our natura incination- `o That i- what Iant woud
havc -aid, and wc a miht c rcady to arcc \hat Thoma- -ay-,
in-tcad, i- that virtuc jcrtcct- u- -o that wc can follow our natura
incination in thc riht way
23
Yc-, thc hihc-t rcaization- ot mora
oodnc-- arc known to c -uch jrcci-cy in thi- that thcy takc jacc
eortlessly ccau-c it i- ot thcir c--cncc to ari-c trom ovc And yct
thc ovcrcmjha-i- on cort and -truc ha- madc an inroad cvcn on
[Konigstein, n.d.], p. 28).
17
Cf. Wilhelm Nestle, Griechischen Geistesgeschichte von Homer bis Lukian (Stuttgart, 1944), pp. 313
.
18
Ibid., p. 314.
19
Transmitted by Clement of Alexandria, Stromata,II, 107, 2. In the same passage it is also reported that
He considered the desire of love as an evil of nature.
20
Cf. Diogenes Laertius, VI, 1, 5.
21
Summa theologiae II-II, Q. 123, a. 12, ad 2um.
22
Ibid., II-II, Q. 27, a. 8, ad 3um.
23
Ibid., II-II, Q. 108, a. 2.
37
our undcr-tandin ot ovc \hy, tor in-tancc, in thc ojinion ot thc
avcrac Chri-tian, i- thc ovc ot onc- cncmic- thc hihc-t torm ot
ovc Lccau-c hcrc, thc natura incination i- -ujjrc--cd to a hcroic
dcrcc \hat makc- thi- kind ot ovc -o rcat i- jrcci-cy it- unu-ua
dicuty, it- jractica imjo--iiity Lut what doc- Thoma- -ay lt
i- not thc dicuty invovcd that makc- thi- kind ot ovc -o worthy,
cvcn thouh thc rcatnc-- ot thc ovc i- -hown y it- jowcr to ovcr-
comc thc dicuty Lut it thc ovc wcrc -o rcat, a- comjctcy to
rcmovc a dicuty that woud c a -ti rcatcr ovc
24
lt woud toow, thcn, that thc c--cncc ot knowin woud ic, not in
thc cort ot thouht a- -uch, ut in thc ra-j ot thc cin ot thin-,
in thc di-covcry ot rcaity
!u-t a- in thc rcam ot thc Good, thc rcatc-t virtuc i- without
dicuty, -o in knowin, thc hihc-t torm woud c thc ihtcnin-
ikc in-iht, truc contcmjation, which comc- to onc ikc a itt. it
i- cortc-- and not urdcn-omc Thoma- -jcak- ot contemplation
and play in a -inc rcath Lccau-c ot thc ci-urc ot contcmjation
|otium contemplationis| thc Scrijturc -ay- ot thc Livinc \i-dom
it-ct that it jay- a thc timc, jay- throuhout thc word |Wis-
dom S, 30|
25
Surcy, -uch hihc-t rcaization- ot knowin woud c jrcccdcd y
an cxccjtiona cort ot thouht, and jcrhaj- must c -o jrcjarcd
(othcrwi-c, -uch knowcdc woud c racc in thc -trict -cn-c). ut
in any ca-c, thc cort woud not c thc cau-c ut rathcr a nccc--ary
condition tor it And thc hoy cortc--nc-- ot thc action ot charity
woud a-o c conncctcd with jrcviou-, and hcroic, cxcrci-c ot thc
wi Inowin mcan- that thc rcaity ot cxi-tin thin- ha- ccn
24
Quaest. disp. de caritate 8, ad l7um.
25
Commentary on the Sentences I, d. 2 (expositio textus).
38
rcachcd. it doc- not con-i-t in thc cort ot thouht, or intccctua
work
Thi- a-jcct too ot thc conccjt ot intccctua work - thc ovcr-
vauation ot thc dicut a- -uch - jrc-cnt- it-ct in thc dccjy
ctchcd vi-ac ot thc workcr tho-c ma-k-ikc, -tony tcaturc-, rcady
to -ucr jain, no mattcr what thc rca-on Thc un-related nature
ot thi- rcadinc-- to -ucr i- thc dcci-ivc dicrcncc ccau-c in thi-
ca-c -omconc doc- not a-k why Such rcadinc-- to -ucr (in which
thc utimatc mcanin ot a di-cijinc ha- ccn -ccn to con-i-t)
26
i-
radicay dicrcnt trom thc Chri-tian undcr-tandin ot -ct-acricc
in thc attcr, onc doc- not intcnd thc jaintu a- -uch, nor -cck- cx-
crtion tor thc -akc ot cxcrtion, nor thc dicut -imjy ccau-c it i-
dicut. rathcr, what onc -cck- i- a hihcr i--, a hcain, and thc
tunc-- ot cxi-tcncc, and thcrcy thc tunc-- ot hajjinc-- Thc oa
and thc norm ot di-cijinc i- hajjinc--
27
Thc inncrmo-t mcanin ot thi- ovcr-cmjha-i- on cort ajjcar- to
c thi- that man mi-tru-t- cvcrythin that i- without cort. that
in ood con-cicncc hc can own ony what hc him-ct ha- rcachcd
throuh jaintu cort. that hc rctu-c- to ct him-ct c ivcn any-
thin
\c -houd con-idcr tor a momcnt how much thc Chri-tian un-
dcr-tandin ot itc i- a-cd on thc rcaity ot Gracc. ct u- a-o
rcca that thc Loy Sjirit Lim-ct i- cacd Gitt.
28
that thc rcat-
c-t Chri-tian tcachcr- havc -aid that thc !u-ticc ot God i- a-cd on
Lovc.
29
that -omcthin ivcn, -omcthin trcc ot a dct, -omcthin
26
Ernst J unger, Blatter und Steine, p. 179.
27
Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae II-II, Q. 141, a. 6, ad 1um.
28
Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra gentiles, IV, 23: It is the role of the Holy Spirit, to be given; and
Summa theologiae I, Q. 38, a. 2 ad lum: The Holy Spirit, Who comes forth as Love from the Father, is
truly called a gift.
29
Summa theologiae I, Q. 21, a. 4.
39
undc-crvcd, -omcthin not-achicvcd - i- jrc-umcd in cvcry thin
achicvcd or aid caim to. that what i- r-t i- away- -omcthin rc-
ccivcd - it wc kccj a thi- ctorc our cyc-, wc can -cc thc ay-- that
-cjaratc- thi- othcr attitudc trom thc inhcritancc ot Chri-tian Lu-
rojc
\c havc ccn inquirin into thc oriin ot thc conccjt ot intccctua
aor, and wc havc tound that thc conccjt ha- it- oriin aovc a in
two thc-c- 1) thc vicw that a human knowin i- accomji-hcd cx-
cu-ivcy in thc man ncr ot di-cur-ivc activity. and 2) thc vicw that
thc cort that oc- into thouht i- thc critcrion ot it- truth Lut
thcrc i- a third ccmcnt invovcd a- wc, which ajjcar- to c cvcn
morc crucia than thc r-t two and -ccm- to comjrc hcnd oth ot
thcm within it-ct Thi- i- thc -ocia doctrinc that ic- conccacd in
thc conccjt- ot intccctua aor and intccctua workcr
ndcr-tood in thi- way, work mcan- contriution to -ocicty
And intccctua work i- intccctua activity a- -ocia -crvicc, a-
contriution to thc common utiity Lut that i- not a that thc tcrm-
intccctua work and intccctua workcr -ay Thc contcmjorary
u-c ot thc word- incudc- a- wc a rctcrcncc to thc workin ca--,
and -omcthin ikc thc toowin i- imjicd not ony thc wac carncr,
thc hand-workcr, and thc jroctarian arc workcr-. cvcn thc carncd
man, thc -tudcnt, arc workcr-. thcy too arc drawn into thc -ocia
-y-tcm and it- di-triution ot aor Thc intccctua workcr i- a-o
ound to hi- tunction. hc too i- a tunctionary in thc tota word ot
work, hc may c cacd a -jcciai-t, hc i- -ti a tunctionary And
-omcthin c-c, -omcthin cvcn morc jointcd i- cin -aid noody -
whcthcr hc c intccctua or hand workcr - noody i- rantcd a
trcc zonc ot intccctua activity, trcc mcanin not cin -uordi-
40
natcd to a duty to tu -omc tunction \ith thi-, our inquiry mcct-
thc vcry nu ot thc i--uc l- it not ccar to cvcryonc how much thc
jrocm ha- onc cyond thc mcrcy thcorctica -tac, to thrcatcn
dra-tic imjication-
And yct thc -ocia - y which wc undcr-tand thc rcation-hij-
ot -ocia ca--c- and roujin- with onc an othcr - thc -ocia i-
ony thc torcround, and wc wi havc morc to -ay aout it atcr
Thc rca quc-tion, howcvcr, i- a mctajhy-ica onc lt i- thc od
quc-tion aout thc ,u-tication and -cn-c ot thc artes liberales
\hat arc icra art- Thoma- Aquina- jrovidc- -omc conccj-
tua carication in hi- Commentary on Aristotles Metaphysics
Lvcry art i- cacd liberal which i- ordcrcd to knowin. tho-c which
arc ordcrcd to -omc utiity to c attaincd throuh action arc cacd
servile art-
30
Six hundrcd ycar- atcr, !ohn Lcnry `cwman -aid a-
toow- l know wc, `cwman -ay-, that knowcdc may rc-ovc
it-ct into an art, and -cminatc in a mcchanica jrocc-- and in tani-
c truit. ut it may a-o ta ack ujon that lca-on which intorm- it,
and rc-ovc it-ct into lhio-ojhy Ior in onc ca-c it i- cacd -ctu
Inowcdc. in thc othcr, Licra
31
Licra art-, thcrctorc, arc way- ot human action which havc
thcir ,u-tication in thcm-cvc-. -crvic art- arc way- ot human ac-
tion that havc a jurjo-c out-idc ot thcm-cvc-, a jurjo-c, to c morc
cxact, which con-i-t- in a u-ctu ccct that can c rcaizcd throuh
praxis Thc icraity or trccdom ot thc icra art- con-i-t- in
thcir not cin di-jo-ac tor jurjo-c-, that thcy do not nccd to c
citimatcd y a -ocia tunction, y cin work
To many jcojc, thc quc-tion aout thc ,u-tication and mcanin
30
Commentary on Aristotles Metaphysics I, 3.
31
Newman, Idea of a University, V, 6.
41
ot thc icra art- wi -ccm to c an arcady an-wcrcd quc-tion, an i--
-uc now jut chind u- To tran-atc thc quc-tion into contcmjorary
anuac, it woud -ound -omcthin ikc thi- l- thcrc -ti an arca
ot human action, or human cxi-tcncc a- -uch, that doc- not havc it-
,u-tication y cin jart ot thc machincry ot a vc-ycar jan l-
thcrc or i- thcrc not -omcthin ot that kind
Thc inncr tcndcncy ot thc conccjt- intccctua work and in-
tccctua workcr joint to thc an-wcr `o, thc human cin i- c--
-cntiay, and with hi- whoc cxi- tcncc, a tunctionary, cvcn in thc
mo-t noc torm- ot hi- activity
\c can rcatc thc quc-tion to jhio-ojhy and jhio-ojhica cdu-
cation lhio-ojhy can c cacd thc mo-t icra ot thc icra art-
Inowcdc i- mo-t truy trcc whcn it i- jhio-ojhica knowcdc,
`cwman -aid
32
And jhio-ojhy, in a ccrtain -cn-c, avc it- namc to
thc icra art-, tor thc Art- Iacuty ot thc mcdicva univcr-ity i-
today |in Gcrmany| cacd thc lhio-ojhica Iacuty
Ior our inquiry, thcn, jhio-ojhy, and how it i- vaucd, ccomc-
an indicator ot jarticuar imjortancc
Ior thcrc i- not much to di-jutc aout whcthcr, or to what cxtcnt,
thc natura -cicncc-, mcdica -cicncc, ,uri-jrudcncc, or cconomic-
-houd havc a circum-cricd jacc tor thcm-cvc- in thc tunction-
in unity ot thc modcrn -ocia -y-tcm, and thu- c cajac ot cin
ca--cd a- work in -ocia--cicntic u-ac lt i- ot thc naturc ot
thc individua -cicncc- to c rcatcd to jurjo-c- that cxi-t ajart
trom thcm-cvc- Lut thcrc i- a-o a jhio-ojhica manncr ot trcat-
in thc-c -jccia -cicncc-, and thcn our quc-tion aout jhio-ojhy
a- -uch woud ajjy to thcm a-o Thc thcorcticay trcatcd -jccia
-cicncc - that mcan- that a -cicncc i- cin jur-ucd in thc orii-
na, acadcmic -cn-c - (tor acadcmic mcan- jhio-ojhica or it
32
Ibid.
42
mcan- nothin')
Thu-, it wc arc -jcakin aout thc jacc and ,u-tication tor jhi-
o-ojhy, thcn at thc -amc timc, wc arc -jcakin, no morc and no c--,
aout thc jacc and ,u-tication tor thc nivcr-ity, tor acadcmic cd-
ucation, and tor cducation |Bildung| in thc cnuinc -cn-c - in thc
-cn-c in which it dicr- trom and tran-ccnd-, in jrincijc, a mcrc
carccr trainin
Thc tunctionary i- traincd Trainin i- di-tinui-hcd y it- ori-
cntation toward -omcthin jartia, and -jcciaizcd, in thc human
cin, and toward -omc onc -cction ot thc word Lducation i- con-
ccrncd with thc whoc who cvcr i- cducatcd know- how thc word a-
a whoc chavc- Lducation conccrn- thc whoc human cin, in-otar
a- hc i- capax universi, cajac ot thc whoc, ac to comjrchcnd
thc -um tota ot cxi-tin thin-
Lut thi- i- not to -ay anythin aain-t jrotc--iona trainin, or
aain-t thc tunctionary Ot cour-c, thc vocationay -jcciaizcd cx-
crci-c ot a tunction i- the norma torm ot human activity. what i-
norma i- work, and thc norma day i- a workin day Lut thc quc--
tion i- thi- can thc word ot man c cxhau-tcd in cin thc workin
word Can thc human cin c -ati-cd with cin a tunctionary,
a workcr Can human cxi-tcncc c tucd in cin cxcu-ivcy
a work-a-day cxi-tcncc Or, to jut it anothcr way, trom thc othcr
dircction, a- it wcrc Arc thcrc -uch thin- a- icra art- Thc ar-
chitcct- ot thc tota word ot work woud havc to an-wcr, `o ln
thc word ot thc workcr, a- Lrn-t ! uncr jut it, thcrc i- a dcnia
ot trcc rc-carch
33
ln thc con-i-tcnty janncd workin--tatc thcrc
can c ncithcr cnuinc jhio-ojhy (to who-c naturc it con-, not
to c at thc di-jo-a ot jurjo-c-, and in thi- -cn-c trcc), nor can
thc -jccia -cicncc- c trcatcd in a jhio-ojhica manncr (and that
33
Blatter und Steine, p. 176.
43
mcan-, acadcmicay in thc oriina -cn-c ot thc word)
`ow it i- in thc tcrm intccctua workcr, aovc a, that thi-
vcry -ituation i- c-tai-hcd and jrocaimcd lt i- thu- -ymjtomatic,
and jaintuy -o, that inui-tic u-ac, and c-jcciay acadcmic u--
ac, ha- ccn -o inucnccd y a thi- tak ot intccctua workcr
or mcnta aorcr
Lut thc ancicnt- -aid that thcrc rihty cxi-t non-u-ctu torm- ot
human activity, that thcrc arc -uch thin- a- icra art- Thcrc arc
not ony tunctionary -cicncc-, thcrc i- a-o thc knowcdc ot a cn-
tcman, a- ! L `cwman -o hajjiy tran-atcd thc od tcrm artes
liberales in hi- Idea of a University
34
lt -houd o without -ayin that not cvcrythin that cannot cx-
acty c catcorizcd a- u-ctu i- u-cc-- And thu- it i- not at a
without -inicancc tor a jcojc and thc rcaization ot a nation-
common ood that room c aowcd, and rc-jcct c rantcd, tor
what i- not u-ctu work in thc -cn-c ot immcdiatc ajjication A-
Gocthc thc `ini-tcr ot Statc wrotc to Iricdrich Sorct |Oct 20, 1S30|
l havc ncvcr a-kcd how do l u-c thc whoc - rathcr, l havc ony
attcmjtcd to -jcak out what l undcr-tood a- ood and truc Ot
cour-c, thi- wa- madc u-c ot in a widcr circc, ut that wa- not it-
jurjo-c, ony a nccc--ary rc-ut
35
Accordin to Lcc- nc tormuation, thcrc i- not ony u-c, thcrc
i- a-o c--in
36
ln ,u-t -uch a -cn-c can thc mcdicva -tatcmcnt c undcr-tood,
34
The Idea of a University, V. 5.
35
Taken from Goethes Conversations with Eckermann.
36
Taken from the preface to Hegels Wissenschaft der Logic, where the fuller context says that the
contemplation of the Eternal and of a life that serves it alone is motivated not for the sake of use, but for
the sake of blessing.
44
that it i- nccc--ary tor thc jcrtcction ot thc human community, that
thcrc c jcr-on- who dcvotc thcm-cvc- to thc |u-cc--| itc ot contcm-
jation
37
To which l woud ony ikc to add that thi- i- nccc--ary
not ony tor thc jcrtcction ot thc individua- thcm-cvc-, who dcvotc
thcm-cvc- to thc vita contemplativa, ut a-o tor thc jcrtcction
ot thc whoc human community' \oud anyonc who think- ony in
tcrm- ot thc intccctua workcr c wiin to -ay that
37
Thomas Aquinas, Commentary on the Sentences IV, D. 26, 1, 2.
45
46
III
Our rict -kctch ot thc \orkcr tyjc ha- rouht into thc ojcn
thrcc jrincija charactcri-tic- an outwardy dircctcd, activc jowcr.
an aimc-- rcadinc-- to -ucr jain. an untirin in-crtion into thc ra-
tionaizcd jroram ot u-ctu -ocia oranization Irom thc jcr-jcc-
tivc ot -uch a workcr, ci-urc can ony ajjcar a- -omcthin totay
untorc-ccn, -omcthin comjctcy aicn, without rhymc or rca-on -
a- a -ynonym, in tact, tor idcnc-- and azinc--
`ow thc codc ot itc ot thc Lih `iddc Ac- -aid -omcthin cn-
tircy ojjo-itc to thi- that it wa- jrcci-cy ack ot ci-urc, an inaiity
to c at ci-urc, that wcnt tocthcr with idcnc--. that thc rc-tc---
nc-- ot work-tor-work---akc aro-c trom nothin othcr than idcnc--
Thcrc i- a curiou- conncction in thc tact that thc rc-tc--nc-- ot a
-ct-dc-tructivc work-tanatici-m -houd takc it- ri-c trom thc a-cncc
ot a wi to accomji-h -omcthin Thi- i- a vcry -urjri-in conccjt,
which rcquirc- no -ma cort to cxjicatc Lut it i- worth thc trou-
c to -jcnd a ittc timc with thc tojic \hat did thc od codc ot
conduct mcan y idcnc--, y acedia
1
To cin with, it mcant -omcthin othcr than what wc u-uay
mcan, whcn wc -jcak ot thc root ot a cvi- ldcnc--, tor thc odcr
codc ot chavior, mcant c-jcciay thi- that thc human cin had
1
For more on acedia, see Josef Pieper,

Uber die Honung, 5th ed. (Munich, 1955), pp. 58 .
47
ivcn uj on thc vcry rc-jon-iiity that comc- with hi- dinity that
hc doc- not want to c what God want- him to c, and that mcan-
that hc doc- not want to c what hc rcay, and in thc utimatc
-cn-c, is Acedia i- thc dc-jair ot wcaknc--, ot which Iicrkcaard
-aid that it con-i-t- in -omconc dc-jairiny not wantin to c
onc-ct
2
Thc mctajhy-ica,thcooica conccjt ot idcnc-- mcan-,
thcn, that man nay doc- not arcc with hi- own cxi-tcncc. that
chind a hi- cncrctic activity, hc i- not at onc with him-ct. that,
a- thc `iddc Ac- cxjrc--cd it, -adnc-- ha- -cizcd him in thc tacc ot
thc divinc Goodnc-- that ivc- within him - and thi- -adnc-- i- that
-adnc-- ot thc word (tristitia saeculi ) -jokcn ot in thc Lic
3
\hat, thcn, woud c thc conccjt that ojjo-c- thi- mctajhy--
ica,thcooica conccjt ot idcnc-- l- it that acqui-itivc cort or
indu-triou-nc--, a- jracticcd in thc cconomic itc ot civi -ocicty
To c -urc, thi- i- how acedia ha- ccn undcr-tood y -omc, a-
it it had -omcthin to do with thc u-inc---ctho- ot thc `iddc
Ac- Somart, tor cxamjc, intcrjrct- it to mcan thc ackadai-i-
ca -tay-at-homc, in contra-t with thc activc and u-ctu workcr.
4
ut `ax Schccr ha- arcady o,cctcd to thi- intcrjrctation
5
Lut in
thc wakc ot Somart acedia ha- ccn tran-atcd y cxjrc--ion- ikc
woo athcrcr or thum-twiddcr |Leimsierderhaftigkeit|, which
can ony rcay imjy that acedia i- thc ack ot cconomic amition
or cntcrjri-c
6
Lut c-jcciay to c rcrcttcd i- thc ajooctic cn-
thu-ia-m ot thc attcmjt to citimizc Chri-tian tcachin throuh
2
The Sickness unto Death: A Christian Psychological Exposition for Upbuilding and Awakening, in
Kierkegaards Writings, vol. 19, ed. Howard V. Hong and Edna H. Hong (Princeton, 1980), pp. 49 .
3
See Thomas Aquinas, De malo 11,3.
4
W. Sombart, Der Bourgeois (Leipzig, 1913), p. 322; cf. also (28)
5
Max Scheler, Vom Llmsturz der Werte (Leipzig, 1919), vol. 2, p.293.
6
Johannes Haessle, Das Arbeitsethos der Kirche nach Thomas von Aquin und Leo XIII: Untersuchungen
uber den Wirtschaftsgeist des Katholicismus. (Freiburg in Briesgau, 1923), p. 31.
48
makin it arcc with thc currcnt ta-hion and, in thi- conncction,
to rcad modcrn activi-m into thc workin-ctho- ot thc Church
Thi- cad- to a curiou- tran-ation ot thi- rathcr cam -tatcmcnt y
Thoma- Aquina- vivere secundum actum est quando exercet quis
opera vitae in actu
7
a- to ivc in actu mcan- that onc cxcrt- onc-
-ct, i- crcativc, and activc
8
- a- it contcmjation wcrc not a-o an
activity ot itc (opus vitae) tor Thoma-'
Thc ojjo-itc ot acedia i- not thc indu-triou- -jirit ot thc daiy ct-
tort to makc a ivin, ut rathcr thc chccrtu armation y man ot hi-
own cxi-tcncc, ot thc word a- a whoc, and ot God ot Lovc, that
i-, trom which ari-c- that -jccia trc-hnc-- ot action, which woud
ncvcr c contu-cd, y anyonc with any cxjcricncc, with thc narrow
activity ot thc workahoic
\c woud jroay ct thi- a wron, it wc hadnt ccn cxjrc--y
tod Thoma- Aquina- undcr-tood acedia a- a -in aain-t thc Third
Commandmcnt So tar trom -ccin in idcnc-- thc ojjo-itc ot thc
work-cthic, hc undcr-tand- it a- a -in aain-t thc Saath, aain-t
Thc -ou- rc-tin in God
9
And -o, -omconc may a-k, what ha- a thi- to do with our jrc-cnt
tojic Ony thi- that acedia i- ca--icd a- onc ot thc Scvcn Caj-
ita Sin- Lut thc tran-ation ot thc Latin tcrminooy hcrc i- not
cxacty tcicitou- Caput trom which thc word cajita i- dcrivcd,
can mcan hcad a- in hcad or -ourcc ot a -trcam thc-c arc thc
-in- trom which, a- trom a -ourcc ari-c, a- it wcrc, naturay, a
othcr crror- And trom ldcnc-- - thi- i- what rin- u- ack to our
own joint ot dcjarturc - trom idcnc-- -jrin-, -o thc od tcachin
7
De unitate intellectus.
8
Johannes Haessle (see note 6 above), p. 34.
9
Summa theologiae II-II, Q. 35, 3, ad 1um; De malo Q. 11, 3 ad 2um.
49
oc-, amon othcr vicc-, a-o tho-c ot lc-tc--nc-- and lnaiitytor
Lci-urc (and amon thc othcr dauhtcr- -jrinin trom thc -amc
-ourcc, i- Despair, ivin u- a ccrtain in-iht into thc hiddcn mcan-
in ot thc cxjrc--ion, work and dont dc-jair' -incc lc-tc--nc--
and Lc-jair arc -i-tcr-)
ldcnc-- in thc od -cn-c, thcn, ha- -o ittc in common with ci-urc,
that it i- thc vcry inncr di-jo-ition to nonci-urc, that it i- rcay
ack ot ci-urc Thcrc can ony c ci-urc, whcn man i- at onc with
him-ct, whcn hc i- in accord with hi- own cin Acedia, thcrctorc,
i- di-arccmcnt with onc-ct ldcnc-- and ack ot ci-urc c on
with cach othcr. ci-urc i- ojjo-cd to both
Lci-urc, thcn, a- a condition ot thc -ou (and wc mu-t rmy
kccj to thi- a--umjtion, -incc ci-urc i- not nccc--ariy jrc-cnt in a
thc cxtcrna thin- ikc rcak-, timc o, wcckcnd, vacation,
and -o on it i- a condition ot thc -ou) ci-urc i- jrcci-cy thc
countcrjoi-c to thc imac ot thc workcr, and wc can now -cc how
thi- jcrtain- to a thrcc a-jcct- wc havc dcat with work a- activity,
work a- cort, work a- -ocia tunction
Aain-t thc cxcu-ivcnc-- ot thc jaradim ot work a- activity,
r-t ot a, thcrc i- ci-urc a- nonactivity an inncr a-cncc ot
jrcoccujation, a cam, an aiity to ct thin- o, to c quict
Lci-urc i- a torm ot that -tinc-- that i- thc nccc--ary jrcjara-
tion tor acccjtin rcaity. ony thc jcr-on who i- -ti can hcar, and
whocvcr i- not -ti, cannot hcar Such -tinc-- a- thi- i- not mcrc
-oundc--nc-- or a dcad mutcnc--. it mcan-, rathcr, that thc -ou-
jowcr, a- rca, ot rc-jondin to thc rca a corc-jondcncc, ctcrnay
c-tai-hcd in naturc ha- not yct dc-ccndcd into word- Lci-urc i-
thc di-jo-ition ot rcccjtivc undcr-tandin, ot contcmjativc chod-
in, and immcr-ion in thc rca
ln ci-urc, thcrc i-, turthcrmorc, -omcthin ot thc -crcnity ot not
50
cinactora-j, ot thc rcconition ot thc my-tcriou- charactcr
ot thc word, and thc condcncc ot ind taith, which can ct thin-
o a- thcy wi. thcrc i- in it -omcthin ot thc tru-t in thc tra-
mcntary, that torm- thc vcry itc and c--cncc ot hi-tory
10
Thc -amc
,ourna cntry ot thc joct Ionrad \ci--, trom which that a-t quota-
tion wa- takcn, -jcak- ot Lrn-t ! uncr- jrcci-c -tyc ot thinkin and
writin, which, with it- tanatici-m tor thc Truc and thc Ocia,
jur-uc- thin- a- an act ot arc--ion, to -tca thcir -ccrct trom thcm
and thcn to jacc thcm undcr in-jcction a- it thcy wcrc anti-cjti-
cay jrcjarcd micro-cojc -idc- thi- i- what \ci-- o-crvcd -uch
tormuatcd dc-crijtion i- thc vcry ojjo-itc ot a contcmjation,
and i- ikc an idcnc-- ju-hcd to a -u imc cvc ot cxactitudc a-
di-tinct trom thc tyjica idcnc--, which ivc- it- timc to cvcrythin
God, thin-, thc word, cvcrythin, whcthcr ood or cvi cttin
cvcrythin o y in indicrcncc
Lci-urc i- not thc attitudc ot thc onc who intcrvcnc- ut ot thc
onc who ojcn- him-ct. not ot -omconc who -cizc- ut ot onc who
ct- o, who ct- himself o, and o undcr, amo-t a- -omconc who
ta- a-ccj mu-t ct him -ct o (you cannot -ccj, unc-- you do -o)
And in tact, ,u-t a- -ccjc--nc-- and rc-tc--nc-- arc in a -jccia way
mutuay rcatcd, ,u-t -o thc man at ci-urc i- rcatcd to -omconc
-ccjin. a- Lcracitu- -aid ot tho-c who -ccj, that thcy arc activc
and coojcrativc in thc u-inc-- ot thc word
11
Thc -urc ot ncw itc
that ow- out to u- whcn wc ivc our-cvc- to thc contcmjation ot a
o--omin ro-c, a -ccjin chid, or ot a divinc my-tcry -- i- thi- not
ikc thc -urc ot itc that comc- trom dccj, drcamc-- -ccj And a-
it i- writtcn in thc Look ot !o God ivc- u- -on- in thc middc ot
thc niht (3`, 10), and a- wi-c jcojc know, God ivc- Li- c--in-
10
Sept. 12, 1939. I owe my knowledge of this passage to the kind permission of the poets widow.
11
Fragment 75 (Diels, ed.).
51
to hi- own, and what rc,oicc- thcm, in -ccj - in ,u-t thc -amc way,
do thc rcatc-t, mo-t c--cd in-iht-, thc kind that coud ncvcr c
trackcd down, comc to u- aovc a in thc timc ot ci-urc ln -uch
-icnt ojcnnc-- ot thc -ou, it may c rantcd to man tor ony an
in-tant to know what thc word ,hod- in it- inncrmo-t, -o that at-
tcrward- thc in-iht- ot that hajjy momcnt havc to c rc-di-covcrcd
throuh thc cort ot aor
Sccond, aain-t thc cxcu-ivcnc-- ot thc jaradim ot work a- cort,
ci-urc i- thc condition ot con-idcrin thin- in a cccratin -jirit
Thc inncr ,oytunc-- ot thc jcr-on who i- cccratin |Der Feiernde|
con- to thc vcry corc ot what wc mcan y ci-urc |a- doc- that
incomjarac Gcrman word tor quittin timc or tc-tiva-cvcnin,
Feierabend | Lci-urc i- ony jo--ic in thc a--umjtion that man i-
not ony in harmony with him-ct |whcrca- idcnc-- i- rootcd in thc
dcnia ot thi- harmony|, ut a-o that hc i- in arccmcnt with thc
word and it- mcanin Lci-urc ivc- on armation lt i- not thc -amc
a- thc a-cncc ot activity. it i- not thc -amc thin a- quict, or cvcn
a- an inncr quict lt i- rathcr ikc thc -tinc-- in thc convcr-ation
ot ovcr-, which i- tcd y thcir oncnc-- ln Lodcrin- joctic tra-
mcnt, die Musse, arc tound thc toowin thrcc vcr-c- l -tand in a
jcacctu mcadow ,a- a covcd Lm trcc, and a- vinc- and unchc-
ot rajc-, ,thc -wcct jay ot itc coi- around mc And a- it i- writ-
tcn in thc Scrijturc-, God -aw, whcn hc rc-tcd trom a thc work-
that Lc had madc that cvcrythin wa- ood, vcry ood (Gcnc-i-
1, 31), ,u-t -o thc ci-urc ot man incudc- within it-ct a cccratory,
ajjrovin, incrin azc ot thc inncr cyc on thc rcaity ot crcation
Thc hihc-t torm ot armation i- thc tc-tiva. and accordin to
Iar Icrcnyi, thc hi-torian ot rciion, to tc-tiva con jcacc, in-
52
tcn-ity ot itc, and contcmjation a at oncc
12
Thc hodin ot a
tc-tiva mcan- an armation ot thc a-ic mcanin ot thc word, and
an arccmcnt with it, and in tact it mcan- to ivc out and tu onc-
incu-ion in thc word, in an cxtraordinary manncr, dicrcnt trom
thc cvcryday
Thc tc-tiva i- thc oriin ot ci-urc, it- inmo-t and cvcr-ccntra
-ourcc And thi- tc-tivc charactcr i- what makc- ci-urc not ony
cortc-- ut thc vcry ojjo-itc ot cort or toi
ln thc third jacc, ci-urc -tand- ojjo-cd to thc cxcu-ivcnc-- ot
thc jaradim ot work a- -ocia tunction
Thc -imjc rcak trom work - thc kind that a-t- an hour, or
thc kind that a-t- a wcck or oncr - i- jart and jarcc ot daiy work-
in itc lt i- -omcthin that ha- ccn uit into thc whoc workin
jrocc--, a jart ot thc -chcduc Thc rcak i- thcrc tor thc -akc ot
work lt i- -ujjo-cd to jrovidc ncw -trcnth tor ncw work, a-
thc word rctrc-hmcnt indicatc- onc i- rctrc-hcd for work throuh
cin rctrc-hcd from work
Lci-urc -tand- in a jcrjcndicuar jo-ition with rc-jcct to thc
workin jrocc-- - in ,u-t thc -amc way a- thc -imjc azc ot in-
tellectus doc- not con-i-t in thc duration (-o to -jcak) ot ratio-
workin-out jrocc--, ut in-tcad cut- throuh it at thc jcrjcndicuar
(thc ancicnt- comjarcd thc ratio with timc, thc intellectus with thc
away- now ot ctcrnity)
13
`ow ci-urc i- not thcrc tor thc -akc
ot work, no mattcr how much ncw -trcnth thc onc who rc-umc-
workin may ain trom it. ci-urc in our -cn-c i- not ,u-ticd y jro-
vidin odiy rcncwa or cvcn mcnta rctrc-hmcnt to cnd ncw vior
to turthcr work - athouh it doc- indccd rin -uch thin-'
12
Karl Kerenyi, Die antike Religion (Amsterdam, 1940), p. 66.
13
Cf. Thomas Aquinas, Summa contra gentiles II, 96.
53
A- contcmjation, -o ci-urc i- ot a hihcr rank than thc vita ac-
tiva (cvcn thouh thi- - thc activc itc
indcxitc'activc itc - i- thc truy human in a -cn-c) Lut thc rankin
cannot c rcvcr-cd whic it i- truc that thc onc who jray- ctorc
oin to cd -ccj- cttcr, -urcy noody woud want to think ot
jrayin a- a mcan- ot oin to -ccj ln thc -amc way, noody who
want- ci-urc mcrcy tor thc -akc ot rctrc-hmcnt wi cxjcricncc it-
authcntic truit, thc dccj rctrc-hmcnt that comc- trom a dccj -ccj
Lci-urc i- not ,u-ticd in makin thc tunctionary a- trouc-trcc
in ojcration a- jo--ic, with minimum downtimc, ut rathcr in
kccjin thc tunctionary human (or a- `cwman -aid it, -o that hc
can -tay a gentleman). and thi- mcan- that thc human cin doc-
not di-ajjcar into thc jarcccd-out word ot hi- imitcd work-a-day
tunction, ut in-tcad rcmain- cajac ot takin in thc word a- a
whoc, and thcrcy to rcaizc him-ct a- a cin who i- oricntcd to-
ward thc whoc ot cxi-tcncc
14
This is why the ability to be at leisure is one of the
basic powers of the human soul. Likc thc itt ot contcmja-
tivc -ct-immcr-ion in Lcin, and thc aiity to ujitt onc- -jirit- in
tc-tivity, thc jowcr to c at ci-urc i- thc jowcr to -tcj cyond thc
workin word and win contact with tho-c -ujcrhuman, itc-ivin
torcc- that can -cnd u-, rcncwcd and aivc aain, into thc u-y word
ot work Ony in -uch authcntic ci-urc can thc door into trccdom
c ojcncd out ot thc conncmcnt ot that hiddcn anxicty, which a
ccrtain jcrccjtivc o-crvcr
15
ha- -ccn a- thc di-tinctivc charactcr ot
14
As God, Who made things, did not rest in the things He made, but rested from them, in Himself ...
just so should we learn to rest not in our things or in His things, as if they were the goal, but rather in God
Himself, in Whom our happiness consists. This is the reason why man should work for six days in His own
works, in order to rest on the seventh day, and be free for the worship of God. But for Christians, such rest
is appointed not only temporarily, but for eternity. Commentary on the Sentences, II, D. 15, 3. 3.
15
The black American author, Richard Wright, according to a report in the international journal, Die
54
thc workin word, tor which cmjoymcnt and uncmjoymcnt arc
thc two joc- ot an cxi-tcncc with no c-cajc
ln ci-urc - not ony thcrc, ut ccrtainy thcrc, it anywhcrc - thc
truy human i- rc-cucd and jrc-crvcd jrcci-cy ccau-c thc arca ot
thc ,u-t human i- ctt chind ovcr and ovcr aain - and thi- i- not
rouht aout throuh thc ajjication ot cxtrcmc cort- ut rathcr
a- with a kind ot movin away (and thi- movin i- ot cour-c
morc dicut than thc cxtrcmc, activc cort. it i- morc dicut
ccau-c it i- c-- at onc- own di-jo-a. thc condition ot utmo-t cxcr-
tion i- morc ca-iy to c rcaizcd than thc condition ot rcaxation and
dctachmcnt, cvcn thouh thc attcr i- cortc-- thi- i- thc jaradox
that rcin- ovcr thc attainmcnt ot ci-urc, which i- at oncc a human
and -ujcr-human condition) A- Ari-totc -aid ot it man cannot
ivc thi- way in-otar a- hc i- man, ut ony in-otar a- -omcthin di-
vinc dwc- in him
16
Umschau 1, no.2, pp. 214-16.
16
Nicomachean Ethics X, 7 (11779,2728).
55
56
IV
Attcr our initia attcmjt, in thc torcoin jac-, to tormuatc a
conccjtion ot ci-urc, turthcr quc-tion- rcmain conccrnin it- intrin-ic
-inicancc, it- jro-jcct- tor cin rcaizcd, it- jccuiar impetus
or tra,cctory in hi-tory Or, to jut thc mattcr morc concrctcy wi
it cvcr c jo--ic to kccj, or rccaim, -omc room tor ci-urc trom thc
torcc- ot thc tota word ot work And thi- woud mcan not mcrcy
a ittc jortion ot rc-t on Sunday, ut rathcr a whoc jrc-crvc ot
truc, unconncd humanity a -jacc ot trccdom, ot truc carnin, ot
attuncmcnt to thc worda-awhoc ln othcr word-, wi it c jo--
-ic to kccj thc human cin trom ccomin a comjctc tunctionary,
or workcr \hat woud havc to c donc ctorchand in ordcr tor
thi- to -uccccd Ior that thc word ot thc \orkcr i- ju-hin into
hi-tory with a mon-trou- momcntum (wc arc amo-t incincd, rihty
or wrony, to -jcak ot an unca-hcd dcmonic jowcr in hi-tory),
ot that, thcrc can c no dout
lc-i-tancc to thi- ha- ccn attcmjtcd trom -cvcra dircction- and
did not cin yc-tcrday To c -urc, ccrtain torm- ot rc-i-tancc havc
jrovcd inadcquatc Ior in-tancc, thc jo-ition -o crccy touht tor
durin thc Iir-t \ord \ar, ot art tor art- -akc (lart pour lart),
ha- now c comc a -omcwhat morc ,u-ticd attcmjt to -hicd thc
57
rcam ot art trom thc widc-jrcad utiization ot thc word And
in our timc |ic, thc jo-t\ord \ar ll cra|, whcn thc rca hi--
torica attc-inc- arc covcrcd ovcr and -ti unccar chind a thc
-caodin ot rc-toration, -ti othcr attcmjt- arc undcrway, -uch a-
rcachin ack to Tradition in cncra,
1
cain ujon thc duty that
comc- with our ancicnt oriin-, thc attc ovcr thc Gymna-ium |aca-
dcmic hih -choo|, and thc acadcmic and jhio-ojhic charactcr ot
univcr-ity cducation (and that i- a ht to kccj thc schola -omcthin
othcr than an in-titutc tor carccr-trainin), and cvcn Lumani-m in
cncra - thc-c arc -omc ot thc movcmcnt- throuh which a thrcat-
cncd vauc i- -cckin to rcain -trcnth and dctcnd it- cxi-tcncc
Thc quc-tion, howcvcr, i- whcthcr jo-ition- ikc thc-c wi rcay
hod out, or rathcr, whcthcr thcy can do -o l- Lumani-m an
adcquatc conccjt - adcquatc not ,u-t in tcrm- ot it- j-ychooica
ajjca and attractivcnc-- ut in it- aiity to jrovidc mctajhy-ica
citimation, utimatc crcdiiity, and -jccic, hi-toricay ccctivc
rccvancc (lncidcntay, it i- intcrc-tin to notc that in La-t Gcr-
many Lumani-m ha- ccn rouht into u-c to dc-cric cconomic
matcriai-m, whic in Irancc thc athci-tic cxi-tcntiai-t- woud ikc
to c con-idcrcd humanistes and ncithcr u-c i- comjctcy wron')
ln tact, thc quc-tion wc arc a-kin i- whcthcr an ajjca to thc hu-
manum a- -uch can -ucc aain-t thc dcmand- ot thc tota word
ot work
Lut ctorc wc attcmjt to an-wcr thi- quc-tion, thc -ocia a--
jcct ot our jrocm nccd- to c addrc--cd Thcrctorc, with an cyc
to a tcw rcatcd mi-undcr-tandin- that hovcr around thc jro-
cm, wc wi jrocccd to an Excursus on jroctariat and dc
jroctarianization
1
On the questionable value of a generalized cultural Traditionalism, cf. Josef Pieper,

Uber den Begri
der Tradition (Koln u. Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1958).
58
Excursus on Proletariat and
Deproletarianization
\c havc maintaincd that thc cxjrc--ion intccctua workcr con-
tain- an c-jcciay conci-c tormuation ot thc totaitarian caim- ot thc
word ot work `ow, Tr ubners Deutsche Worterbuch |a -tandard
Gcrman dictionary| maintain- that thc-c rcativcy rcccnt tcrm- in-
tccctua work and intccctua workcr jcrtorm a u-ctu -crvicc
ccau-c thcy ovcrcomc thc (ac-od, ut in modcrn timc- incrca--
iny -harjcncd) ojjo-ition in -ocicty ctwccn a -tudcnt and onc
who work- with hi- hand-
2
`ow, it wc dont acccjt thc tcrm-, or do
-o ony with rc-crvation-, doc- that invovc u- in a dcnitc vicwjoint
with rcard to thi- -ocia ojjo-ition Our rctu-a to aow thc con-
ccjt intccctua workcr vaidity ccrtainy doc- imjy -omcthin, at
ca-t thc toowin the overcoming of the class-opposition in so-
ciety is either not possible or desirable at the level of working.
Lut woud thi- not mcan, thcn, that thc aj ctwccn an acadcmic
cducationa cvc, which can aord to takc knowcdc tor it- own -akc,
and thc jroctarian, who ony know- thc rcak - arcy cnouh to
rcncw him tor hi- daiy injut ot aor - wi not thi- aj nccc--ariy
ct deeper a- a rc-ut ot our thc-i-, no mattcr what our attitudc or
intcntion
Thi- i- no -ma o,cction
lato, in tact, in onc ja--ac ojjo-c- thc tyjc ot thc jhio-ojhcr
to thc tyjc ot thc banausos |hand-workcr| Thc jhio-ojhcr- arc
tho-c who havc ccn rouht uj, not ikc -avc-, ut in thc ojjo-
-itc way And thi-, O Thcodoro-, i- thc way ot cach ot thcm thc
onc, who ha- ccn rai-cd truy in trccdom and ci-urc, whom you ca
a jhio-ojhcr and who can ct away with ajjcarin vcry -imjc and
2
Tr ubners Deutsche W orterbuch (Berlin, 1939 and later), I, 118.
59
ood tor nothin, whcn it comc- to jractica accomji-hmcnt-, -o
that hc -ccm- not to know how to tic a knot, to ta-tcn uj a undc
to c carricd, or how to cook uj a ta-ty di-h . thc othcr i- thc
way ot thc onc who know- how to do a thc-c thin- nimy and
ncaty, ut doc- not know how to wcar hi- coak ikc a trcc man, and
much c--, how to jrai-c with worthy acccnt thc truc itc ot od- and
mcn Thi- comc- trom thc Theaetetus
3
ln carication ot thi-
ja--ac, and with rcard to thc ancicnt conccjtion ot thc banausos,
it can a-o c -aid, that lato mcan- not ony thc uncducatcd, not
ony thc amousos |without thc `u-c-|, and not ony thc man with
no -jiritua rcation-hij with thc word, ut rathcr, and cxjrc--y,
thc man who ivc- y hi- hand-, in contra-t with thc man who i-
wc o and ac to di-jo-c trccy ot hi- timc
So thcn arc wc -uc-tin that thc conccjt ot thc banausic -houd
c rcncwcd, with a it- jrc-Chri-tian -ocia and cducationa aac
`ot in thc ca-t' Lut thcn aain, i-nt -uch a con-cqucncc incudcd
in thc dcnia that thc word work - which, a- i- trcqucnty -aid, i-
a noc word - can c u-cd to indicatc thc whole arca ot intccctua
activity `o, aain' \hat l mcan to -ay, in-tcad, i- that, on thc
onc hand, onc -houd do cvcrythin in onc- jowcr to ovcrcomc -uch
an ojjo-ition immcdiatcy, ut that, on thc othcr hand, wc -houd
takc carc not to do -omcthin wron, -omcthin comjctcy non-cn-
-ica, in ordcr to attain that oa \c woud c doin ,u-t that it
wc wcrc to -cck -ocia unity in thc -o-to--jcak jurcy tcrminooica
jroctarianizin ot thc cducationa cvc, and not in a rca dc
jroctarianizin ot thc jroctariat
Lut what do -uch word- rcay mcan - proletariat, proletarian,
deproletarianize lt woud -ccm a ood idca, at thi- joint, to cavc
o di-cu--in thc joitica tca-iiity ot dcjroctarization, and jo-c
3
Plato, Theaetetus 175e-176a.
60
thc thcorctica quc-tion ot jrincijc \hat i- it to c proletarian
rcay, what i- proletariat and deproletarianization
Lcin jroctarian, r-t ot a, i- not thc -amc a- cin poor
Onc can c joor without cin jroctarian thc car in thc ca---
-tructurcd mcdicva -ocicty wa- not a jroctarian On thc othcr hand,
onc can c a jroctarian, without cin joor thc cninccr, thc -jc-
ciai-t in thc totawork -tatc i-, ccrtainy, jroctarian Sccondy,
onc mu-t -ti -tatc thc oviou- thc ncativc a-jcct ot thc jroc-
tariat, thc a-jcct wc nccd to rcmovc trom it, doc- not con-i-t in thc
tact that thc condition i- imitcd to a ccrtain -ocia ca--, -o that
thc ony way to ciminatc thc ncativc woud c to havc everyone
jroctarian' lroctariani-m, thcn, ccary cannot c ovcrcomc y
jroctarianizin everyone
Oncc aain, thcn, what is it to c jroctarian lt wc takc a thc
variou- -ociooica dcnition- and rcducc thcm to a common dcnom-
inator, it can c -ummcd uj -omcthin ikc thi- being proletarian
is being bound to the workingprocess
ln thi- dcnition, workinjrocc-- doc- not rctcr in cncra to
thc cntirc comjcx ot human action that ncvcr comc- to a -toj. jro-
ctariannc-- i- not -imjy thc oricntation ot man to activity a- -uch
\ork i- mcant a- useful activity, which mcan- that y dcnition,
work doc- not havc it- mcanin in it-ct, ut i- dircctcd toward -omc
thin -ociay advantacou-, a bonum utile, thc rcaization ot jrac-
tica vauc- and nccd- And thc workin jrocc-- i- thc comjrc-
hcn-ivc, ta-k-di-triutin jrocc-- ot u-ctunc--, throuh which and
in which thc common u-c i- rcaizcd (and common u-c ha- not
thc -amc mcanin a- thc much morc comjrchcn-ivc tcrm, common
ood)
To c ound to thc workin jrocc-- i- to c ound to thc whoc
jrocc-- ot u-ctunc--, and morcovcr, to c ound in -uch a way that
61
thc whoc itc ot thc workin human cin i- con-umcd
Thi- indin can havc variou- cau-c- Thc cau-c may c ack ot
owncr-hij, tor thc jroctarian i- thc waccarncr without jrojcrty,
who ha- nothin ut hi- work, and thu- hc i- con-tanty torccd to
-c hi- workinjowcr
4
Lut -uch indin to thc workin jrocc-- can
a-o c cau-cd y dictatc ot thc totaworkin -tatc Thc jroctarian
i- onc who, whcthcr or not hc own- jrojcrty, i- con-tanty on thc
movc ccau-c ot thc jractica nccc--itic- ot thc a-outcy rationa
jroduction ot ood-
5
ln a third way, thc indin to thc workin-
jrocc-- can havc it- root- in thc inncr jovcrty ot thc jcr-on thc
jroctarian i- onc who-c itc i- tuy -ati-cd y thc workin-jrocc--
it-ct ccau-c thi- -jacc ha- ccn -hrunkcn trom within, and ccau-c
mcanintu action that i- not work i- no oncr jo--ic or cvcn ima-
inac
Onc coud add that thc-c torm- ot jroctariani-m, c-jcciay thc
two attcr, arc mutuay cncourain thc totaworkin -tatc nccd-
thc -jirituay imjovcri-hcd tunctionary, whic -uch a jcr-on i- in-
cincd to -cc and cmracc an idca ot a tucd itc in thc tota u-c
madc ot hi- -crvicc-
And in rcard to thi- intcrna indin to thc workjrocc--, a
turthcr quc-tion may c jo-cd whcthcr or not jroctariani-m, -o
conccivcd, i- a -ymjtom that charactcrizc- all thc cvc- ot -ocicty
and i- not at a imitcd to thc -ocia -cctor ot thc jroctariat. it i-
a general -ymjtom that can c -ccn unu-uay ccary and in i-oa-
tion in thc jroctariat. indccd, thc quc-tion i- whcthcr wc arc not
a jroctarian- - cvcn thouh our joitica vicw- may c cxjrc--y
ojjo-cd to onc anothcr- - a rijc and rcady to ta into inc a-
rcady tunctionaric- tor thc cocctivc workin-tatc And -houdnt
4
Pius XI, Encyclical Letter Quadragesimo anno, no. 63.
5
Ibid., no. 119.
62
thc tortication ot thc mind aain-t thc -cductivc -trcnth ot tota
cducation nccd to c -ouht trom a deeper rcncwa ot con-ciou-nc--
than coud c cxjcctcd trom thc mcrcy joitica cvc
6
lt i- in thi- conncction that thc di-tinction ctwccn thc artes lib-
erales and thc artes serviles otain- trc-h -inicancc A- Thoma-
jut it, it wa- thc oricntation toward a utiity to c rcachcd throuh
action that Antiquity and thc `iddc Ac- -aw a- thc c--cntia tca-
turc ot thc artes serviles lroctariani-m woud con-cqucnty c
cquivacnt to thc narrowin ot cxi-tcncc and activity to thc rcam ot
thc artes serviles - whcthcr thi- narrownc-- c conditioncd throuh
ack ot owncr-hij, comju-ion ot thc -tatc, or -jiritua jovcrty Lc
jroctarization woud con-cqucnty c thc widcnin ot onc- cxi--
tcncc cyond thc rcam ot thc mcrcy u-ctu, -crvic work, and
thc rc-triction ot thc arca ot thc artes serviles, to cnct thc arts
liberales And in thc rcaization ot -uch a jroram, aain, thrcc
thin- woud c nccc--ary uidin uj ot jrojcrty trom wac-, im-
itin thc jowcr ot thc -tatc, and ovcrcomin intcrna jovcrty
Ot cour-c, thc vcry tcrm -crvic art- -ound- horric to our car-
today `cvcrthcc--, it i- cxtrcmcy ri-ky to want to dcny thi- char-
actcr to work Ior throuh thc ction, that work doc- not jrimariy
-crvc -omc cnd cyond it-ct, thc vcry ojjo-itc hajjcn- trom that
which -omconc intcnd- to accomji-h thcrcy thc vcry ojjo-itc ot
a icration or rchaiitation ot thc workin man takc- jacc
\hat hajjcn- i- actuay thc ccct ot thc inhumanity ot thc tota
word ot work thc na indin ot man to thc jrocc-- ot jroduc-
tion, which i- it-ct undcr-tood and jrocaimcd to c thc intrin-icay
mcanintu rcaization ot human cxi-tcncc
6
My own essays, written in 1932 and 1933, Thesen zur sozialen Politik (3rd. ed.; Freiburg im Breisgau,
1947), even though they are expressly and quite consciously limited to the political level, now are in need of
thorough correction in this respect. It is characteristic of the Younger Generation between the First and
Second World Wars, that as a whole they expected entirely too much from purely political measures.
63
Authcntic deproletarianization, on thc othcr hand, which -houd
not c contu-cd with thc -truc aain-t nccd - and no word- nccd
c wa-tcd on thc urcncy ot that -truc - and dcjroctarianization
a--umc- that thc di-tinction ctwccn thc liberal and thc servile arts
i- mcanintu in thc di-tinction ctwccn u-ctu activity on thc onc
hand (which do not havc thcir mcanin ony in thcm-cvc-), and free
art-, on thc othcr hand, which arc not u-cd tor, nor adajtac to,
u-ctu jurjo-c-. and it i- comjctcy in kccjin with thcir jo-ition,
it thc jromotcr- ot a jroctarianization ot cvcryonc di-ikc thi- di--
tinction and try to -how that it i- untoundcd
Ior cxamjc, thc di-tinction ctwccn thc -crvic and icra
art- i- rcatcd to thc di-tinction ctwccn an honorarium and a
wac Thc icra art- arc honorcd. thc -crvic art- arc jaid
in wac- Thc conccjt ot thc honorarium imjic- a ccrtain ack ot
cquivacncc ctwccn achicvcmcnt and rcward, that thc -crvicc it-ct
rcay cannot c rcwardcd \ac-, on thc othcr hand (takcn in
thcir jurc-t -cn-c, in which thcy dicr trom thc honorarium), mcan
jaymcnt tor work a- an articc or commodity thc -crvicc can c
comjcn-atcd throuh thc wac, thcrc i- a ccrtain cquivacncy
Lut thc honorarium mcan- -omcthin cyond thi- it contriutc- to
onc- itc--ujjort, whcrca- a wac (aain, in thc -trict -cn-c) mcan-
thc jaymcnt tor thc i-oatcd accomji-hmcnt ot thc work, without
rcard tor thc itc--ujjort ot thc workin jcr-on lt i- charactcri--
tic, now, ot thc mind that ha- ccn tormcd y thc workcr idca,
to dcny thi- di-tinction ctwccn honorarium and wac thcrc arc
ony wac- Thu- !can-lau Sartrc, in onc ot hi- jrorammatic
c--ay- on thc contcmjorary writcr,
7
whcrc thc -ocia tunction ot
itcraturc i- jrocaimcd, maintain- that thc writcr who ony rarcy
7
Published in the rst volume of the journal Les temps modernes and reported also in the international
review Die Umschau 1, no. 1.
64
know- how to crcatc a rcation-hij ctwccn hi- work- and thcir ma-
tcria comjcn-ation, mu-t carn to -cc him-ct a- a workcr, who
ct- comjcn-ation tor hi- cort- Lcrc, any incommcn-uraiity c-
twccn achicvcmcnt and comjcn-ation, a- cxjrc--cd in thc conccjt ot
thc honorarium, i- dcnicd, cvcn in thc rcam ot jhio-ojhy and jo-
ctry, which i- ookcd ujon a- nothin othcr than intccctua labor
Ly contra-t, a -ocia doctrinc that think- in tcrm- inhcritcd trom
Chri-tian Lurojc, not ony woud want to jrc-crvc thc di-tinction
ctwccn wac- and honorarium. and not ony woud it dcny that any
comjcn-ation i- cquivacnt to any wac. -uch a doctrinc woud a-o
hod that thcrc cxi-t- no comjcn-ation tor any accomji-hmcnt that
doc- not a-o incudc, morc or c--, thc charactcr ot thc honorarium.
and thi- woud c -ccn cvcn in thc -crvic art-, in-otar a- thcy arc
a human action, -omcthin that cannot c adcquatcy jaid tor with
moncy Lvcn in thc-c activitic- thcrc i- a ccrtain incomjaraiity
ctwccn accomji-hmcnt and comjcn-ation, a- in thc icra art-
So thcn wc arrivc at thc -ccmin jaradox, that a totaitarian
dictator can -ay that jaymcnt tor aor mu-t c mca-urcd ac-
cordin to jroductivity, and not accordin to nccd-,
8
whic in thc
Lncycica Lcttcr Quadragesimo anno, (thc aim ot which wa- dc
jroctarianization), wc rcad ln thc r-t jacc, thc workcr i- cntitcd
to a wac that -houd -ucc tor thc itc--ujjort ot him-ct and hi-
tamiy
9
On thc onc hand, thcn, thcrc i- an attcmjt to narrow thc -jacc
ot thc icra art-, or indccd to rcmovc thcm atocthcr thc ony
kind ot work that makc- -cn-c i- work that can c jaid On thc
othcr hand, thcrc i- thc attcmjt to roadcn thc arca ot thc icra
8
Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin, in a speech clearly designed for the current socialist movement: Neue
Verhaltnisse neue Aufgaben des wirtschaftlichen Aufbaus (June 23, 1931). Published in Joseph Stalin,
Questions about Leninism (Moscow, 1947), p. 406.
9
Quadragesimo anno, no. 71.
65
art- and rin thcm into thc arca ot thc -crvic art- Thc tor-
mcr aim- at cvcryonc- jroctarianization, thc attcr at cvcryonc-
dcjroctarianization
Irom thi- jcr-jcctivc, thcn, with thc totawork -tatc, dcnin
a non-u-ctu activity a- undc-irac and a-orin cvcn ci-urc
timc into it- -crvicc, can wc not -cc what it mcan- tor thcrc to c an
in-titution in thc word that jrohiit- u-ctu action-, or thc -crvic
art- on ccrtain day-, and thu- jrcjarc- -jacc tor a non-jroctarian
cxi-tcncc
Con-cqucnty onc ot thc r-t -ociai-t-, l ! lroudhon
10
(whom
`arx rc,cctcd, ot cour-c, a- a petitbourgeois), wa- not -o tar o
thc mark whcn hc can hi- itcwork with an c--ay on thc cccra-
tion ot Sunday, thc -ocia -inicancc hc cxjrc--cd a- toow- Thc
-crvant- rcain thcir human dinity tor a day, and jut thcm-cvc-
on a cvc with thcir ma-tcr-
11
And thc toowin -cntcncc, takcn
trom thc introduction to that jamjhct, hit- vcry co-c to thc hcart
ot thc jrocm Amid-t a thc jrocm-, -o much in thc torctront
ot currcnt attcntion, aout work and comjcn-ation, oranization ot
indu-try and thc nationaization ot thc workjacc, it occurrcd to mc
that it woud hcj to con-idcr a ci-ativc jroram a-cd on thc
thcory ot rest
12
Ot cour-c, thc truc dcjth ot -uch a thcory ot rc-t
woud not comc into vicw it it wcrc trcatcd cxcu-ivcy, a- it wa- y
lroudhon, trom thc jcr-jcctivc ot hcath, moraity, tamiy and civi
rcation-hij- And thi- vcry joint wi havc to c addrc--cd in what
toow-
10
P. J. Proudhon, Die Sonntagsfeier, aus dem Gesichtspunkt des oentlichen Gesundheitswesens, der
Moral, der Familien-und b urgerlichen Verhaltnisse betrachtet (Kassel, 1850) [German translation of French
original, published Besancon, 1839].
11
Ibid.,p.18.
12
Ibid.,p.vi.
66
\c can now -um uj what ha- ccn -aid in thi- excursus whcn
cin jroctarian mcan- nothin othcr than cin ound to thc
workjrocc--, thc rca kcy to ovcrcomin thc condition - that i- to
-ay, a truc deproletarianization - woud con-i-t in makin avaiac
tor thc workin jcr-on a mcanintu kind ot activity that i- not work
- in othcr word-, y ojcnin uj an arca ot truc ci-urc
Lut joitica mca-urc- which cxjand itc cconomicay ony arc
not -ucicnt to attain thi- oa Athouh, to c -urc, -omcthin
nccc--ary woud c donc thcrcy, thc dcci-ivc thin woud -ti c
mi--in it i- not cnouh mcrcy to crcatc thc cxtcrna condition- tor
ci-urc. thc jro,cct woud ony comc to truition it it wcrc jo--ic
tor thc human cin a- -uch to catci-urc, a- thc Grcck cxjrc--
-ion ha- it - |scholen agein|, to do ci-urc - whcrcy thc not-idc
naturc ot thc rca ci-urc i- indicatcd) This is the main ques-
tion, with what activity ones leisure is lled.
13
\oud
anyonc havc uc--cd that -uch a -cntcncc i- takcn trom a ook ovcr
two-thou-and ycar- od thc Politics ot Ari-totc
13
Aristotle, Politics, VIII, 3 (1337b35).
67
68
V
Lut how doc- ci-urc ccomc jo--ic at a, at thc dccjc-t, inncr-
mo-t cvc, and what i- it- utimatc ,u-tication
Lct u- now jo-c thc quc-tion aain i- rccour-c to thc human
rcay cnouh to jrc-crvc and rmy round thc rcaity ot ci-urc l
intcnd to -how that -uch rccour-c to mcrc Lumani-m i- -imjy not
cnouh
lt coud c -aid that thc hcart ot ci-urc con-i-t- in tc-tiva ln
tc-tiva, or cccration, a thrcc conccjtua ccmcnt- comc tocthcr
a- onc thc rcaxation, thc cortc--nc--, thc a-ccndancy ot cin
at ci-urc |doing ci-urc, scholen agein| ovcr mcrc tunction
Lut it cccration and tc-tiva arc thc hcart ot ci-urc, thcn ci-urc
woud dcrivc it- inncrmo-t jo--iiity and ,u-tication trom thc vcry
-ourcc whcncc tc-tiva and cccration dcrivc thcir- And this is
worship
To cxjcricncc and ivc out a harmony with thc word, in a man-
ncr quitc dicrcnt trom that ot cvcryday itc - thi-, wc havc -aid, i-
thc mcanin ot tc-tiva Lut no morc intcn-ivc harmony with thc
word can c thouht ot than that ot lrai-c ot God, thc wor-hij
ot thc Crcator ot thi- word `ow, a- l havc ottcn cxjcricnccd, thi-
-tatcmcnt i- ottcn rcccivcd with a mixturc ot di-comtort and vari-
69
ou- othcr tccin-, ut it- truth cannot c dcnicd Thc mo-t tc-tivc
tc-tiva that can c cccratcd i- rciiou- wor-hij, or cut,
1
and
thcrc i- no tc-tiva that doc- not ct it- itc trom -uch wor-hij or
doc- not actuay dcrivc it- oriin trom thi- Thcrc i- no wor-hij
without thc od-, whcthcr it c mardi gras or a wcddin Thi- i-
not intcndcd to c a jrc-crijtion. rathcr, it i- necessarily -o Thc
-tatcmcnt i- madc with ccrtainty a tc-tiva that doc- not ct it- itc
trom wor-hij, cvcn thouh thc conncction in human con-ciou-nc--
c cvcr -o -ma, i- not to c tound To c -urc, -incc thc Ircnch lcv-
oution, jcojc havc tricd ovcr and ovcr to crcatc articia tc-tiva-
without any conncction with rciiou- wor-hij, or cvcn aain-t -uch
wor-hij, -uch a- thc Lrutu- Ic-tiva or Laor Lay, ut thcy a
dcmon-tratc, throuh thc torccd and narrow charactcr ot thcir tc--
tivity, what rciiou- wor-hij jrovidc- to a tc-tiva. -carccy nothin
coud c cxjcricnccd morc ccary than that cnuinc tc-tivity i- ony
to c -ccn whcrc thcrc i- -ti -omc ivin rcation-hij with rciiou-
cut Ccarcr than thc iht ot day i- thc dicrcncc ctwccn thc
ivin, rootcd trcc- ot cnuinc, cutic tc-tiva and our articia tc--
tiva- that rc-cmc tho-c mayjoc-, cut at thc root-, and cartcd
hcrc and thcrc, to c jantcd tor -omc dcnitc jurjo-c Ot cour-c,
wc may havc to jrcjarc our-cvc- tor thc jo--iiity that wc arc ony
at thc dawn ot an ac ot articia tc-tiva- \crc wc |in Gcrmany|
jrcjarcd tor thc jo--iiity that thc ocia torcc-, and c-jcciay thc
carcr- ot joitica jowcr, woud articiay crcatc the appearance
of the festive with -o huc an cxjcn-c in cxtcrna arrancmcnt-
And that thi- -cductivc, -carccy dctcctac ajjcarancc ot articia
hoiday- woud c -o totay ackin in thc c--cntia quaity, that
1
Translators note: The German word kult is taken from the Latin colere, the origin of English cultiva-
tion and culture. The repetitive, persistent, and loving care of the farmer (cf. agriculture) is not clearly
enough indicated in the English worship.
70
truc and utimatc harmony with thc word And that -uch hoiday-
woud in tact dcjcnd on thc -ujjrc--ion ot that harmony and dcrivc
thcir dancrou- -cduction trom that vcry tact
\hat hod- truc ot tc-tiva a-o hod- truc ot ci-urc lt- utimatc,
inncrmo-t jo--iiity and ,u-tication comc trom it- rootcdnc-- in
cutic tc-tiva Thi- i- no conccjtuay a-tract con-truct, ut i-
-imjy cvidcncc trom thc hi-tory ot rciion \hat doc- rc-t trom
work -inity tor thc Lic or tor ancicnt Grcccc and lomc Thc
mcanin ot a rc-t trom aor i- cutic dcnitc day- and timc- wcrc
dc-inatcd to thc cxcu-ivc jo--c--ion ot thc od-
2
\or-hij i- to timc a- thc tcmjc i- to -jacc
Tcmjc ha- a ccrtain mcanin (rccctcd a-o in it- ctymooy, ct
Grcck temenos, trom temnein, to cut. Latin templum) a dcnitc
jhy-ica -jacc ha- ccn cut o y cnco-urc or tcncin trom thc
rc-t ot thc and, who-c -urtacc wa- dividcd uj tor tarmin or othcr
u-c- Thc-c -cctioncd-o -jacc- wcrc handcd ovcr to thc jo--c--ion
ot thc od- and wcrc not inhaitcd or jantcd ut wcrc rcmovcd
trom a jractica u-c !u-t -o, throuh rciiou- tc-tiva, and tor thc
-akc ot rciiou- tc-tiva, or cut, trom day-to-day time a dcnitc
jcriod wa- -cjaratcd o, and thi- jcriod ot timc, no othcrwi-c than
thc round--urtacc- ot thc tcmjc and jacc- ot -acricc, woud not
c u-cd, and woud ikcwi-c c kcjt trom u-c Lvcry -cvcnth day
wa- -uch a timc jcriod lt i- thc tc-tiva-timc that camc to c in
jrcci-cy thi- way `ow thcrc can c no unu-cd -jacc in thc tota
word ot work, ncithcr an unu-cd arca ot round nor an unu-cd timc.
nor can thcrc c a -jacc tor wor-hij or tc-tiva tor thi- i- thc jrinci-
jc ot rationa utiity, on which thc word ot thc workcr cxcu-ivcy
2
Reallexikon f ur Antike und Christentum (Leipzig, 1942 and later), article on Arbeitsruhe [rest from
labor], col. 590.
71
dcjcnd- \ithin thc word ot tota work, thc tc-tiva i- cithcr a
rcak trom work (and thu- ony thcrc tor thc -akc ot work), or it
i- a morc intcn-ivc cccration ot thc jrincijc- ot work it-ct (a- in
thc Laor Lay-, and thu- con-, aain, to thc workin word)
Thcrc wi naturay c amc- - ikc thc loman circenses - ut
who coud dinity thc amu-cmcnt- tor thc ma--c- with thc namc ot
tc-tiva
Thcrc i- nothin, thcn, to kccj thc word ot thc workcr trom
cin a joor, -tcric word, cvcn thouh cd with matcria ood-.
thank- to thc jrincijc ot utiity, in virtuc ot which thc word ot
work comc- into cin, thcrc can c no rca wcath, no ovcrow
\hcrcvcr -omcthin i- ctt ovcr, thi- cxcc-- wi c -u,cctcd aain
to thc jrincijc ot rationa utiity \ork doc- not makc you rich. it
ony makc- you cnt ovcr, a- thc od lu--ian -ayin oc-
On thc othcr hand, it i- in thc naturc ot rciiou- tc-tiva to makc a
-jacc ot aundancc and wcath, cvcn in thc mid-t ot cxtcrna jovcrty
in matcria thin- Thi- i- ccau-c sacrice i- at thc ccntcr ot thc
tc-tiva \hat i- -acricc lt i- vountary, a itt that i- ocrcd, and
ccrtainy not u-ctunc--, ut thc vcry ojjo-itc ot u-ctunc-- Thu-
in thc vcry mid-trcam ot wor-hij, and ony trom thcrc, comc- a
-ujjy that cannot c con-umcd y thc word ot work, a -jacc ot
uncountac ivin, untouchcd y thc cvcr-turnin whcc ot uyin
and -cin, an ovcrow rcca-cd trom a jurjo-c, and an authcntic
wcath it i- tc-tiva-timc
And it i- ony within -uch tc-tivatimc that thc rcaity ot ci-urc
can untod and c tuy rcaizcd
Lowcvcr, divorccd trom thc rcam ot wor-hijtu cccration and
it- inucncc, ci-urc ha- no morc mcanin than tc-tiva ha- \hcn
-cjaratcd trom wor-hij, ci-urc ccomc- toi-omc, and work ccomc-
72
inhuman
Thi- i- thc oriin ot -ccondary torm- ot ci-urc, which arc a- co-cy
rcatcd to thc a-cncc ot ci-urc a- idcnc-- (in thc od mctajhy-i-
ca,thcooica -cn-c ot acedia) `crc timc-kiin and orcdom ain
round, which arc dirccty rcatcd to thc a-cncc ot ci-urc, tor ony
-omconc who ha- o-t thc -jiritua jowcr to c at ci-urc can c
orcd And thcn Lc-jair, thc -i-tcr ot lc-tc--nc--, rcar- it- hidcou-
hcad A -cntcncc trom Charc- Laudcairc- Intimate Journals -tir-
u- with thc cod jrcci-ion ot it- cynici-m, whcn hc tormuatc- thi-
vcry conncction Onc mu-t work, it not trom incination, at ca-t
trom dc-jair, -incc, a- l havc tuy jrovcd, to work i- c-- wcari-omc
than to amu-c onc-ct
3
On thc othcr hand, work it-ct, whcn dcjrivcd ot it- countcrjart-
cnuinc tc-tivity and truc ci-urc, ccomc- inhuman it may, whcthcr
cndurcd -icnty or hcroicay, ccomc a arc, hojcc-- cort, rc-
-cmc thc aor ot Si-yjhu-, who in tact i- thc mythica jaradim
ot thc \orkcr chaincd to hi- aor without rc-t, and without inncr
-ati-taction
ln an acutc torm, an aicnation trom wor-hij - or cvcn an ho-ti-
ity to it - can tyjity thc i-oatcd workinintccct to -uch a dcrcc,
that work it-ct ccomc- a cut To work i- to jray, -aid Caryc,
in who-c writin- thc toowin -tatcmcnt can c rcad Iundamcn-
tay -jcakin, a cnuinc work i- rciion, and cvcry rciion that
i- not work can o and ivc with thc Lrahmin-, thc Antinomian-,
and thc \hirin Lcrvi-hc-
4
\oud anyonc want to -ay that thi-
i- mcrcy a marina ojinion trom thc ninctccnth ccntury, cxjrc--cd
in jathctic tcrm-, and not rathcr thc vcry -tatc ot mind ot thc tota
3
Charles Baudelaire, Intimate Journals [translated by Christopher Isherwood] (New York: Random
House, 1930), p. 67.
4
Thomas Carlyle, Work and Do Not Despair, [supra II, n.16], p. 21.
73
word ot work, which our word i- jrcjarin to ccomc
Thc dccjc-t root, thcn, trom which ci-urc draw- it- -u-tcnancc -
and ci-urc imjic- thc rcam ot cvcrythin that, without cin u-c-
tu, ncvcrthcc-- con- to a comjctc human cxi-tcncc - thc dccjc-t
root ot a thi- ic- in wor-hijtu cccration
ln tho-c cra-, whcn an authcntic cutic ordcr cxi-t- in undi-jutcd
vaidity, it i- (jcrhaj-') not a- nccc--ary to makc thc rationac -o
cxjicit. and in-otar a-, in -uch timc-, a ,u-tication ot ci-urc may
c rcquircd, it may (jcrhaj-') c -ucicnt to aruc at a mcrcy
humani-tic cvc
Lut in an cjoch ot cxtrcmc ojjo-ition-, whcrc thc word ot work
ay- caim to thc whoc cd ot human cxi-tcncc, rccour-c mu-t c
had to our a-t -avin- account, a citimation that rcachc- ack
to thc mo-t rcmotc -ourcc
Thc mcrcy acadcmic rcmini-ccncc ot Antiquity ccomc- jracti-
cay mcaninc-- in timc- ikc thc-c. aain-t thc jrc--in impetus,
trom oth within and without, ot thc tota word ot work, nothin
can avai, no mattcr what i- thrown into thc aancc Thc rctcrcncc
to lato i- no oncr cnouh, cvcn it onc jrc--c- a thc way ack to
thc root- ot lato (and wc arc not -jcakin ot jrcdccc--or- hcrc,
ut root-) `or can it hcj to tracc ack jhio-ojhica cducation
to thc latonic acadcmy, cvcn thouh onc may takc -criou-y and
arm thc rciiou- charactcr ot thi- caric-t Acadcmy, trom which
cvcrythin acadcmic in thc word ct- it- namc, dc-crvcdy or no.
thc -choo ot lato, in tact, wa- a cnuinc rciiou- oranization, onc
ot who-c mcmcr-, tor cxamjc, hcd thc occ ot -acricc makcr
5
Shoud not thcn thc common mcanin ot thc cxjrc--ion, jurcy
5
Cf. Hermann Usener, Organisation der wissenschafthichen Arbeit, in Vortrage und Aufsatze (Leipzig-
Berlin, 1914), pp. 76 .
74
acadcmic, for this very reason havc -unk to thc mcanin ot -tcric,
inccctua, unrca, -o that cvcn thc tundamcnta oriin ot schola in
rciiou- cut wa- torottcn, and in jacc ot rcaity, wc havc a non-
indin word ot mannikin- and ojtiona iu-ion-, -uch a- a Tcmjc
ot thc `u-c-, or a Tcmjc ot Loy lcic- ln any ca-c, Gocthc
ajjcar- to havc ccn ot -uch an ojinion, whcn, in an a-toundin
rcmark on thc ca--ici-m ot hi- day, ca- a thc inventa ot thc An-
cicnt- to c mattcr- ot cict which wcrc ony tancituy imitatcd,
tor tancy- -akc
6
Oncc aain, in our timc it ha- ccomc a-urd to attcmjt to dc-
tcnd thc rcam ot ci-urc on thc a-i- ot thc torcoin jo-ition- Thc
rcion ot ci-urc, a- -aid, i- thc rcion ot cuturc in cncra, -o on a-
thi- word -inic- what oc- cyond mcrc mcan--to-an-cnd con-id-
cration- Culture lives on worship. And wc mu-t rcturn to
thi- oriina rcation-hij whcn thc quc-tion i- con-idcrcd a- a whoc
Thi- i- ikcwi-c thc mcanin ot thc rcat latonic tcxt jaccd at
thc out-ct ot thi- c--ay ln it, thc oriin ot ci-urc
7
in wor-hij, and
thc a--ociation ot thc `u-c- with cutic tc-tiva arc cxjrc--cd in a
maniccnt imac, in tc-tivc con-ort with thc od-, man rcain-
hi- truc worth, and rccovcr- hi- ujriht jo-turc
Lut now, what arc wc to do -omconc may a-k
`ow, thc intcntion ot thi- c--ay wa- not to ivc advicc or jrovidc
uidcinc- tor action ut ony to cncourac rccction Thc aim wa-
to -hcd a ittc iht on a mattcr which -ccm- vcry imjortant and
vcry jrc--in, ut which -ccm- to ct o-t chind thc ta-k- ot thc
day -o much in thc torctront ot our attcntion
6
Goethes Letter to Reimer, March 26, 1814.
7
Translators note: The German word for leisure is Musse, or the Muse - that is, it recalls explicitly
the ancient Greek mythological context, whereby the Muses were divine patrons of the liberal arts.
75
Thi- c--ay, thcn, wa- not dc-incd tor an immcdiatcy jractica
jurjo-c
And yct, y way ot concu-ion, a ccrtain hojc can c cxjrc--cd,
tor in thi- cd what i- dcci-ivc i- not what i- rcaizcd throuh action
ut what can ivc u- -omc cau-c to hojc ln thc cort to rcain a
-jacc ot truc ci-urc, to rin aout a tundamcntay corrcct attitudc
and cxcrci-c ot ci-urc, thc rca dicuty ot thi- -o-ottcn dc-jaircd-
ot jro,cct con-i-t- in thc tact that thc utimatc root ot ci-urc ic-
out-idc thc ranc ot our rc-jon-ic, vountary action Thc tuc-t
harmony with thc word, to c jrcci-c, cannot comc aout on thc
a-i- ot a vountary dcci-ion Aovc a, onc cannot -imjy makc
it hajjcn tor -omc utcrior jurjo-c Thcrc arc ccrtain thin- which
onc cannot do in ordcr to do -omcthin c-c Onc cithcr doc-
not do thcm at a or onc doc- thcm ccau-c thcy arc mcanintu in
thcm-cvc- Ccrtainy thc doctor- arc corrcct in -ayin that ack ot
ci-urc makc- onc i Lut at thc -amc timc, it i- imjo--ic to c
truy at ci-urc mcrcy tor thc -akc ot hcath Such oica contu-ion
i- not ony unttin, it -imjy cannot c work Lci-urc cannot c
rcaizcd -o on a- onc undcr-tand- it to c a mcan-, cvcn a- a mcan-
to thc cnd ot rc-cuin thc cuturc ot Chri-tian Lurojc Thc ccc-
ration ot God- jrai-c- cannot c rcaizcd unc-- it takc- jacc tor
it- own -akc Lut thi- - thc mo-t noc torm ot harmony with thc
word a- a whoc - i- thc dccjc-t -ourcc ot ci-urc
And -o our hojc i- dircctcd, in thc r-t jacc, to thi- it i- jo--ic
that thc many -in- oth ncar and tar that joint to a rcawakcnin
ot thc -cn-c ot wor-hij wi not jrovc dcccjtivc Ior, oncc aain, thc
cinnin ot a ncw, cnuinc cut cannot c cxjcctcd trom mcrcy
human toundation. it con- to thc naturc ot wor-hij, to takc it-
ri-c trom divinc c-tai-hmcnt (and thi- a-jcct i- a-o incudcd in our
76
quotation trom lato) Thc ajjca ot thc arcady madc and a-
rcady c-tai-hcd can o-c -trcnth, ut it can a-o rcain -trcnth
And thi- aonc (ic, not thc rc-c-tai-hmcnt ot an od cut or thc in-
auuration ot a ncw onc) i- what our hojc- arc aimin tor \hocvcr
ha- kcjt no jo--iiity ot hojc in thi- (and -uch hojcc--nc-- can, to
c -urc, in many ca-c- ccomc -ct-jcrjctuatin) or whocvcr cannot
-cc hcrc anythin worth hojin tor - tor -omconc ikc that, l coud
not makc room tor any kind ot tru-t at a lt i- vcry imjortant that
thcrc c no dout aout thi-
\or-hij it-ct i- a ivcn - or it doc- not cxi-t at a `othin nccd-
to c toundcd or arrancd Ior Chri-tian-, thi- i- -ct-cvidcnt that,
attcr Chri-t, thcrc i- ony one truc and nay vaid torm ot cutic
wor-hij, which i- thc -acramcnta Sacricc ot thc Chri-tian Church
(lncidcntay, cvcn tor thc -tudcnt, Chri-tian or non-Chri-tian, ot thc
hi-tory ot rciion-, it i- rcay not jo--ic to mcct with any ac-
tuay c-tai-hcd cut othcr than thc Chri-tian, in thc word-widc
Lurojcan cuturc)
lt i- thc jccuiarity ot thi- jhcnomcnon ot Chri-tian wor-hij that
it i- at oncc -acricc and -acramcnt
8
ln-otar a- thc cccration ot
Chri-tian wor-hij i- sacrice, takin jacc in thc mid-t ot crcation
and rcachin it- hihc-t armation and tumcnt in thi- -acricc ot
thc God`an, to thi- cxtcnt it i- truy an ctcrnay vaid cccration
-o that cvcn thc wcckday i- cacd aferia in Latin thc itury ony
rcconizc- tc-tiva-day-
9
Lut, in-otar a- thi- -acricia ritua i- a-o
a sacrament, it takc- jacc a- a odiy vi-ic -in And ony thcn
can thc Chri-tian cutic wor-hij untod it- whoc, indwcin, torma-
tivc jowcr, whcn it- -acramcnta charactcr i- rcaizcd without any
8
Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae III, Q. 79, a. 5.
9
Joseph Pascher, Eucharistia: Gestalt und Volizug (Munster, 1948), p. 266 .
77
curtaimcnt, whcn thc -acramcnta -in i- aowcd to ccomc tuy
vi-ic Ior, a- l -aid, in ci-urc man ovcrcomc- thc workin word
ot thc workday not throuh hi- uttcr mo-t cxcrtion, ut a- in
withdrawal trom -uch cxcrtion `ow thi- i- cxacty thc mcanin ot
-acramcnta vi-iiity that thc human cin i- rajt or -cizcd
and rcmovcd y it And thi- i- no jrivatc, romantic intcrjrcta-
tion Ior it i- with ikc word- that thc Church Lcr-ct cxjrc--c- thc
mcanin ot thc Luman lncarnation ot thc Loo- ut dum visibiliter
Deum cognoscimus, per hunc in invisibilium amorein rapiamur,
that throuh thc vi-ic rcaity ot thi- Sacricc wc may c rajt
to thc ovc ot invi-ic rcaity
10
lt i- our hojc, thcn, that thi- truc mcanin ot -acramcnta vi-ii-
ity mayc mct with in thc cccration ot thc cutic wor-hij, in -uch
a way that it can c rcaizcd concrctcy tor thc human cin orn
to aor to c takcn trom thc toi ot thc workday, to an cndc--
day ot cccration. to c rajt trom thc connc- ot thc workin cnvi-
ronmcnt into thc vcry ccntcr ot thc word
10
Christmas Preface of the Missale Romanum (also the Preface for Corpus Christi).
78
Part II
The Philosophical Act
79
The reason why the philosopher can be
compared to the poet is that both are
concerned with wonder...
- St. Thomas Aquinas
81
82
I
\hcn thc jhy-ici-t jo-c- thc quc-tion, \hat doc- it mcan to do
jhy-ic- or \hat i- rc-carch in jhy-ic- hi- quc-tion i- a jrc-
iminary quc-tion Ccary, whcn you a-k a quc-tion ikc that, and
try to an-wcr it, you arc not doin jhy-ic- Or, rathcr, you arc
no longer doin jhy-ic- Lut whcn you a-k your-ct, \hat doc- it
mcan to do jhio-ojhy thcn you actuay arc doin jhio-ojhy
thi- i- not at a a jrciminary quc-tion ut a truy jhio-ojhica
onc you arc riht at thc hcart ot thc u-inc-- To o turthcr l
can -ay nothin aout thc cxi-tcncc ot jhio-ojhy and jhio-ojhiz-
in without a-o -ayin -omcthin aout thc human cin, and to
do that i- to cntcr onc ot thc mo-t ccntra rcion- ot jhio-ojhy Our
quc-tion, \hat i- thc jhio-ojhica act con-, in tact, to thc
cd ot jhio-ojhica anthrojooy
`ow, ccau-c it i- a jhio-ojhica quc-tion, that mcan- it cannot
c an-wcrcd in a jcrmancnt or concu-ivc way lt jcrtain- to thc
vcry naturc ot a jhio-ojhica quc-tion that it- an-wcr wi not c
a jcrtccty roundcd truth (a- larmcnidc- -aid it), ra-jcd in thc
hand ikc an ajjc juckcd trom a trcc Latcr, wc wi havc occa-ion
to di-cu-- thc hojctunc-- uit into jhio-ojhy and jhio-ojhiz-
in, ut tor thc momcnt wc cannot jromi-c a handy dcnition, a
comjrchcn-ivc an-wcr to our quc-tion lndccd, our tour rict c--ay-
83
wi arcy c cnouh to carity thc jrocm a- a whoc
Lut, tor a r-t ajjroach, wc can vcnturc thc toowin a jhio-
-ojhica act i- an act in which thc workaday word i- tran-ccndcd
\c mu-t r-t cxjain what wc mcan y work-a-day word, and
-ccond, what wc mcan y tran-ccndin it
Thc workaday word i- thc word ot thc workin day, thc word
ot u-ctunc--, ot jurjo-ctu action, ot accomji-hmcnt, ot thc cxcr-
ci-in ot tunction-. it i- thc word ot -ujjy and dcmand, thc word
ot huncr and thc -ati-taction ot huncr lt i- a word dominatcd y
onc oa thc rcaization ot thc common utiity. it i- thc word ot
work, to thc cxtcnt that work i- -ynonymou- with u-ctu activity
(a charactcri-tic oth ot activity and cort) Thc jrocc-- ot workin
i- thc jrocc-- ot rcaizin thc common utiity. thi- conccjt i- not
cquivacnt to that ot thc common ood (bonum commune) thc
common utiity i- an c--cntia comjoncnt ot thc common ood,
ut thc conccjt ot thc bonum commune i- much morc comjrchcn-
-ivc Ior cxamjc, a- Thoma- jut- it
1
, thcrc arc jcojc who dcvotc
thcm-cvc- to thc un-u-ctu itc ot contcmjation. to jhio-ojhizc
con- to thc common ood, whcrca- onc coud not -ay that con-
tcmjation, vi-ion, or jhio-ojhizin -crvc thc common utiity Ot
cour-c, in thc jrc-cnt day bonum commune and thc common uti-
ity -ccm to c rowin morc idcntica cvcry day. ot cour-c (it comc-
to thc -amc thin) thc word ot work cin- to ccomc thrcatcn- to
ccomc our ony word, to thc cxcu-ion ot a c-c Thc dcmand-
ot thc workin word row cvcr morc tota, ra-jin cvcr morc com-
jctcy thc whoc ot human cxi-tcncc
lt it i- corrcct to -ay that thc jhio-ojhica act i- onc which tran-
-ccnd- thc workin word, thcn our quc-tion, \hat doc- it mcan to
1
Commentary on the Sentences IV, d. 26, 1.2.
84
jhio-ojhizc our -o vcry thcorctica, a-tract quc-tion ccomc-
-uddcny, and uncxjcctcdy, a quc-tion ot utmo-t rccvancc \c nccd
ony to takc a -inc -tcj, in our thouht- or in jhy-ica -jacc, to
nd our-cvc- in a word in which thc workin jrocc--, thc jrocc-- ot
rcaizin thc common utiity, dctcrminc- thc whoc rcam ot human
cxi-tcncc lnwardy and outwardy, thcrc i- a oundary, vcry ncar
and ca-y to ,umj acro--, in ordcr to win cntry into thc workaday
word, in which thcrc i- no -uch thin a- cnuinc jhio-ojhy and cn-
uinc jhio-ojhizin a thi- jrc-ujjo-c-, ot cour-c, that it i- corrcct
to -ay that jhio-ojhy tran-ccnd- thc workin word and that it
jcrtain- to thc vcry c--cncc ot thc jhio-ojhica act not to con
thi- word ot u-c- and ccicncic-, ot nccd- and -ati-taction-, thi-
word ot u-ctu ood (bonum utile), ot thc common utiity, ut
i-, rathcr, to c incommcn-urac to it in jrincijc lndccd, thc morc
acutc thc incommcn-uraiity, thc morc oviou- thc not-conin
lt coud cvcn c -aid, jcrhaj-, that thi- vcry ojjo-ition, thi- thrcat
trom thc word ot tota work, i- what charactcrizc- thc -ituation ot
jhio-ojhy today morc than it- own jarticuar contcnt lhio-ojhy
incrca-iny adojt- nccc--ariy, it -ccm- thc charactcr ot thc alien,
ot mcrc intccctua uxury, ot that which -ccm- cvcr morc intocra-
c and un,u-tiac, thc morc cxcu-ivcy thc dcmand- ot thc daiy
word ot work takc ovcr thc word ot man
And yct, wc havc -omcthin morc to -ay, -omcthin vcry concrctc,
aout thc incommcn-uraiity ot thc jhio-ojhica act, ot thi- tran-
-ccndin thc word ot work, that takc- jacc in thc jhio-ojhica act
Lct- rcca thc thin- that dominatc thc contcmjorary workin
day. no -jccia cort ot thc imaination i- nccdcd, tor wc a -tand
riht in thc middc ot it Thcrc i-, r-t ot a, thc daiy runnin ack
and torth to -ccurc our arc jhy-ica cxi-tcncc, tood, cothin, -hc-
tcr, hcat. thcn, thc anxictic- that acct, and a-or, cach individua
85
thc nccc--itic- ot rcuidin our own country, Lurojc, and thc word
Struc- tor jowcr tor thc cxjoitation ot carth- commoditic-, con-
ict- ot intcrc-t in mattcr- rcat and -ma Lvcrywhcrc, tcn-ion- and
urdcn- ony -ujcrciay ca-cd y ha-tiy arrancd jau-c- and di-
vcr-ion- ncw-jajcr-, movic-, ciarcttc- l do not nccd to jaint it
in any tucr dctai wc a know what thi- word ook- ikc And wc
nccd not ony dircct our attcntion to thc cxtrcmc in-tancc- ot cri-i-
that -how thcm-cvc- today l mcan -imjy thc cvcryday workin
word, whcrc wc mu-t o aout our u-inc--, whcrc vcry concrctc
oa- arc advanccd and rcaizcd oa- that mu-t c -ihtcd with an
cyc xcd on thc thin- ncarc-t and co-c-t at hand `ow it i- not our
jurjo-c hcrc to condcmn thi- word, trom thc -tandjoint ot -omc
hoidayword ot jhio-ojhy `o word- nccd c wa-tcd on -ayin
that thi- workaday word i- vcry much with u-, that in it thc toun-
dation- ot our jhy-ica cxi-tcncc arc -ccurcd, without which noody
can jhio-ojhizc at a' `cvcrthcc--, ct u- a-o rcca, that amon
thc voicc- which thc workjacc and thc markct- (Low do you
ct thi- or that itcm ot daiy cxi-tcncc, \hcrc do you ct that
ctc) in thc mid-t ot a thc-c voicc- -uddcny onc ca- out aovc
thc rc-t \hy i- thcrc anythin at a, and not nothin a-kin
that ac-od quc-tion, which Lcidccr cacd thc a-ic quc-tion ot
a mctajhy-ic-'
2
`u-t wc cxjicity -tatc how untathomac thi-
jhio-ojhcr- quc-tion i-, in comjari-on with that cvcryday word
ot nccd- and jurjo-ctunc-- lt -uch a quc-tion a- thi- wcrc a-kcd,
without introduction or intcrjrctation, in thc comjany ot tho-c jco-
jc ot ccicncy and -uccc--, woudnt thc quc-tioncr c con-idcrcd
rathcr mad Throuh -uch cxtrcmcy tormuatcd contra-t-, how-
2
M. Heidegger, Was ist Metaphysik? (Frankfurt, 1943), p. 22. The formulation, of course, is not new:
it was used by Leibniz: Pourquoy il y a plustt quelque chose que rien? Leibniz, Philosophische Schriften
(Darmstadt, 1965, .), vol. I, p. 426. Cf. also Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Why Is There Something Rather
Than Nothing? (Assen, Holland, 1966).
86
cvcr, thc rca, undcryin di-tinction comc- to thc torc it ccomc-
ccar that cvcn to a-k that quc-tion con-titutc- takin a -tcj to-
ward tran-ccndin, toward cavin chind, thc workaday word
Thc cnuinc jhio-ojhica quc-tion -trikc- di-turiny aain-t thc
canojy that cnco-c- thc word ot thc citizcn- workday
Lut thc jhio-ojhica act i- not thc ony way to takc thi- -tcj
cyond `o c-- incommcn-urac with thc workin-word than thc
jhio-ojhica quc-tion i- thc -ound ot truc joctry
In middle and ending ever stands the tree,
The birds are singing; on Gods breast
The round Creation takes its holy rest ...
3
Such a voicc -ound- uttcry -tranc in thc rcam ot activcy rca-
izcd jurjo-c And no dicrcnty -ound- thc voicc ot onc who jray-
\c jrai-c you, wc ority you, wc ivc you thank- tor your rcat
ory Low can that cvcr c undcr-tood in thc catcoric- ot ratio-
na u-ctunc-- and ccicncy Thc ovcr, too, -tand- out-idc thc tiht
chain ot ccicncy ot thi- workin word, and who cvcr c-c ajjroachc-
thc marin ot cxi-tcncc throuh -omc dccj, cxi-tcntia di-turancc
(which away- rin- a -hattcrin ot onc- cnvironmcnt a- wc),
or throuh, -ay, thc jroximity ot dcath ln -uch a di-turancc (tor
thc jhio-ojhica act, cnuinc joctry, mu-ica cxjcricncc in cncra,
and jraycr a- wc a thc-c dcjcnd on -omc kind ot di-turancc) in
-uch an cxjcricncc, man -cn-c- thc non-utimatc naturc ot thi- daiy,
worri-omc word hc tran-ccnd- it. hc takc- a -tcj out-idc it
3
Konrad Weiss, In Exitu (rst verses) - which rst appeared in the volume Die cumaische Sibylle (Munich,
1921), more readily accessible now in the collected edition: Konrad Weiss, Gedichte, 19141939 (Munich:
Kosel-Verlag, 1961).
87
And ccau-c ot thcir common jowcr to di-tur and tran-ccnd, a
thc-c a-ic chaviora jattcrn- ot thc human cin havc a natura
conncction amon thcm-cvc- thc jhio-ojhica act, thc rciiou-
act, thc arti-tic act, and thc -jccia rcation-hij with thc word that
comc- into jay with thc cxi-tcntia di-turancc ot Lovc or Lcath
lato, a- mo-t ot u- know, thouht aout jhio-ojhy and ovc in -im-
iar tcrm- And a- tor thc co-c conncction ctwccn jhio-ojhy and
joctry, wc can rctcr to a ittc-known -tatcmcnt y Thoma- Aquina-
in hi- Commentary on Aristotles Metaphysics thc lhio-ojhcr i-
akin to thc loct in thi-, that oth arc conccrncd with thc mirandum,
thc wondrou-, thc a-toni-hin, or whatcvcr ca- tor a-toni-hmcnt
or wondcr
4
Thi- -tatcmcnt i- not that ca-y to tathom, -incc Thoma-,
ikc Ari-totc, wa- a vcry -ocr thinkcr, comjctcy ojjo-cd to any
lomantic contu-ion ot jrojcry di-tinct rcam- Lut on thc a-i- ot
thcir common oricntation toward thc wonderful (thc mirandum
-omcthin not to c tound in thc word ot work') on thi- a-i-,
thcn, ot thi- common tran-ccndin-jowcr, thc jhio-ojhica act i-
rcatcd to thc wondcrtu, i- in tact morc co-cy rcatcd to it than
to thc cxact, -jccia -cicncc-. to thi- joint wc -ha rcturn
Thc co-cnc-- ot thi- conncction i- -o rca that whcn cvcr one
mcmcr ot thc -y-tcm i- dcnicd, thc othcr- cannot thrivc thc rc-ut
i- that in a word ot tota work, a thc variou- torm- and mcthod-
ot tran-ccndcncc mu-t thcm-cvc- ccomc -tcric (or, rathcr, woud
have to ccomc -tcric, it it wcrc jo--ic to dc-troy human naturc
comjctcy). whcrc rciion i- not aowcd to row, whcrc thc art-
can nd no jacc, whcrc thc di-turancc- ot ovc and dcath o-c thcir
dcjth and ccomc ana thcrc too, jhio-ojhy and jhio-ojhizin
cannot -urvivc Lut wor-c than thc mcrc cxtinui-hin or -icncin i-
thc di-tortion into ta-c torm- ot thc oriina. thcrc arc -uch j-cudo
4
Commentary on the Metaphysics I, 3.
88
rcaization- ot tho-c a-ic cxjcricncc-, which ony ajjcar to jicrcc
thc canojy Thcrc i- a way to jray, in which thi- word i- not tran-
-ccndcd, in which, in-tcad, onc attcmjt- to incorjoratc thc divinc a-
a tunctionin comjoncnt ot thc workaday machincry ot jurjo-c-
lciion can c jcrvcrtcd into maic -o that in-tcad ot -ctdcdication
to God, it ccomc- thc attcmjt to ain jowcr ovcr thc divinc and
makc it -u-crvicnt to onc- own wi. jraycr can ccomc a tcchniquc
tor continuin to ivc itc undcr thc canojy And turthcr ovc can
c narrowcd -o that thc jowcr- ot -ct-ivin ccomc -u-crvicnt to
thc oa- ot thc conncd co, oa- which ari-c trom an anxiou- -ct-
dctcn-c aain-t thc di-turancc- ot thc arcr, dccjcr, word, which
ony thc truy ovin jcr-on can cntcr Thcrc arc j-cudotorm- ot
art, a ta-c joctry, which, in-tcad ot rcakin throuh thc root ovcr
thc workaday word, rc-in- it-ct, -o to -jcak, to jaintin dcco-
ration- on thc intcrior -urtacc ot thc domc, and jut- it-ct morc or
c-- oviou-y to thc -crvicc ot thc workin word a- jrivatc or juic
ta-hion joctry. -uch joctry ncvcr -ccm- to tran-ccnd, not cvcn
oncc (and it i- ccar, that cnuinc jhio-ojhizin ha- morc in com-
mon with thc cxact, -jccia -cicncc- than with -uch pseudojoctry')
Iinay, thcrc i- a pseudojhio-ojhy, who-c c--cntia charactcr i-
jrcci-cy that it doc- not tran-ccnd thc workin word ln a diaouc
ot lato, Socratc- a-k- thc -ojhi-t lrotaora- ,u-t what hc tcachc-
thc youth who ock to -cc him And thc an-wcr i-, l tcach thcm
ood jannin, oth in thcir own aair-, -uch a- how onc -houd
c-t manac hi- own hou-chod, and in juic aair-, how onc can
c-t -jcak and act in thc city--tatc
5
That i- thc ca--ic jroram ot
lhio-ojhy a- lrotc--iona Trainin a -ccmin jhio-ojhy ony,
with no tran-ccndcncc
Lut cvcn wor-c -ti, ot cour-c, i- that a thc-c j-cudotorm- work
5
Protagoras 318 .
89
tocthcr, not ony in taiin to tran-ccnd thc word, ut in morc and
morc -urcy -uccccdin in co-in o thc word undcr thc canojy
thcy -ca o humanity a thc morc within thc word ot work A
thc-c dcccjtivc torm-, and c-jcciay -uch -ccmin-jhio-ojhy, arc
-omcthin much wor-c, -omcthin much morc hojcc--, than thc
naivc -ct-co-in ot thc wordy man aain-t what i- not ot daiy-itc
Somconc who i- mcrcy naivcy conncd to thc workaday may onc
day ncvcrthcc-- c touchcd y thc di-turin jowcr that ic- hiddcn
in a truc jhio-ojhica quc-tion, or in -omc jocm. ut a -ojhi-t, a
j-cudojhio-ojhcr, wi ncvcr c di-turcd
Lut ct u- now rcturn to thc jath markcd out y our initia quc--
tion whcn a quc-tion i- a-kcd in thc truy jhio-ojhica manncr,
onc a-k- aout -omcthin that tran-ccnd- thc workin word Thi-
-how- that -uch a quc-tion, and -uch a way ot calling into question,
jo--c--c- a -jccia acutcnc-- today, -incc thc word ot tota work ha-
cmcrcd with dcmand- morc a-cncomja--in than cvcr ctorc in
hi-tory And yct, thi- i- not mcrcy to makc a critici-m ot a jcriod
ot hi-tory lt i- rathcr to -jcak ot a mi-undcr-tandin that i- tunda-
mcntay timcc-- in naturc
Ior lato, thc auhtcr ot thc Thracian maidcn, who -aw Thac-
ot `ictu- ta into a wc whic hc wa- -tarin at thc -kic-, i- thc
tyjica rc-jon-c ot tcct-on-thc-round, workaday rca-onin to jhi-
o-ojhy And thi- anccdotc ot thc Thracian maid
6
-tand- at thc
6
In Platos dialogue Theaetetus, Socrates criticizes those philosophers who concern themselves with
distant, abstract things but neglect practical aairs closer to hand, and illustrates this with an anecdote
about Thales: I will illustrate my meaning ... by the jest which the clever witty Thracian handmaid is said
to have made about Thales, when he fell into a well as he was looking up at the stars. She said that he
was so eager to know what was going on in heaven, that he could not see what was before his feet. This is
a jest which is equally applicable to all philosophers. For the philosopher is wholly unacquainted with his
next-door neighbour; he is ignorant, not only of what he is doing, but he hardly knows whether he is a man
or an animal; he is searching into the essence of man, and busy in enquiring what belongs to such a nature
to do or suer dierent from any other. (Plato, Theaetetus, translated by Benjamin Jowett, Part 1, p. 39)
90
vcry cinnin ot \c-tcrn lhio-ojhy And away-, a- lato -ay-
in thc Theaetetus, thc jhio-ojhcr i- thc utt ot humor, not ony
tor Thracian maidcn-, ut tor mo-t jcojc, ccau-c onc who i- a
-trancr to thc word ta- into wc-, and into many othcr cmar-
ra--mcnt- too
7
lato doc- not ony cxjrc-- him-ct cxjicity, in torma -tatc-
mcnt- hc jrctcr- to u-c imac- Thcrc i- a ccrtain Ajoodoro-,
a charactcr ot -ccondary imjortancc (a- it -ccm- at r-t) in thc
diaouc- Phaedo and Symposium Ajoodoro- i- onc ot tho-c un-
critica, cnthu-ia-tic youth- in Socratc- circc, who may rcjrc-cnt
-omconc ikc lato him-ct oncc wa- \c hcar ot Ajoodoro- in thc
Phaedo that hc aonc amon thc a--cmcd ur-t into roanin and
tcar- whcn Socratc- jut thc cuj ot hcmock to hi- ij- You know
thi- man and hi- manncr
8
ln thc Symposium
9
Ajoodoro- -ay- ot
him-ct that tor ycar- hc wa- cacr to know what Socratc- -aid and
did cvcry day l ran around, and thouht l wa- doin -omcthin,
ut wa- ,u-t a- mi-crac a- anyonc Lut now, in a wondcrtu way,
hc ha- ivcn him-ct ovcr comjctcy to Socratc- and jhio-ojhy
ln thc city now thcy ca him crazy Ajoodoro-. hc rai- aain-t
cvcryonc (cvcn him-ct) ut ony -jarc- Socratc- ln comjctc naivct e,
hc ct- it c known cvcrywhcrc, how hajjy hc i-, cyond a mca-
-urc, whcn hc tak- aout jhio-ojhy or hcar- -omconc c-c do -o.
and thcn aain, how wrctchcd hc i-, that hc ha- not yct attaincd to
thc rca thin, to c ikc Socratc-' Onc day, thi- Ajoodoro- cn-
countcr- -omc tricnd- ot hi- trom caricr day- thc vcry onc-, in tact,
who now ca him crazy, thc madman A- lato cxjrc--y joint-
out, thcy arc u-inc-- jcojc, jcojc ot moncy, who know jrcci-cy
7
Theaetetus 174.
8
Phaedo 59ab.
9
Symposium 172 f.
91
how -omconc can -uccccd, and who intcnd to do -omcthin i in
thc word Thc-c tricnd- inquirc ot Ajoodoro-, to tc thcm -omc-
thin aout thc -jccchc- aout Lovc that wcrc dcivcrcd at a ccrtain
anquct at thc hou-c ot thc joct Aathon lt i- ccar that thc-c -uc-
cc--tu u-inc--mcn rcay tcc no dc-irc to c in-tructcd aout thc
mcanin ot itc and cxi-tcncc, and ccrtainy not trom Ajoodoro-'
\hat intcrc-t- thcm i- ony thc witty rcmark-, thc wc--jokcn rcjar-
tcc, thc torma ccancc ot thc dcatc And on hi- jart, Ajoodoro-
chcri-hc- no iu-ion- aout thc jhio-ojhica intcrc-t- ot hi- od
tricnd- lathcr, hc -ay- dirccty to thcir tacc, how much hc jitic-
thcm, ccau-c you cicvc you arc accomji-hin -omcthin,
whcn you rcay arc not And mayc now you arc thinkin, l am not
vcry wc o, and you may c riht, ut l do not mcrcy think thc
-amc aout you, l know it tor -urc' A thc -amc, hc doc- not rctu-c
to tc thcm aout thc Lovc--jccchc-. indccd, hc cannot c -icnt
lt you rcay want mc to tc you, l wi havc to do it cvcn thouh
thcy may takc him tor a madman And thcn Ajoodoro- narratc-
thc Symposium' Ior thc latonic anquct ha- thc torm ot in-
dircct -jccch a rcjort trom thc mouth ot Ajoodoro- Too ittc
attcntion, in my vicw, ha- ccn jaid to thc tact that lato aow-
hi- dccjc-t thouht- to c cxjrc--cd throuh thi- ovcr-cnthu-ia-tic,
uncritica youth, thi- ovcr-cacr di-cijc Ajoodoro- And thc audi-
cncc ot thc rcjort i- a rouj ot moncycd, -uccc--tu Athcnian-, who
arc not rcay jrcjarcd to i-tcn to -uch thouht- or cvcn takc thcm
-criou-y' Thcrc i- -omcthin hojcc-- in thi- -ituation, a tcmjtation
to dc-jair, aain-t which (thi- i- jroay what lato mcan-) ony
thc youthtu, undi-tractcd thir-t tor wi-dom, thc truc philosophia,
can takc a -tand ln any ca-c, lato coud not havc rouht out any
morc ccary thc incommcn-uraiity ctwccn jhio-ojhizin and thc
-ct-ucicnt word ot daiy work
92
And yct thc incommcn-uraiity ot thi- -ituation i- not mcrcy
ncativc, tor thcrc i- anothcr -idc a- wc, known a- trccdom Ior
jhio-ojhy i- u-cc-- in thc -cn-c ot immcdiatc jrot and ajjica-
tion that i- onc thin Anothcr thin i-, that jhio-ojhy cannot
aow it-ct to c u-cd, it i- not at thc di-jo-a ot jurjo-c- cyond
it-ct, tor it i- it-ct a oa lhio-ojhy i- not tunctionaknowin, ut
rathcr, a- !ohn Lcnry `cwman jut it,
10
i- gentlemans knowcdc,
not u-ctu, ut trcc knowin Lut thi- trccdom mcan- that jhio-
-ojhica knowin doc- not acquirc it- citimacy trom it- utiitarian
ajjication-, not trom it- -ocia tunction, not trom it- rcation-hij
with thc common utiity Irccdom in cxacty thi- -cn-c i- thc trcc-
dom ot thc icra art-, a- ojjo-cd to thc -crvic art-, which,
accordin to Thoma-, arc ordcrcd to a u-c, to c attaincd throuh
activity
11
And jhio-ojhy ha- on ccn undcr-tood a- thc mo-t
trcc amon thc trcc art- (thc mcdicva Art- Iacuty i- thc torcrun-
ncr ot thc lhio-ojhica Iacuty ot today- univcr-ity)
Thcrctorc, it i- a thc -amc whcthcr l -ay that thc jhio-ojhica
act tran-ccnd- thc workin word, or whcthcr l -ay, jhio-ojhica
knowin i- u-cc-- or whcthcr l -ay, jhio-ojhy i- a icra art
Thi- trccdom con- to thc jarticuar -cicncc- ony to thc cxtcnt
that thcy arc jur-ucd in a jhio-ojhica manncr Lcrc ikcwi-c i-
to c tound oth hi-toricay and actuay thc rca mcanin ot
acadcmic trccdom (-incc acadcmic mcan- jhio-ojhica it it
mcan- anythin'). -tricty -jcakin, a caim tor acadcmic trccdom
can ony cxi-t whcn thc acadcmic it-ct i- rcaizcd in a jhio-ojh-
ica way And thi- i- hi-toricay thc rca-on acadcmic trccdom ha-
ccn o-t, cxacty to thc cxtcnt that thc jhio-ojhic charactcr ot aca-
dcmic -tudy ha- ccn o-t, or, to jut it anothcr way, to thc cxtcnt
10
The Idea of a University, V, 5.
11
Commentary on the Metaphysics I, 3.
93
that thc totaitarian dcmand- ot thc workin word havc conqucrcd
thc rcam ot thc univcr-ity Lcrc i- whcrc thc mctajhy-ica root- ot
thc jrocm ic thc joiticization i- ony a -ymjtom and con-c-
qucncc And indccd, it mu-t c admittcd hcrc that thi- i- nothin
othcr than thc truit ot jhio-ojhy it-ct, ot modcrn jhio-ojhy' Ot
which thcmc, morc wi -oon havc to c -aid
Lut r-t, -omcthin nccd- to c -aid on thc thcmc ot jhio-ojhy-
trccdom, in di-tinction trom thc -jccia -cicncc- and thi- mcan- a
trccdom undcr-tood a- not-cin--uordinatcd-to-jurjo-c- ln thi-
-cn-c, thc -jccia -cicncc- arc trcc ony in-otar a- thcy arc jur-ucd
in a jhio-ojhica way, in-otar, that i- to -ay, a- thcy -harc in thc
trccdom ot jhio-ojhy A- `cwman jut it, Inowcdc, l -ay, i- thcn
c-jcciay icra, or -ucicnt tor it-ct, ajart trom cvcry cxtcrna and
utcrior o,cct, whcn and -o tar a- it i- jhio-ojhica
12
Con-idcrcd
in thcm-cvc-, howcvcr, thc variou- jarticuar -cicncc- arc c--cntiay
to-c--uordinatcd-to-jurjo-c-. thcy arc c--cntiay rcatac to a
u-c that i- rcachcd throuh activity (a- Thoma- -ay- ot thc -crvic
art-)
13
Lut wc can -jcak -ti morc concrctcy' Thc ovcrnmcnt ot a -tatc
can -ay, ln ordcr to comjctc our vc-ycar jan, wc nccd jhy-ici-t-
who can catch uj with thc jrorc-- ot torcin nation- in thi- or that
-jccia arca, or \c nccd mcdica doctor-, who can dcvcoj a morc
ccctivc u vaccinc ln thc-c ca-c-, nothin i- cin -aid or donc
that i- contrary to thc naturc ot thc-c -cicncc- Lut, it -omconc wcrc
to -ay, \c nccd -omc jhio-ojhcr-, who \i do what Thcrc
coud ony c onc jo--iiity wi ,u-tity, dcvcoj, dctcnd, -uch
and -uch an idcooy To -ay thi- and act ujon it woud c a dc-
-truction ot jhio-ojhy' And it woud comc to thc -amc, it -omconc
12
Idea of a University, V, 5.
13
Commentary on the Metaphysics I, 3.
94
-aid, \c nccd -omc joct-, who wi \ho wi do what Aain,
it coud ony c onc thin who wi |a- thc cxjrc--ion oc-| u-c
thc jcn a- a -word, on chat ot ccrtain idca- dctcrmincd y rca-on-
ot -tatc And it thi- wa- cin -aid, wc woud ikcwi-c -cc thc dc-
-truction ot joctry ln thc -amc momcnt, joctry woud cca-c to c
joctry, and jhio-ojhy woud cca-c to c jhio-ojhy
Lut thi- i- not to -ay that no rcation-hij what-ocvcr can c
tound ctwccn thc rcaization ot thc common ood ot a nation and
any tcachin ot jhio-ojhy that takc- jacc in it' lathcr, thc joint
i- that -uch a rcation-hij cannot c in-titutcd and rcuatcd y thc
admini-trator- ot thc common ood. that which ha- it- mcanin and
jurjo-c in it-ct, that which i- it-ct jurjo-c, cannot c madc thc
mcan- tor -omc othcr jurjo-c, ,u-t a- -omconc can not ovc a jcr-on
tor -uch and -uch or in ordcr to do -uch and -uch'
`ow, thi- trccdom ot jhio-ojhy, thi- quaity ot not-cin--u-
-crvicnt-to -omc jurjo-c i- intimatcy conncctcd with -omcthin c-c
(a conncction which -ccm- cxtrcmcy imjortant to joint out) thc
thcorctica charactcr ot jhio-ojhy lhio-ojhy i- thc jurc-t torm ot
theorein, or speculari (to o-crvc, chod, contcmjatc), con-i-tin
in a jurcy rcccjtivc azc on rcaity, whcrcy thin- aonc arc dc-
tcrminativc, and thc -ou i- comjctcy rcccjtivc ot dctcrmination
\hcncvcr -omc cxi-tcnt i- takcn uj into vicw in a jhio-ojhica way,
thc quc-tion- arc a-kcd in a jurcy thcorctica manncr, and that
mcan- a manncr untouchcd y anythin jractica, y any intcntion
to chanc thin-, and thcrcy c rai-cd aovc a -crvin ot turthcr
jurjo-c-
Thc rcaization ot theoria in thi- -cn-c i-, howcvcr, conncctcd with
a jrc-ujjo-ition Ior what i- jrc-umcd i- a dcnitc rcation-hij with
thc word, a rcation-hij that ajjcar- to jrcccdc a con-ciou- jo-it-
in or -cttin-torth ot -omc intcntion Ior to c thcorctica in thi-
95
tu -cn-c (in thc -cn-c ot a jurcy rcccjtivc contcmjation, with-
out thc -ihtc-t tracc ot an intcntion to chanc thin-. rathcr, it i-
jrcci-cy thc ojjo-itc, a wiinnc-- to makc thc yc- or no ot
thc wi dcjcndcnt on thc actuaity ot cin, which i- to c rouht
to cxjrc--ion in thc knowcdc ot cin) thc vi-ion ot man wi
ony c thcorctica in thi- undiutcd -cn-c, whcn cin, thc word,
i- -omcthin other than him and i- morc than thc mcrc cd, thc
mcrc raw matcria, ot human activity Ony that jcr-on can vicw
thc word thcorcticay in thc tuc-t -cn-c, tor whom thc word
i- -omcthin worthy ot rcvcrcncc, and utimatcy, creation in thc
-trict -cn-c On thi- toundation aonc can c rcaizcd thc jurcy
thcorctica jrojcrty that i- ot thc c--cncc ot jhio-ojhy ln thi-
way, it woud c a conncction ot thc dccjc-t and mo-t intimatc kind,
whcrcy thc trccdom ot jhio-ojhizin and ot jhio-ojhy it-ct i- uti-
matcy madc jo--ic And it woud not c cau-c ot wondcr, that thc
rcmova ot -uch a rcation-hij with thc word or -uch a conncction
(ic, thc conncction in virtuc ot which thc word i- -ccn a- crcation,
and not mcrcy raw matcria) that thc rcmova ot that conncction
woud jrorc-- -tcj y -tcj with thc dc-truction ot thc cnuincy
thcorctica charactcr ot jhio-ojhy, a- wc a- ot it- trccdom and
tran-ccndcncc-ovcr-tunction. and cvcn thc dc-truction ot jhio-ojhy
it-ct
Thcrc i- a dircct jath trom Iranci- Lacon, who -aid, Inowcdc
i- lowcr, that thc vauc ot a knowin ic- in thc jrovi-ion ot hu-
man itc with ncw di-covcric- and hcj-,
14
to Lc-cartc-, who in hi-
Discourse on Method cxjicity tormuatcd thc jocmica jroram
to rcjacc thc od thcorctica jhio-ojhy with a ncw jractica
onc, throuh which wc coud makc our-cvc- thc Lord- and `a-tcr-
14
Novum organum I, 3; I, 81.
96
ot naturc
15
trom thcrc thc road cad- dirccty into thc wc-known
-ayin ot Iar `arx, that uj unti hi- timc jhio-ojhy -aw it- ta-k
a- onc ot intcrjrctin thc word, ut that now it- ta-k wa- to change
thc word
Thi- i- thc jath aon which thc -ct-dc-truction ot jhio-ojhy
ha- travccd throuh thc dc-truction ot it- thcorctica charactcr, a
dc-truction which in turn rc-t- ujon haituay -ccin thc word a-
thc raw matcria ot human activity \hcn thc word i- no oncr
ookcd ujon a- crcation, thcrc can no oncr c theoria in thc tu
-cn-c And with thc ta ot theoria, thc trccdom ot jhio-ojhy ta-
a- wc, and what comc- in it- jacc i- thc tunctionaizin, thc mak-
in it into -omcthin jractica, oricntcd toward a citimation y
it- -ocia tunction. what comc- to thc torc i- thc workin charac-
tcr ot jhio-ojhy, or ot jhio-ojhy -o-cacd `canwhic, our thc-i-
(which can now c morc ccary tormuatcd), maintain- that it i- ot
thc naturc ot thc jhio-ojhica act, to tran-ccnd thc word ot work
Thi- thc-i-, which comjrchcnd- oth thc trccdom and thcorctica
charactcr ot jhio-ojhy, doc- not dcny thc word ot work (in tact, it
cxjrc--y jrc-umc- it a- -omcthin nccc--ary), ut it maintain- that
truc jhio-ojhy rc-t- ujon thc cict that thc rca wcath ot man ic-
not in thc -ati-taction ot hi- nccc--itic-, nor, aain, in c comin
ord- and ma-tcr- ot naturc, ut rathcr in cin ac to undcr-tand
what is thc whoc ot what i- Ancicnt jhio-ojhy -ay- that thi-
i- thc utmo-t tumcnt to which wc can attain that thc whoc or-
dcr ot rca thin- c rci-tcrcd in our -ou
16
a conccjtion which in
thc Chri-tian tradition wa- takcn uj into thc conccjt ot thc catic
vi-ion \hat do thcy not -cc, who ook ujon Lim, \ho -cc- a
17
15
Discourse on Method, 6.
16
Cf. Thomas, Quaestiones disputatae de veritate II, 2.
17
Gregory the Great, as quoted by Thomas in the passage just cited.
97
98
II
So, thcn whocvcr jhio-ojhizc-, takc- a -tcj cyond thc worka
day word and it- daiy routinc
Thc mcanin ot takin -uch a -tcj i- dctcrmincd c-- y whcrc it
starts from a- y whcrc it leads to \c mu-t a-k a turthcr quc-tion
,u-t whcrc i- thc jhio-ojhcr oin whcn hc tran-ccnd- thc word ot
work Ccary, hc -tcj- ovcr a oundary what kind ot rcion ic-
on thc othcr -idc ot thi- oundary And what i- thc rcation-hij ot
thc jacc whcrc thc jhio-ojhica act hajjcn-, to thc word that i-
tran-ccndcd and ctt chind y thi- -amc jhio -ojhica act l- that
thc authcntic word, and thc word ot work thc inauthcntic l-
it thc whoc a- ojjo-cd to thc jart l- it thc truc rcaity a-
ojjo-cd to a mcrc -hadow word ot ajjcarancc-
`o mattcr how -uch quc-tion- coud c an-wcrcd in dctai, in any
ca-c, both rcion-, thc word ot work and thc othcr rcam, whcrc
thc jhio-ojhica act takc- jacc in it- tran-ccndin ot thc workin
word both rcion- con to thc word ot man, which ccary ha- a
comjcx -tructurc
Thcrctorc, our ncxt quc-tion i-, \hat i- thc naturc ot thc word
ot man a quc-tion that cannot c an-wcrcd it thc human cin i-
inorcd
ln ordcr to ivc a ccar an-wcr at thi- joint, wc mu-t cin aain,
99
and -tart a- it wcrc trom thc vcry ottom
lt i- in thc naturc ot a ivin thin to havc a word to cxi-t and
ivc in thc word, in it- word To ivc mcan- to c in a word
Lut i- not a -tonc a-o in a word l- not cvcrythin that cxi-t-
in a word lt wc kccj to thc itcc-- -tonc, i- it not with and
c-idc othcr thin- in thc word `ow, with, c-idc, and in
arc jrcjo-ition-, word- ot rcation-hij. ut thc -tonc doc- not rcay
havc a rcation-hij with thc word in which it i-, nor to thc othcr
thin- c-idc which and with which it ivc- lcation-hij, in thc
truc -cn-c, ,oin- thc in-idc with thc out-idc. rcation-hij can ony
cxi-t whcrc thcrc i- an in-idc, a dynamic ccntcr, from which a
ojcration ha- it- -ourcc and to which a that i- rcccivcd, a that
i- cxjcricnccd, i- rouht Thc intcrna (ony in thi- quaitativc
-cn-c thc in-idc ot a rock woud rctcr ony to thc -jatia ocation
ot jart-) thc intcrna i- thc aiity to havc a rca rcation-hij,
a rcation to thc cxtcrna. to havc an in-idc, mcan- aiity to c
rcatcd, and to cntcr into rcation-hij And word A word mcan-
thc -amc thin, ut con-idcrcd a- a whoc cd ot rcation-hij- Ony
a cin that ha- an aiity to cntcr into rcation-hij-, ony cin with
an in-idc, ha- a word. ony -uch a cin can cxi-t in thc mid-t
ot a cd ot rcation- Thcrc i- a di-tincty dicrcnt kind ot jroximity
that otain- in thc rcation-hij- ot jcc-, which ic tocthcr in a
hcaj -omcwhcrc c-idc thc roadway and arc rcatcd in that way,
and, on thc othcr hand, in thc rcation-hij ot a jant to thc nutricnt-
which it nd- in thc vicinity ot it- root- Lcrc wc -cc not mcrcy jhy--
ica jroximity a- an o,cctivc tact, ut cnuinc rcation-hij (in thc
oriina, activc mcanin ot rcation-hij) thc nutricnt- arc intcratcd
into thc orit ot thc jant- itc y way ot thc rca intcrnaity ot thc
jant, throuh it- jowcr to c rcatcd, and to cntcr into rcation-hij
And a thi- a that can c takcn in y thc rcatin-jowcr ot that
100
jant a thi- makc- uj thc cd ot rcation-hij-, or thc word, ot
that jant Thc jant ha- a word, ut not thc jcc
Thi-, thcn, i- thc r-t joint word i- a cd ot rcation- To
havc a word mcan- to c in thc mid-t ot, and to c thc carcr ot, a
cd ot rcation- Thc -ccond joint i-, thc hihcr thc cvc ot thc in-
wardnc-- or, that i- to -ay, thc morc comjrchcn-ivc and jcnctrativc
thc aiity to cntcr into rcation-, -o thc widcr and dccjcr arc thc
dimcn-ion- ot thc cd ot rcation- that con- to that cin. to jut
it dicrcnty thc hihcr a cin -tand- in thc hicrarchy ot rcaity,
thc widcr and morc jrotound i- thc -tandin ot it- word
Thc owc-t word i- that ot thc jant, which doc- not rcach c-
yond what it touchc- in it- own vicinity Thc hihcr-rankin, -ja-
tiay widcr rcam ot thc anima corrc-jond- to it- rcatcr aiity to
cntcr into rcation-hij- Thc rcation-aiity ot thc anima i- rcatcr,
in-otar a- thc anima ha- -cn-c-jcrccjtion To jcrccivc -omcthin
i- quitc cxtraordinary, comjarcd with what thc jant can do it i- a
comjctcy ncw modc ot cntcrin into rcation-hij with onc- cnvi-
ronmcnt
Lut not cvcrythin that an anima, a- -uch, can jcrccivc (ccau-c
it ha- car- to hcar and cyc- to -cc) rcay con- to thc word ot
-uch an anima it i- not truc that a thc vi-ic thin- in thc cn-
vironmcnt ot an anima with vi-ion arc in tact -ccn, or cvcn can c
-ccn Ior cnvironmcnt a- -uch, thc jcrccivac cnvironmcnt, i- -ti
not a word That wa- thc tyjica cict, unti thc cnvironmcnta
rc-carchc- ot thc iooi-t !ako von cxk u. unti that timc, a-
cxk u jut- it, it wa- cncray hcd, that a cyc-cquijjcd anima-
coud -cc thc -amc thin-
1
Lut cxk u- di-covcry wa- that, on thc
contrary, thc cnvironmcnt- ot anima- arc not at a thc whoc cx-
1
Der unsterbliche Geist in der Natur (Hamburg, 1938), p. 63.
101
jan-c ot naturc, ut rc-cmc a narrow, turni-hcd ajartmcnt
2
Ior
cxamjc, onc coud wc imainc that a crow coud -cc a ra--hojjcr
(a vcry dc-irac o,cct tor a crow) whcncvcr thc ra--hojjcr camc
acro-- it- jath, or to c morc jrcci-c, whcncvcr in camc into vicw
ot it- cyc- Lut that i- not thc ca-c' ln-tcad, to citc cxk u, thc
crow i- comjctcy incajac ot -ccin a ra--hojjcr -ittin -ti
wc woud r-t a--umc that thc torm ot a rc-tin ra--hojjcr woud
c vcry wc known to a crow, ut ccau-c ot thc adc ot ra-- in
thc way, it cannot c madc out a- a unit, ,u-t a- wc havc dicuty
-ccin an imac hiddcn in a jicturc-juzzc Ony whcn it ,umj- doc-
it- torm rcca-c it-ct trom thc ncihorin -hajc- or -o wc woud
think Lut attcr turthcr invc-tiation, it can c -hown that thc crow
doc- not cvcn rcconizc thc form ot a rc-tin ra--hojjcr, ut i-
ony jrcjarcd to -cn-c moving things Thi- woud cxjain thc jay-
in dcad chavior ot many in-cct- Sincc thcir rc-tin-torm doc- not
at a ajjcar in thc -cn-cword ot thcir jrcdator-, thcy c-cajc that
word comjctcy and -ccurcy -imjy y yin -ti, and cannot c
tound, cvcn it thcy arc activcy -ouht
3
Thi- -ccctivc miicu, thcn, to which thc anima i- comjctcy
-uitcd, ut in which thc anima i- a-o cnco-cd (-o much -o that thc
oundary cannot c cro--cd -incc not cvcn it it ook- tor -omc-
thin cvcn it cquijjcd with an cxcccnt -carchin-oran, coud it
nd -omcthin that doc- not corrc-jond to thc -ccctivc jrincijc ot
thi- jartia word). thi- -ccctivc rcaity, dctcrmincd and oundcd y
thc iooica itc-jurjo-c ot thc individua or thc -jccic-, i- cacd
an cnvironmcnt |Umvelt | y cxk u (in di-tinction trom a -ur-
roundin |Umgebung |, and in di-tinction a-o, a- wc wi atcr -cc,
trom a word |Welt |) Thc cd ot rcation- ot thc anima i- not
2
Ibid., p. 76.
3
Von Uexk ull-Kriszat, Streifz uge durch die Umwelten von Tieren und Menschen (Berlin, 1934), p. 40.
102
it- -urroundin-, nor thc word, ut i- it- cnvironmcnt, in thi-
-jccia -cn-c a word trom which -omcthin ha- ccn ctt out, a
-ccctcd miicu, to which it- dwccr i- at oncc jcrtccty -uitcd and
conncd
Somconc wi jcrhaj- a-k at thi- joint, what ha- thi- to do with
our thcmc, \hat i- it to jhio-ojhizc `ow thc conncction i- not
a- di-tant or indircct a- it may -ccm \c a-t inquircd aout thc
word ot thc human cin, and thi- wa- thc immcdiatc intcrc-t in
cxk u- conccjt ot cnvironmcnt namcy, that our human word
can in no way caim to c morc rca than thc -cn-cword ot thc
anima (-o hc -ay-
4
). that, con-cqucnty, thc human cin i- in jrin-
cijc conncd to hi- word in thc -amc way a- thc anima. that i-,
to a iooicay -ccctcd jartia cnvironmcnt, and that man cannot
jcrccivc anythin that ic- out-idc thi- cnvironmcnt, not cvcn it it
wa- activcy -ouht (no morc, thcn, than thc crow coud nd thc
rc-tin ra--hojjcr) Onc miht wc a-k how a cin -o cnco-cd in
it- own cnvironmcnt, -o co-cd in on it-ct, coud c ac to jcrtorm
-cicntic rc-carch on thc naturc ot cnvironmcnt-'
Lut wc dont want to cnac in controvcr-y on thi- joint. rathcr,
wc can cavc thc joint a-idc and a-k anothcr quc-tion in-tcad, -incc
our attcntion i- dircctcd to man and thc human word to which hc
con- what i- thc rcatin-jowcr ot thc human cin \hat i-
it- naturc \hat jowcr doc- it havc \c -aid that thc jcrccjtivc-
aiity ot thc anima, whcn comjarcd with what i- in jant-, i- a
morc tar-rcachin way ot rcatin to thin- \oud not, thcn, thc jc-
cuiary human manncr ot knowin tor ac- ja-t, tcrmcd a spiritual
or intellective knowin in tact c anothcr, turthcr modc ot juttin-
onc-ct-into-rcation, a modc which tran-ccnd- in jrincijc any thin
4
Die Lebenslehre (Potsdam-Zurich, 1930), p. 131.
103
which can c rcaizcd in thc jant and anima word- And turthcr,
woud thi- tundamcntay dicrcnt kind ot rcatin jowcr o tocthcr
with a dicrcnt cd ot rcation-, ic, a word ot tundamcntay dit-
tcrcnt dimcn-ion- Thc an-wcr to -uch quc-tion- can c tound in
thc \c-tcrn jhio-ojhica tradition, which ha- undcr-tood and cvcn
dcncd -jiritua knowin a- thc jowcr to jacc onc-ct into rcation
with thc -umtota ot cxi-tin thin- And thi- i- not mcant a- ony
onc charactcri-tic amon othcr-, ut a- thc vcry c--cncc and dcni-
tion ot thc jowcr Ly it- naturc, -jirit (or intccction) i- not -o much
di-tinui-hcd y it- immatcriaity, a- y -omcthin morc jrimary it-
aiity to c in rcation to thc totaity ot cin Sjirit mcan- a rc-
atin jowcr that i- -o tar-rcachin and comjrchcn-ivc, that thc cd
ot rcation- to which it corrc-jond-, tran-ccnd- in jrincijc thc vcry
oundaric- ot it- -urroundin- lt i- thc naturc ot -jirit to havc a-
it- cd ot rcation- not ,u-t -urroundin- | Umvelt | ut a word
| Welt | lt i- ot thc naturc ot thc -jiritua cin to o ja-t thc im-
mcdiatc -urroundin- and to o cyond oth it- conncmcnt and
it- co-c t to tho-c -urroundin- (and ot cour-c hcrcin i- rcvcacd
oth thc trccdom and dancr to which thc -jiritua cin i- naturay
hcir)
ln Ari-totc- trcati-c on thc -ou, thc De Anima
5
, wc can rcad
thc toowin `ow, in ordcr to -um uj cvcry thin -aid uj unti thi-
joint aout thc -ou, wc can -ay aain that, thc -ou, a-icay, i- a
that cxi-t- Thi- -cntcncc ccamc a con-tant joint ot rctcrcncc tor
thc anthrojooy ot thc Lih `iddc Ac- anima est quodammodo
omnia |Thc -ou, in a ccrtain way, i- a thin-| ln a ccrtain way
that i- to -ay, thc -ou i- a in-otar a- it -ct- it-ct in rcation to
thc whoc ot cxi-tcncc throuh knowin (and to know mcan- to
ccomc idcntica with thc known rcaity athouh wc cannot o
5
De Anima III, 8 (431b).
104
into any turthcr dctai aout thi- a- yct) A- Thoma- -ay- in thc
trcati-c De Veritate (On Truth), thc -jiritua -ou i- c--cntiay
-tructurcd to cncountcr a cin (convenire cum omni ente
6
) to
jut it-ct into rcation with cvcrythin that ha- cin Lvcry othcr
cin jo--c--c- ony a jartia jarticijation in cin, whcrca- thc
cin cndowcd with -jirit can ra-j cin a- a whoc
7
A- on a-
thcrc i- -jirit, it i- jo--ic tor thc comjctcnc-- ot a cin to c
jrc-cnt in a -inc naturc
8
And thi- i- a-o thc jo-ition ot thc \c-t-
crn tradition to havc -jirit | Geist |, to c a -jirit, to c -jiritua
a thi- mcan- to c in thc middc ot thc -umtota ot rcaity, to c
in rcation with thc totaity ot cin, to c vis`avis de lunivers
Thc -jirit doc- not ivc in a word, or in it- word, ut in the
word word in thc -cn-c ot cvcrythin -ccn and un-ccn (omnia
visibilia et invisibilia)
Sjirit, or intccction, and thc -umtota ot rcaity thc-c arc in-
tcrchancac tcrm-, that corrc-jond to onc anothcr You cannot
havc thc onc without thc othcr An attcmjt to do ,u-t thi- (wc
mcntion ony it in ja--in) to rant thc human cin -ujcrior-
ity to hi- -urroundin-, to -ay that man ha- word | Welt | (and
not mcrcy cnvironmcnt | Umwelt |), without -jcakin ot man-
-jiritua naturc, or rathcr (what i- morc cxtrcmc), to maintain that
thi- tact (that man ha- word and not ony cnvironmcnt) ha-
nothin whatcvcr to do with thi- othcr tact, that thc human c-
in i- cquijjcd with intccction or -jirit thi- attcmjt ha- ccn
madc y Arnod Gchcn in a vcry comjrchcn-ivc ook which ha-
rcccivcd a rcat dca ot attcntion Man: His Nature and Place in
the World
9
ln ojjo-ition to cxk u, Gchcn rihty -ay- that thc
6
Quaestiones disputatae de veritate I, 1.
7
Summa contra gentiles III, 112.
8
Quaestiones disputatae de veritate II, 2.
9
Berlin, 1940.
105
human cin i- not co-cd within an cnvironmcnt ut i- trcc ot hi-
-urroundin- and ojcn to thc word. and yct, Gchicn oc- on to -ay,
thi- dicrcncc ctwccn thc anima a- cnvironmcntay imitcd and
thc human cin a- ojcn to thc worda-awhoc doc- not dcjcnd
on thc charactcri-tic ot -jirit ln-tcad, thi- vcry jowcr to havc
thc word is -jirit' Sjirit y dcnition i- ability to comprehend
the world'
Ior thc odcr jhio-ojhy that i-, tor lato, Ari-totc, Auu-tinc,
and Thoma- thc conncction ot thc two tcrm- -jirit (or intccc-
tion | Geist |) and word (in thc -cn-c ot totarcatcdnc--) i- -o
intimatcy and jrotoundy anchorcd in oth dircction- that not ony
i- it truc to -ay that spirit is relatedness to the sumtotal of ex-
isting beings. tor thc caricr jhio-ojhcr-, thc othcr truth, a--crtin
that a thin- arc c--cntiay in rcation to -jirit, i- ,u-t a- vaid, and
in a vcry jrcci-c -cn-c, which wc do not darc to tormuatc in word-
a- yct Ior not ony i- it thc jrojcrty ot thc -jirit that it- cd ot rc-
ation- incudc- thc -umtota ot cxi-tin thin-. rathcr, it i- a-o thc
jrojcrty ot cxi-tin thin- that thcy ic within thc cd ot rcation-
ot thc -jirit And to o turthcr tor thc odcr jhio-ojhy, it i- a thc
-amc to -ay that thin- havc cin a- to -ay that thin- ic in thc
cd ot rcation- ot thc -jirit, arc rcatcd to -jirit, whcrcy i- mcant,
ot cour-c, no mcrc trcc-oatin -jirituaity in -omc a-tract -cn-c
ut rathcr jcr-ona -jirit, a rcatin jowcr that i- wc roundcd,
ut thcn aain, not ony God, ut thc crcatcd, nitc, human -jirit
a- wc Ior thc od ontooy, it concd to thc naturc ot cxi-tin
thin- to c within thc cd, within thc rcach ot thc -jiritua -ou.
to havc cin mcan- thc -amc a- to ic within thc cd ot rcation-
ot thc -jiritua -ou. oth -tatcmcnt- rctcr to onc and thc -amc -itu-
ation Thi- and nothin c-c i- thc mcanin ot thc od doctrinc which
ha- ccomc -o rcmovcd trom u- A cin i- truc (omne ens est
106
verum), and thc othcr doctrinc with thc -amc mcanin cin and
truc arc convcrtic cxjrc--ion- Ior what doc- truc mcan, in
thc -cn-c ot thc truth ot thin- To -ay that -omcthin i- truc i- to
-ay that it i- undcr-tood and intciic, oth tor thc a-outc -jirit
a- wc a- tor thc nona-outc -jirit (l nccd to a-k tor your jaticncc
in -imjy acccjtin thi- tor thc momcnt, -incc it i- not jo--ic to
,u-tity thc-c thin- in any dctai at thi- joint
10
) lntciiiity i-
nothin othcr than cin rcatcd to a -jirit that ha- undcr-tandin
So whcn thc od jhio-ojhy -tatc- that it con- to thc naturc ot
cxi-tin thin-, that thcy arc intciic and arc undcr-tood, thcrc
coud not c any cin which i- not known and knowac (-incc all
cin i- truc). whcn it i- thc -aid that thc conccjt- cin on thc
onc hand, and intciiiity on thc othcr, arc convcrtic, -o that
thc onc coud -tand in thc othcr- jacc, -o that it i- thc -amc tor
mc to -ay that thin- havc cxi-tcncc a- to -ay that thin- arc
known and intciic. in -ayin thi- thc od jhio-ojhy a-o tauht
that it ic- in thc naturc ot thin- to c rcatcd to thc mind (and
thi- thc conccjt ot thc truth ot thin- i- what mattcr- in thc
contcxt ot our jrc-cnt inquiry) To -ummarizc, thcn, what wc havc
ccn -ayin thc word that i- rcatcd to thc -jiritua cin i- thc
-umtota ot cxi-tin thin-. thi- i- -o much thc ca-c that thi- -ct ot
rcation- con- a- wc to thc naturc ot -jirit. thc -jirit i- thc jowcr
ot comjrchcndin thc totaity ot cin, a- it con- to thc naturc
ot cxi-tin cin- thcm-cvc- to c mcan- to c rcatcd to -jirit
\hat -tand- rcvcacd to u-, thcn, i- a -cric- ot word- at thc
owc-t, thc word ot jant-, arcady ocay imitcd to thc -urround-
in- thcy touch Lcyond thi- i- thc rcam ot thc anima-. and nay,
tran-ccndin a thc-c jartia word-, i- thc word rcatcd to -jirit,
10
Cf. Josef Pieper, Living the Truth (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1989).
107
the word a- thc totaity ot cin And to thi- rankin ot word-
and cd--ot-rcation- corrc-jond, a- wc havc -ccn, thc rankin ot
thc jowcr- that rcatc thc morc comjrchcn-ivc thc jowcr, thc morc
hihy dimcn-ioncd i- thc corrc-jondin cd ot rcation-, or word
`ow a third -tructura ccmcnt i- to c addcd to thi- twotod -truc-
turc Ior thc -troncr jowcr ot rcatin corrc-jond- to a hihcr
dcrcc ot inwardnc--. thc jowcr to rcatc i- rcatcr to thc -amc dc-
rcc a- thc carcr ot that rcation ha- inwardnc--. thc owc-t jowcr
ot rcatin not ony corrc-jond- to thc owc-t torm ot cin in thc
word ut a-o to thc owc-t radc ot inwardnc--, whcrca- thc -jirit,
which dircct- it- rcatin-jowcr to thc -umtota ot cin, mu-t ikc-
wi-c havc a corrc-jondin inwardnc-- Thc morc comjrchcn-ivc thc
jowcr ot rcatin onc-ct to thc word ot o,cctivc cin, -o thc morc
dccjy anchorcd mu-t c thc aa-t in thc inwardnc-- ot thc -u-
,cct And whcn a di-tinctivcy dicrcnt cvc ot word i- rcachcd,
namcy, thc oricntation toward thc whoc, thcrc too can c tound
thc hihc-t -tac ot cin-c-tai-hcd in onc- inwardnc--, which i-
jrojcr to thc -jirit Thu- oth ot thc-c comjri-c thc naturc ot -jirit
not ony thc rcation to thc whoc ot thc word and rcaity, ut
a-o thc hihc-t jowcr ot ivin-with-onc-ct, ot cin in onc-ct, ot
indcjcndcncc, ot autonomy which i- cxacty what ha- away- ccn
thc jcr-on, or jcr-onaity in thc \c-tcrn tradition to havc a
word, to c rcatcd to thc totaity ot cxi-tin thin- that can occur
ony in a cin that i- c-tai-hcd in it-ct not a what, ut a
who an l, a jcr-on
Lut now it i- timc to ook ack ovcr thc jath wc havc takcn and
rcturn to thc quc-tion- trom which wc can Thcrc wcrc two quc--
tion-, onc morc immcdiatc, thc othcr morc rcmotc Thc r-t wa-,
\hat kind ot word i- thc word ot man and thc -ccond wa-,
108
\hat doc- it mcan to jhio-ojhizc
Lctorc wc cin aain with our torma di-cu--ion, a rict rcmark i-
in ordcr aout thc -tructurc ot thc word that i- rcatcd to thc -jirit
lt i- not, ot cour-c, y a rcatcr -jatia comja-- that thc word that i-
-jirit-rcatcd dicr- trom thc word that i- rcatcd to thc non--jiritua
(a joint that wa- not addrc--cd whcn l di-tinui-hcd cnvironmcnt
trom word) lt i- not ony thc -umtota ot thin-. ut it i- a-o
thc naturc ot thc thin-, with which thc word rcatcd to thc -jirit
i- con-titutcd Thc rca-on why thc anima ivc- in a jartia word
i- ccau-c thc naturc ot thin- i- hiddcn trom it And it i- ony
ccau-c thc -jirit i- ac to attain to thc essence ot thin- that it
ha- thc aiity to undcr-tand thc totality ot thin- Thi- conncction
wa- madc y thc od doctrinc ot cin, whcrcy thc univcr-c, a-
wc a- thc naturc ot thin-, i- univcr-a Thoma- -ay-, Lccau-c
thc intccctua |or -jiritua| -ou i- ac to ra-j univcr-a-, it ha-
a cajacity tor thc innitc
11
\hocvcr attain- to an undcr-tandin
ot thc univcr-a, whoc c--cncc ot thin- i- thcrcy ac to win a
jcr-jcctivc trom which thc totaity ot cin, ot a cxi-tin thin-,
arc jrc-cnt and a-ccrtainac. in intccctua undcr-tandin, an out-
jo-t i- rcachcd, or can c rcachcd, whcncc thc whoc and-cajc ot
thc univcr-c can c takcn in \c havc rcachcd a contcxt into which
wc can takc ony a rict imj-c ut which wi a-o cad u- into thc
vcry ccntcr ot a jhio-ojhica undcr-tandin ot cin, knowin, and
-jirit
Lut now, ct u- rcturn to thc quc-tion- which wc -ct out to an-wcr
Thc r-t -tcj to takc i- to thc morc immcdiatc quc-tion, \hat kind
ot word i- thc word ot man l- thc word ot man thc word that
i- rcatcd to thc -jirit Thc an-wcr woud havc to c that man-
word i- thc whoc rcaity, in thc mid-t ot which thc human cin
11
Summa theologiae I, Q. 76, a. 5, ad 4um.
109
ivc-, tacc-to-tacc with thc cntircty ot cxi-tin thin- vis-`a-vis de
lunivers ut ony insofar as man is spirit' Lut man i- not jurc
-jirit. hc i- a nitc -jirit -o that oth thc naturc ot thin- and thc
totaity ot thin- arc not ivcn in thc jcrtcction ot a tota undcr-
-tandin, ut ony in cxjcctation or hojc And wc wi -jcak ot
thi- in thc third ccturc
Lut r-t, ct u- con-idcr thc tact that man i- not jurc -jirit Thi-
-tatcmcnt, ot cour-c, coud c -jokcn in a varicty ot tonc- `ot -c-
dom, it i- -aid with a tccin ot rcrct, an acccntuation that i- u-uay
undcr-tood a- -omcthin -jccicay Chri-tian, y oth Chri-tian-
and non-Chri-tian- aikc Thc -cntcncc can a-o c -aid in -uch a
way a- to imjy that ccrtainy, man i- not jurc -jirit, ut that thc
truc human cin i- ncvcrthcc-- thc intccctua -ou `ow thc-c
doctrinc- havc no a-i- in thc ca--ica tradition ot thc \c-t Thoma-
Aquina- u-cd a vcry jointcd tormua on thi- mattcr which i- not a-
wc known a- it -houd c Thc o,cction hc rai-c- i- thc toowin
Thc oa ot thc human cin i- to attain comjctc ikcnc-- to God
Lut thc -ou, whcn -cjaratcd trom thc ody which i- immatcria,
woud c morc ikc God than thc -ou with thc ody And thcrctorc
thc -ou- wi c -cjaratcd trom thcir odic- in thcir na -tatc Thi-
i- thc o,cction, that thc rca human cin i- thc -ou, drc--cd out
in a thc tcmjtin amor ot thcooica arumcntation And how
doc- Thoma- rcjy to thc o,cction Thc -ou that i- unitcd to thc
ody i- morc ikc God than thc -ou that ha- ccn -cjaratcd trom it-
ody ccau-c thc tormcr morc jcrtccty jo--c--c- it- own naturc
12
Thi- i- no ca-iy dic-tcd -tatcmcnt, con-idcrin how it imjic- not
ony that thc human cin i- odiy, ut that thc -ou it-ct i- a-o
odiy
lt thi- i- thc ca-c, it man essentially i- not ony -jirit, it man
12
Quaestiones disputatae de potentia Dei 5, 10, ad 5.
110
i- not in virtuc ot a dcnia, or on thc a-i- ot a dcjarturc trom hi-
authcntic cin, ut rcay and in a jo-itivc -cn-c a cin in whom
thc variou- rcam- ot jant-, anima-, and -jiritua cin- arc ound
into a unity thcn man ivc- essentially, not cxcu-ivcy, in thc tacc
ot thc totaity ot thin-, thc whoc univcr-c ot cin- lathcr, hi-
cd ot rcation- i- an ovcrajjin ot word and cnvironmcnt,
and nccc--ariy -o, in corrc-jondcncc to human naturc Lccau-c
man i- not jurcy -jirit, hc cannot ony ivc undcr thc -tar-, not
ony vis-`a-vis de lunivers. in-tcad, hc nccd- a root ovcr hi- hcad,
hc nccd- thc tru-tcd ncihorhood ot daiy rcaity, thc -cn-uou-y
concrctc word, hc nccd- to t in with hi- cu-tomary -urroundin-
in a word a truy human itc a-o nccd- to havc an cnvironmcnt
( Umwelt ), a- di-tinct trom a word
Lut at thc -amc timc, it jcrtain- to thc naturc ot ody,-ou cin
that man i-, that thc -jirit -hajc- and jcnctratc- thc vcctativc and
-cn-c-jcrccivcd rcion- in which hc cxi-t- So much -o, that thc act
ot catin y a human cin i- -omcthin dicrcnt trom that ot thc
anima (cvcn ajart trom thc tact that thc human rcam incudc- thc
mca, -omcthin thorouhy -jiritua') Thc -jiritua -ou -o jro-
toundy inucncc- a thc othcr rcion- that cvcn whcn thc human
cin vcctatc-, thi- i- ony jo--ic ccau-c ot thc -jirit (ncithcr
thc jant nor thc anima vcctatc-) Con-cqucnty, thi- vcry non-
human jhcnomcnon, thi- -ct-incu-ion ot man in thc cnvironmcnt
(and that mcan-, in that -ccctivc word dctcrmincd -ocy y itc-
immcdiatc nccd-), cvcn thi- conncmcnt i- jo--ic ony on thc a-
-i- ot a spiritual conncmcnt On thc contrary, to c human i- to
know thin- cyond thc root ot thc -tar-, to o cyond thc tru-tcd
cnco-urc- ot thc norma, cu-tomary day-to-day rcaity ot thc whoc
ot cxi-tin thin-, to o cyond thc cnvironmcnt to thc word in
which that cnvironmcnt i- cnco-cd
111
Lut now, wc havc unwittiny takcn a -tcj co-cr to an-wcrin our
oriina quc-tion \hat i- it to jhio-ojhizc lhio-ojhy mcan- ,u-t
thi- to cxjcricncc that thc ncary word, dctcrmincd y thc immc-
diatc dcmand- ot itc, can c -hakcn, or indccd, mu-t c -hakcn, ovcr
and ovcr aain, y thc un-cttin ca ot thc word, or y thc tota
rcaity that mirror- ack thc ctcrna naturc- ot thin- To jhio-o-
jhizc (wc havc arcady a-kcd, \hat cmjowcr- thc jhio-ojhica act
to tran-ccnd thc workinword) to jhio-ojhizc mcan- to takc a
-tcj out-idc ot thc workaday word into thc vis-`a-vis de lunivers
lt i- a -tcj which cad- to a kind ot homcc---nc-- thc -tar- arc no
root ovcr thc hcad lt i- a -tcj, howcvcr, that con-tanty kccj- ojcn
it- own rctrcat, tor thc human cin cannot ivc on in thi- way
Lc who -criou-y intcnd- to wandcr nay and dcnitivcy out-idc
thc word ot thc Thracian maidcn i- wandcrin out-idc thc rcam ot
human rcaity \hat Thoma- -aid aout thc vita contemplativa aj-
jic- hcrc a-o it i- rcay -omcthin morc than human (non proprie
humana, sed superhumana)
13
Ot cour-c, man him-ct i- -omcthin
morc than human man tran-ccnd- man him-ct tor thc -akc ot thc
ctcrna, la-ca -aid. an ca-y dcnition doc- not o tar cnouh to
rcach thc human cin
Lut in-tcad ot dcvcojin thc-c con-idcration-, which may cad u-
too ncar to ain non-cn-c, ct u- rcturn to thc quc-tion, \hat
doc- it mcan to jhio-ojhizc and attcmjt anothcr ajjroach to
it, in morc concrctc ta-hion, and on thc a-i- c-tai-hcd y thc
torcoin Low i- thc jhio-ojhica quc-tion dicrcnt trom thc non-
jhio-ojhica quc-tion To jhio-ojhizc mcan-, wc -aid, to dircct
onc- vicw toward thc totaity ot thc word So i- that a jhio-ojh-
ica quc-tion (and that aonc) which ha- tor it- cxjicit and torma
thcmc thi- -umtota ot a cxi-tin thin- `o' \hat i- jccuiar
13
Quaestio disputata de virtutibus cardinalibus I.
112
and di-tinctivc aout a jhio-ojhica quc-tion i- that it cannot c
jo-cd, con-idcrcd, or an-wcrcd (-o tar at ca-t a- an an-wcr i- jo--i-
c), without God and thc \ord a-o comin into con-idcration,
that i-, the whole of what exists
Oncc aain, ct u- -jcak quitc concrctcy Thc quc-tion, \hat
arc wc doin, hcrc and now can ccary c intcndcd in variou-
way- lt can c mcant jhio-ojhicay Lct u- attcmjt it, thcn' Thc
quc-tion can c a-kcd in -uch a way a- to anticijatc a tcchnica-
oranizationa an-wcr \hat i- hajjcnin now \c, a ccturc
i- cin dcivcrcd durin thc Lonn \cck ot Lihcr Lducation That
i- a -traihttorward, intormativc -cntcncc, -tandin thcrc in a ccary
it word or rathcr, cnvironmcnt lt i- an an-wcr -jokcn with onc-
attcntion dircctcd to what i- immcdiatcy at hand Lut thc quc-tion
coud a-o c mcant in anothcr -cn-c -o that thc quc-tioncr woud
not c contcnt with thc an-wcr ,u-t now ivcn \hat arc wc doin
riht now Onc jcr-on i- -jcakin. othcr- arc i-tcnin to what hc
i- -ayin, and thc i-tcncr- undcr-tand what i- cin -aid. ajjroxi-
matcy thc -amc jrocc-- i- takin jacc within thc mind- ot thc many
i-tcncr- thc -tatcmcnt- arc ra-jcd, thouht aout, wcihcd, ac-
ccjtcd, dcnicd, or acccjtcd with -omc hc-itation, and thcn intcratcd
with cach jcr-on- own taric ot thouht Thi- quc-tion cxjcct- an
an-wcr comin trom thc -jccia -cicncc-. it can c mcant -o a- to
ca on thc j-ychooy ot -cn-c jcrccjtion, conition, carnin, mcn-
ta -tatc-, and -o on, and thc-c -cicncc- woud jrovidc thc adcquatc
an-wcr An an-wcr ot thi- kind, thcn, woud cxi-t in a word ot hihcr
and dccjcr dimcn-ion- than thc r-t an-wcr, with it- mcrcy ora-
nizationa intcrc-t Lut thc an-wcr- ot thc -jccia -cicncc- havc -ti
not rcachcd thc horizon ot tota rcaity. thi- an-wcr coud c ivcn
without havin to -jcak at thc -amc timc ot God and thc \ord
Lut it thc quc-tion, \hat arc wc doin riht now wa- mcant a- a
113
philosophical quc-tion, -uch an cxcu-ion woud not c jo--ic. tor
it thc quc-tion i- mcant jhio-ojhicay, thcn thc quc-tion i- aout
thc naturc ot knowin, ot truth, or cvcn ot thc naturc ot tcachin
it-ct \hat, in thc a-t anay-i-, i- it to tcach `ow -omconc wi
comc aon and -ay, A man cannot rcay tcach. ,u-t a- whcn -omc-
onc i- hcacd trom inc--, it i- not thc doctor who ha- hcacd him,
ut naturc, who-c hcain jowcr- thc doctor ha-, jcrhaj-, aowcd to
ojcratc Somconc c-c wi comc uj and -ay, lt i- God who rcay
tcachc-, within, on thc occa-ion ot human tcachin Thcn Socratc-
wi -tand uj and -ay that thc tcachcr ony makc- it jo--ic tor thc
onc who carn- to acquirc knowcdc trom him-ct throuh rcmi-
ni-ccncc. thcrc i- no carnin, ony rccocction
14
And -ti anothcr
onc wi -ay, A human cin- arc controntcd y thc -amc rcaity.
thc tcachcr joint- it out, and thc carncr, or thc i-tcncr, -cc- tor
him-ct
\hat arc wc doin hcrc \hat kind ot jhcnomcnon i- takin
jacc l- it -omcthin ot a -ociay oranizcd naturc, a jart ot a cc-
turc -cric- l- it -omcthin that can c anayzcd and rc-carchcd in
tcrm- ot j-ychooica -cicncc l- it -omcthin takin jacc ctwccn
God and thc \ord
Thi-, thcn, i- what i- jccuiar and di-tinctivc aout a jhio-ojhi-
ca quc-tion, that -omcthin comc- to thc torc in it, touchin thc vcry
naturc ot thc -ou to comc tocthcr with cvcry cin (convenire
cum omni ente) with cvcrythin that cxi-t- You cannot a-k and
think jhio-ojhicay without aowin thc totaity ot cxi-tin thin-
to comc into jay God and thc \ord
14
Plato, Meno 85; 81.
114
III
\c -aid that it wa- thc jrojcrty ot thc human cin to nccd to
con oth to thc cnvironmcnt and to c oricntcd toward thc
word, or thc totaity ot cin. wc turthcr maintaincd that it wa-
ot thc naturc ot thc jhio-ojhica act to tran-ccnd thc cnvironmcnt
and to cncountcr thc word
Lut thi- cannot mcan, ot cour-c, that thcrc arc two -oto-jcak
divorccd word- and that man mu-t dcjart trom thc onc in ordcr to
cntcr thc othcr. it i- not a- it thcrc wcrc -omc thin- which arc charac-
tcrizcd y havin thcir jacc in thc -urroundin cnvironmcnt, and
othcr thin- which do not ajjcar thcrc at a, ut ony in that othcr
jacc wc ca thc \ord Lnvironmcnt and \ord | Umwelt
and Welt |, a- wc arc u-in thc tcrm- hcrc at ca-t, arc not two
-cjaratcd arca- ot rcaity -o that -omconc who a-k- a jhio-ojhica
quc-tion woud havc to rcmovc him-ct trom thc onc rcion and movc
to thc othcr' Thc onc who jhio-ojhizc- doc- not turn hi- hcad in a
dicrcnt dircction, whcn hc tran-ccnd- thc workaday word in thc
jhio-ojhica act. hc doc- not takc hi- cyc o thc thin- ot thc work-
in word away, that i-, trom thc concrctc, jurjo-ctu, manacac
itcm- ot thc workin day hc doc- not nccd to ook in a dicrcnt
dircction in ordcr to chod thc univcr-a word ot c--cncc-
`o, it i- rathcr thi- vi-ic word, thc onc ctorc our vcry cyc-
115
which wc touch with our hand-, ujon which thc jhio-ojhcr azc-
Lut thi- word, and a thc-c thin- in it, arc invc-tiatcd in a jccu-
iar way what onc inquirc- into, in rcard to thcm, i- thcir utimatc
naturc, and thc horizon ot thc quc-tion ccomc- thc horizon ot thc
-umtota ot rcaity Thc jhio-ojhica quc-tion conccrn- it-ct jrc-
ci-cy with thi- or that, yin ctorc onc- cyc-, and not with
-omcthin out-idc thc word, or -omcthin in anothcr word,
out-idc thc word ot daiy cxjcricncc Lut thc jhio-ojhica quc-tion
a-k-, \hat i- thi-, ultimately, and in the last analysis A- lato
-ay-, lt i- not whcthcr l am doin an in,u-ticc to you -omchow, or
you arc doin an in,u-ticc to mc that i- not what jhio-ojhy want-
to ct at, ut rathcr, what i- ,u-ticc or in,u-ticc in it-ct. not, whcthcr
a kin who ha- a ot ot moncy i- hajjy or not, ut rathcr, ,u-t what
kin-hij i-, what hajjinc-- i-, what mi-cry i- what thcy arc a- -uch,
and in thc a-t anay-i-
1
lhio-ojhica quc-tionin i- cntircy dircctcd toward thc dayto
day word that ic- ctorc our cyc- Lowcvcr, what ic- ctorc our
cyc- ccomc- a at oncc tran-jarcnt to thc quc-tion-a-kcr. it o-c-
it- comjactnc--, it- ajjarcnt comjctcnc--, it- -ct-cxjanatory, o-
viou- naturc Thin- ajjcar, ut with a -tranc, untamiiar, unccr-
tain, deeper ajjcarancc \hcn Socratc- a-k- quc-tion-, awarc that
hc i- -uddcny takin thc oviou-nc-- away trom thin-, hc comjarc-
him-ct to a -tin-ray, who-c -tin makc- it- victim- num lcojc
arc away- -ayin, thi- i- my tricnd, or thi- i- my witc, or my
hou-c, that wc havc or own -uch thin- Lut -uddcny wc arc
-tartcd do wc rcay havc a thc-c jo--c--ion- Can thcy rcay
c had \hat is it, a- -uch, and in thc a-t anay-i-, to havc
-omcthin
To jhio-ojhizc mcan- to rcmovc onc-ct, not trom thc thin- ot
1
Theaetetus 175.
116
thc cvcryday word, ut trom thc u-ua mcanin-, thc accu-tomcd
cvauation- ot thc-c thin- And thi- i- not motivatcd trom -omc
dcci-ion to think dicrcnty trom thc way mo-t jcojc think, ut
rathcr tor thc jurjo-c ot -ccin cvcrythin in a ncw iht Thi- i-
,u-t how it i- in thc cvcryday thin- (not in -omc -cjaratcd -jhcrc
ot an c--cntia word, or what havc you) to c ac to -cc thc
dccjcr vi-ac ot thc rca -o that thc attcntion dircctcd to thc thin-
cncountcrcd in cvcryday cxjcricncc comc- uj aain-t what i- not -o
oviou- in thc-c thin- it i- cxacty hcrc, in thi- inncr cxjcricncc,
that jhio-ojhy ha- it- cinnin in thc cxjcricncc ot wonder
lndccd, y thc od-, my dcar Socratc-, l cannot kccj trom c-
in a-toundcd at thc mcanin ot a thi-, and at timc- l cvcn ct
dizzy, cxcaim- thc youn mathcmatician Thcactctu- attcr Socratc-
ha- -uccccdcd in takin him tar cnouh to -cc and acccjt hi- own i-
norancc Socratc-, at oncc -o dcccjtivc and hcjtu, who coud makc
-omconc -o contoundcd, cvcn numb, with wondcr, y hi- quc-tion-
in And thcn, in lato- diaouc Theaetetus,
2
comc- thc ironica
an-wcr ot Socratc- Yc-, thi- vcry condition i- charactcri-tic ot thc
jhio-ojhcr. thi-, and nothin c-c, i- thc vcry cinnin ot jhio-o-
jhy Lcrc tor thc r-t timc, in thc riht mornin ot our hi-tory, and
amo-t in ja--in, with no ccrcmony, i- thc thouht r-t cxjrc--cd,
which wi thcn ccomc amo-t a commonjacc throuh thc cntirc
hi-tory ot jhio-ojhy that jhio-ojhy cin- in wondcr
And in thi-, that jhio-ojhy cin- in wondcr, ic- thc, -o to -jcak,
non-bourgeois charactcr ot jhio-ojhy. tor to tcc a-toni-hmcnt and
wondcr i- -omcthin non-bourgeois (it wc can c aowcd, tor a mo-
mcnt, to u-c thi- a-too-ca-y tcrminooy) Ior what doc- it mcan
to c comc bourgeois in thc intccctua -cn-c `orc than anythin
2
Theaetetus 155.
117
c-c, it mcan- that -omconc takc- onc- immcdiatc -urroundin- (thc
word dctcrmincd y thc immcdiatc jurjo-c- ot itc) -o tihty and
dcn-cy, a- it carin an utimatc vauc, that thc thin- ot cxjcri-
cncc no oncr ccomc tran-jarcnt Thc rcatcr, dccjcr, morc rca,
and (at r-t) invi-ic word ot c--cncc- i- no oncr cvcn -u-jcctcd to
cxi-t. thc wondcr i- no oncr thcrc, it ha- no jacc to comc trom.
thc human cin can no oncr tcc wondcr Thc commonjacc mind,
rcndcrcd dcat-mutc, nd- cvcrythin -ct-cxjanatory Lut what rc-
ay i- -ct-cxjanatory l- it -ct-cxjanatory, thcn, that wc cxi-t
l- it -ct-cxjanatory that thcrc i- -uch a thin a- -ccin Thc-c
arc quc-tion- that -omconc who i- ockcd into thc daiy word cannot
a-k. and that i- -o ccau-c -uch a jcr-on ha- not -uccccdcd, a- any-
onc who-c -cn-c- (ikc a dcat jcr-on) arc -imjy not tunctionin
ha- not manacd cvcn tor oncc to torct thc immcdiatc nccd- ot itc,
whcrca- thc onc who cxjcricncc- wonder i- onc who, a-toundcd y
thc dccjcr a-jcct ot thc word, cannot hcar thc immcdiatc dcmand-
ot itc it cvcn tor a momcnt, that momcnt whcn hc azc- on thc
a-toundin vi-ion ot thc word
Thu- thc onc who cxjcricncc- wondcr i- onc who rcaizc- in an un-
mixcd torm that ancicnt attitudc toward cin, which ha- ccn cacd
theoria -incc thc timc ot lato thc jurcy rcccjtivc -tancc toward
rcaity, undi-turcd y any intcrrujtion y thc wi (to rcca what
wc -aid in thc r-t ccturc) Theoria can ony cxi-t to thc cxtcnt that
man ha- not ccomc ind to thc wondrou- thc wondcrtu tact that
-omcthin cxi-t- `o, it i- not what ha- ncvcr ccn thcrc ctorc,
thc anorma, thc -cn-ationa, that kindc- jhio-ojhica wondcr thc
numin ot thc -cn-c- woud c a mcrc -u-titutc tor cnuinc won-
dcr lt -omconc nccd- thc unu-ua to c movcd to a-toni-hmcnt,
118
that jcr-on ha- o-t thc aiity to rc-jond rihty to thc wondrou-,
thc mirandum, ot cin Thc huncr tor thc -cn-ationa, jo-in, a-
it may, in ohcmian ar, i- an unmi-takac -in ot thc o-- ot
thc truc jowcr ot wondcr, tor a bourgeois-izcd humanity
To nd thc truy unu-ua and cxtraordinary, thc rca mirandum,
within thc u-ua and thc ordinary, i- thc cinnin ot jhio-ojhy
And hcrc i- whcrc, accordin to Ari-totc and Thoma-, thc jhio-
-ojhica act i- rcatcd to thc joctica oth thc jhio-ojhcr and thc
joct arc conccrncd with a-toni-hmcnt, with what cau-c- it and
what advancc- it ln rcard to thc joct, thc -cvcnty-ycar-od Gocthc
concudcd a -hort jocm (laraa-c) with thc toowin vcr-c Zum
Erstaunen bin ich da (l cxi-t tor wondcr) and thc cihty-ycar-od
Gocthc -aid to Lckcrmann Thc hihc-t -tatc to which humanity
can a-jirc i- wondcr
3
Thi- non-bourgeois charactcr ot thc jhio-ojhcr and thc joct
that thcy try to kccj thc wondrou- in -uch jurc and -tron torm-
contain- within it, ot cour-c, thc dancr ot cin ujrootcd trom
thc workaday word Lcin aicn to thc word and to itc i-, -o
to -jcak, thc jrotc--iona hazard ot jhio-ojhcr- and joct- (and
yct onc cannot rcay c a jhio-ojhcr or a joct y jrotc--ion, tor
onc coud not ivc that way jcrmancnty, a- ha- arcady ccn jointcd
out) \ondcr doc- not makc onc in du-triou-, tor to tcc a-toni-hcd i-
to c di-turcd \hocvcr undcrtakc- to ivc undcr thc a-trooica
-in ot a-toni-hmcnt and wondcr at why anythin cxi-t- at a
mu-t c jrcjarcd to nd hi- way ack into thc daiy workin word
Somconc who i- a-toni-hcd at cvcrythin hc cncountcr- may torct,
at timc-, how to handc thc -amc thin- in tcrm- ot cvcryday itc
Lut it -ti rcmain- truc that thc aiity to cxjcricncc wondcr i-
3
Conversations with Eckermann, Feb. 18, 1829.
119
onc ot thc hihc-t jo--iiitic- ot human naturc Thoma- Aquina-
-cc- thi- a- a jroot that thc human cin can ony c -ati-cd y
thc vi-ion ot God and, vicc vcr-a, that thi- oricntation toward thc
a-outc round ot thc word jrovidc- thc vcry rca-on why man can
tcc a-toni-hmcnt Thoma- i- ot thc ojinion that thc r-t wondcr onc
tcc- torm- thc r-t -tcj on thc jath that cad- to thc catic vi-ion,
thc -tatc ot c--cdnc-- rc-utin trom rcachin thc utimatc Cau-c
Lut that human naturc i- dc-incd tor nothin c--, tor nothin c--
than -uch an cnd, i- jrovcd y thc aiity ot thc human cin to
cxjcricncc thc wondcr ot thc crcation
`ow, thc di-turancc cxjcricnccd y thc onc who tcc- wondcr
thc di-turancc, that i-, ot -uddcny o-in, in a a-h, thc comjact,
comtortac -cn-c ot oviou-nc-- thi- di-turancc, l -aid, can ujroot
-omconc who tcc- it Lut not ony in -uch a way a- to cau-c a o--
ot ccrtainty in thc cvcryday -urroundin- (tor thcrc i- rcay nothin
harmtu aout that), ut in a morc dancrou- way, -o that hc o-c-
hi- tootin ccau-c hc i- no oncr a docr ut ony a knowcr
`ow, it i- curiou- that in modcrn jhio-ojhy, c-jcciay, thc a--
jcct ot thc wondcrtu ha- takcn on a dicrcnt ajjcarancc -o that thc
od doctrinc ot wondcr a- thc cinnin ot jhio-ojhy ha- acquircd
thc mcanin, Doubt i- thc cinnin ot jhio-ojhy That i- what
Lcc -aid in hi- c--ay on thc hi-tory ot jhio-ojhy, whcn -jcakin
aout Socratc- and hi- mcthod ot rinin hi- jartncr to a -tatc ot
a-toni-hmcnt that thc -tatc ot dout wa- thc main joint Thi-
mcrcy ncativc -ituation i- thc jrincija joint lhio-ojhy mu-t
cin with contu-ion, and dcjcnd- on maintainin it. onc mu-t dout
cvcrythin, ivc uj a onc- jrcconccjtion-, in ordcr to rcain it a
aain throuh thc crcation ot a conccjt
4
ln thc -amc (a-icay,
4
Vorlesungen uber die Geschichte der Philosophie, Samtliche Werke (Stuttgart, 1927 ed.), vol. 18, p. 69.
120
Cartc-ian) -jirit i- \indcand- tran-ation, in hi- tamou- Intro-
duction to Philosophy, ot thc Grcck thaumazein (to wondcr) a-
to ccomc contu-cd in onc- own thinkin
5
(ln rc-jon-c to thi-
rcmova ot a jrc-conccjtion-, Chc-tcrton coincd a ttin rcmark
Thcrc i- a -jccia kind ot non-cn-c that con-i-t- in o-in cvcrythin
ut your mind)
Lut -houd thc truc mcanin ot wondcr rcay ic, in thc uj-
rootin it-ct, in thc cncouracmcnt ot dout Shoud it not rathcr
con-i-t in makin jo--ic a ncw, dccjcr rootcdnc-- Ccrtainy,
-omcthin i- o-t tor thc onc who wondcr- (thc cxjcricncc i- ikc a
di--iu-ion, con-idcrcd a- tundamcntay -omcthin jo-itivc onc
i- trccd trom a ccrtain iu-ion) Ccrtainy, tor thc onc who cxjc-
ricncc- thc a-toni-hmcnt that thin- that had -ccmcd oviou- ctorc,
havc now o-t thcir ccrtainty and vaidity it ccomc- quitc ccar that
tho-c oviou- thin- havc o-t thcir utimatc vauc Lut thc -cn-c
ot wondcr i- ncvcrthcc-- thc -cn-c that thc word i- a dccjcr, widcr,
morc my-tcriou- thin than ajjcarcd to thc day-to-day undcr-tand-
in Thc inncr wcath ot wondcr i- tucd in a -cn-c tor my-tcry
Thc inncr oricntation ot wondcr doc- not aim tor thc -tirrin uj ot
dout, ut rathcr tor thc rcconition that cin a- cin i- incom-
jrchcn-ic and tu ot my-tcry that cin it-ct i- a my-tcry, a
my-tcry in thc rca mcanin ot thc word not mcrcy di-oricntation,
or irrationaity, or cvcn darknc-- Mystery imjic- much morc that
a rcaity i- in comjrchcn-ic for this reason, that thc iht that it
-hcd- i- untathomac, unqucnchac, incxhau-tic Thi- i- what
thc onc who tcc- wondcr rcay tcc-
lt -houd now c ccar that wondcr and jhio-ojhizin arc con-
ncctcd with cach othcr in a morc c--cntia -cn-c than may at r-t
5
W. Windelband, Einleitung in die Philosophie (T ubingen, 1923), p. 6.
121
ajjcar in thc -tatcmcnt, lhio-ojhy cin- in wondcr Ior wondcr
i- not mcrcy thc cinnin, in thc -cn-c ot initium, thc r-t -tac
or jha-c ot jhio-ojhy lathcr, wondcr i- thc cinnin in thc -cn-c
ot thc jrincijc (principium), thc aidin, cvcr-intrin-ic oriin ot
jhio-ojhizin lt i- not truc to -ay that thc jhio-ojhcr, in-otar a-
hc jhio-ojhizc-, cvcr cmcrc- trom hi- wondcr it hc does dc-
jart trom hi- -tatc ot wondcr, hc ha- cca-cd to jhio-ojhizc Thc
inncr torm ot jhio-ojhizin i- idcntica with thc inncr torm ot c-
in a-toundcd Thcrctorc, -incc wc jo-cd thc quc-tion to our-cvc-,
\hat i- it to jhio-ojhizc wc mu-t takc a co-cr ook at thc inncr
torm ot cin a-toundcd
ln wondcr, thcrc i- -omcthin ncativc and -omcthin jo-itivc
Thc ncativc a-jcct i- that thc jcr-on who tcc- wondcr doc- not
know -omcthin, doc- not ra-j -omcthin hc doc- not know,
\hat i- chind it a. a- Thoma- jut it, Thc cau-c ot our wondcr
i- hiddcn to u-
6
Lc who tcc- wondcr, doc- not know, or doc- not
know comjctcy, doc- not comjrchcnd Lc who know-, doc- not
tcc wondcr lt coud not c -aid that God cxjcricncc- wondcr, tor
God know- in thc mo-t a-outc and jcrtcct way And, turthcr thc
onc who wondcr- not ony doc- not know, hc i- intimatcy -urc that
hc doc- not know, and hc undcr-tand- him-ct a- cin in a jo-ition
ot not-knowin Lut thi- un-knowin i- not thc kind that rin-
rc-ination Thc onc who wondcr- i- onc who -ct- out on a ,ourncy,
and thi- ,ourncy oc- aon with thc wondcr not ony that hc -toj-
-hort tor a momcnt, and i- -icnt, ut a-o that hc jcr-i-t- in -carch-
in \ondcr i- dcncd y Thoma- in thc Summa Theologiae
7
, a-
thc desiderium sciendi, thc dc-irc tor knowcdc, activc onin to
know
6
Quaestio disputata de potentia Dei 6, 2.
7
I-II, Q. 32, a. 8.
122
Lut aon with not-knowing, and not-giving-up, wondcr i- a-o
,oy, a- Ari-totc -aid,
8
and thc `iddc Ac- arccd with him omnia
admirabilia sunt delectabilia
9
thc -ourcc ot ,oy and thc -ourcc
ot wondcr arc thc -amc thin Onc miht cvcn vcnturc to -ay that
whcrcvcr -jiritua ,oy i- to c mct with, thc wondcrtu i- a-o thcrc,
and whcrcvcr thcrc i- a cajacity to tcc ,oy, thcrc i- a-o a cajacity
to tcc wondcr Thc ,oy ot onc who i- a-toundcd i- thc ,oy ot a -ou
that i- cinnin -omcthin, ot a -ou that i- away- rcady and acrt
tor -omcthin ncw, tor -omcthin unhcard ot
ln thi- ,uncturc ot Yes and No i- rcvcacd thc uit-in hope-
fulness ot wondcr, thc vcry -tructurc ot hojc, which i- jccuiar to
thc jhio-ojhcr and to human cxi-tcncc in cncra \c arc c--cn-
tiay viatores, travccr-, jirim-, on thc way, wc arc not-yct
thcrc \ho can -ay that hc jo--c--c- a thc cin that i- mcant
tor him' \c are not, ut wc hope to be, a- la-ca wrotc
10
And
in thi-, that wondcr a-o ha- thc -tructurc ot hojc uit into it, can
c -ccn how much it i- a jart ot human naturc Ancicnt jhio-ojhy
undcr-tood wondcr a- in tact thc di-tinui-hin tcaturc ot human
cxi-tcncc A-outc -jirit doc- not cxjcricncc wondcr ccau-c thc
ncativc doc- not cntcr, ccau-c in God thcrc i- no inorancc Ony
thc onc who cannot ra-j -omcthin can tcc wondcr Thc anima
a-o cannot tcc wondcr ccau-c, a- Thoma- Aquina- -ay-, it i- not
a jrojcrty ot thc -cn-c-jcrccivin -ou to tcc di-trc-- aout thc un-
dcr-tandin ot cau-c-
11
ln thc ca-c ot an anima, what i- jo-itivc
in thc -tructurc ot hojc doc- not comc into jay thc oricntation to
knowin Ony hc can tcc wondcr who doc- not yct know ln-
dccd, thc ancicnt- con-idcrcd wondcr -o di-tinctivcy human that in
8
Rhetoric 1, 2.
9
Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae I-II, Q. 32, a. 8.
10
Pensees, no. 172.
11
Summa contra gentiles 4, 33.
123
thc Chri-tooica controvcr-ic- thcrc wa- an arumcnt trom won-
dcr, to -how that Chri-t wa- truy human Ariu- dcnicd thc divinity
ot Chri-t, and aain-t thi- vicw, Ajoinari- maintaincd thc Ltcrna
Loo- had takcn thc jacc ot thc -jiritua -ou in Chri-t and wa-
dirccty ,oincd to hi- ody (ot cour-c, our conccrn hcrc i- not with
thc thcooica i--uc a- -uch it i- -imjy that in -uch thcooica
contcxt-, wc can di-ccrn thc ancicnt doctrinc- ot cin, -jokcn un-
dcr oath a- it wcrc')
`ow Thoma- Aquina-, in turn, u-cd thc arumcnt trom wondcr,
aon with othcr arumcnt-, aain-t thi- jo-ition ot Ajoinari-, ac-
cordin to which Chri-t woud not havc had a tuy human, ody-ou
naturc Thoma- wrotc ln thc Scrijturc- (Lukc ,9) it i- -aid that
Chri-t tct wondcr (in thc -tory ot thc ccnturion trom Cajcrnaum,
thc ccnturion -aid, Lord, l am not worthy that thou -houd-t comc
undcr my root, and thcn it i- writtcn that !c-u- hcard thi- and
wa- a-toundcd | , or ethaumasen | Lut it !c-u- coud
c a-toundcd, thcn, thcrc mu-t havc ccn -omcthin in Lim, ajart
trom thc Livinc oo- and thc -cn-c-jcrccivin -ou (oth ot which
arc incajac ot tccin wondcr) y mcan- ot which Lc wa- ac
to tcc wondcr, and thi- i- thc mens humana, thc human -jiritua
-ou
12
Ony a -jiritua knowin-jowcr, which doc- not undcr-tand
cvcrythin at oncc, to which cvcrythin i- not immcdiatcy ajjar-
cnt, i- cajac ot makin thc -urroundin, -cn-cjcrccjtic word
ot rcaity raduay morc and morc tran-jarcnt, -o morc and morc
dcjth- ot rcaity arc rcvcacd to thc a-toni-hmcnt ot thc knowcr'
Lut thc jhio-ojhcr a-o jo--c--c- thi- di-tinctivcy human cajac-
ity `onc ot thc od- jhio-ojhizc-, lato ha- Liotima -ay in thc
Symposium nor do too-. tor that i- what i- -o ad aout inorancc
that you think you know cnouh \ho, thcn, 0 Liotima, l a-kcd,
12
Ibid.
124
arc thc jhio-ojhcr-, -incc thcy arc ncithcr tho-c who know nor tho-c
who dont know Thcn -hc an-wcrcd mc lt- -o oviou-, Socratc-,
that a chid coud undcr-tand thc jhio-ojhcr- arc thc onc- in be-
tween
13
Thi- in-ctwccn i- thc rcam ot thc truy human lt i-
truy human, on thc onc hand, not to undcr-tand (a- God), and on
thc othcr hand, not to ccomc hardcncd. not to incudc onc-ct in
thc -ujjo-cdy comjctcy iuminatcd word ot daytoday itc. not
to ct onc-ct -tay in inorancc. not to o-c that chidikc, owin
oo-cnc--, which ony thc hojctu jcr-on ha-
Thu- thc onc who doc- jhio-ojhy, ikc thc onc who tcc- wondcr,
i- -ujcrior to thc contu-cd conncmcnt ot dunc-- hc ha- hojc'
Lut hc i- -ti inferior to onc who nay know-, who undcr-tand-
Lut hc i- hojctu, hc tcc- wondcr, hc jhio-ojhizc-
`ow thi- -tructurc ot hojc (amon othcr thin-) i- a-o what di--
tinui-hc- jhio-ojhy trom thc -jccia -cicncc- Thcrc i- a rcation-
-hij with thc o,cct that i- dicrcnt in jrincijc in thc two ca-c-
Thc quc-tion ot thc -jccia -cicncc- i- in jrincijc utimatcy an-wcr-
ac, or, at ca-t, it i- not un-an-wcrac lt can c -aid, in a na
way (or -omc day, onc wi c ac to -ay in a na way) what i-
thc cau-c, -ay, ot thi- jarticuar intcctiou- di-ca-c lt i- in jrinci-
jc jo--ic that onc day -omconc wi -ay, lt i- now -cicnticay
jrovcn that -uch and -uch i- thc ca-c, and no othcrwi-c Lut whcn
it comc- to a jhio-ojhica quc-tion (\hat doc- it mcan to -ay
utimatcy \hat i- a di-ca-c \hat i- it to know -omcthin
\hat i- thc human cin) a jhio-ojhica quc-tion can ncvcr
c nay, concu-ivcy an-wcrcd `o jhio-ojhcr ha- cvcr ccn ac
comjctcy to know thc c--cncc ot cvcn a -inc y That wa- -aid
13
Symposium 204.
125
y Thoma- Aquina-
14
(who, ot cour-c, a-o -aid that thc knowin
-ou jcnctratc- to thc c--cncc ot thin-)
15
Thc o,cct ot jhio-o-
jhy i- ivcn to thc jhio-ojhcr on thc a-i- ot a hojc Thi- i- whcrc
Lithcy- word- makc -cn-c Thc dcmand- on thc jhio-ojhizin
jcr-on cannot c -ati-cd A jhy-ici-t i- an arccac cntity, u-ctu
tor him-ct and othcr-. a jhio-ojhcr, ikc thc -aint, ony cxi-t- a-
an idca
16
lt i- in thc naturc ot thc -jccia -cicncc- to cmcrc trom
a -tatc ot wondcr to thc cxtcnt that thcy rcach rc-ut- Lut thc
jhio-ojhcr doc- not cmcrc trom wondcr
Lcrc i- at oncc thc imit and thc mca-urc ot -cicncc, a- wc a-
thc rcat vauc, and rcat douttunc--, ot jhio-ojhy Ccrtainy, in
it-ct it i- a rcatcr thin to dwc undcr thc -tar- Lut man i-
not madc to ivc out thcrc jcrmancnty' Ccrtainy, it i- a morc
vauac quc-tion, a- -uch, to a-k aout thc whoc word and thc u-
timatc naturc ot thin- Lut thc an-wcr i- not a- ca-iy torthcomin
a- tor thc -jccia -cicncc-'
`ow, thc ncativc a-jcct ot thi- -tructurc ot hojctunc-- i- -omc-
thin that ha- ccomc a--ociatcd with thc vcry idca ot jhio-ojhizin
trom it- vcry -tart Lvcr -incc it can, jhio-ojhy ha- ncvcr ccn
undcr-tood a- a -jccia, -ujcrior torm ot knowin, ut rathcr, a- a
torm ot knowin onc- own- imit- Thc word- jhio-ojhy and
jhio-ojhcr wcrc coincd, accordin to ccnd, y lythaora- And
thcy wcrc intcndcd to -tand in an cmjhatic contra-t with sophia
and sophos no man i- wi-c and knowin, ony God And -o thc
mo-t that man can do i- ca -omconc a ovin -carchcr ot thc truth,
14
Commentary on the Apostles Creed, Introduction.
15
Summa theologiae I-II, Q. 31, a. 5.
16
Briefwechsel zwischen Wilhelm Dilthey und dem Grafen Paul Yorck v. Wartenburg, 1877-1897
(Hall/Saale, 1923), p. 39.
126
philosophos ln ,u-t thi- way, lato in thc diaouc Phaedrus
17
jrojo-c- thc quc-tion, what to ca Soon and what to ca Lomcr,
and Socratc- dccidc- thc mattcr a- toow- To ca him wi-c, 0
lhacdru-, -ccm- oin too tar, -omcthin that ony rcay ajjic- to
a od. ut to ca him a philosopher, or lover of wisdom, or -omc-
thin ot that -ort that -ccm- morc ttin
Thc-c -toric- arc wc known Lut wc tcnd to takc thcm a- -omc-
thin anccdota, -omcthin that con- to thc art ot rhctoric `cv-
crthcc--, it -ccm- to mc rca-on cnouh to c vcry jrcci-c hcrc and
to takc thc word- -criou-y, in thcir oriina mcanin
And what, cxacty, i- cin -aid Two thin- Iir-t, that wc do
not havc thc knowcdc to which jhio-ojhy a-jirc-. and -ccond,
that wc do not ,u-t hajjcn not to havc it, or ony jrovi-ionay
do not havc it. rathcr wc cannot havc it, in jrincijc \c arc in thc
jrc-cncc hcrc ot an ctcrna notyet
Thc quc-t tor c--cncc rcay imjic- a caim on comjrchcn-ion
And comjrchcn-ion (a- Thoma- -ay-) i- to know -omcthin in -uch
a way a- it i- jo--ic tor it c known lt i- to tran-torm a knowa-
iity into thc known, to know -omcthin throuh and throuh,
comjctcy
18
Lut thcrc i- nothin that thc human cin can know
in thi- way or comjrchcnd in thi- -trict -cn-c So it i- ot thc naturc ot
thc quc-t tor c--cncc, that i-, ot thc jhio-ojhica quc-tion (in-otar a-
it can c tormuatcd y a human cin), that it cannot c an-wcrcd
in thc -amc way it i- a-kcd lt i- a jrojcrty ot jhio-ojhy that it
rcachc- toward a wi-dom that ncvcrthcc-- rcmain- un rcachac y
it. ut thi- i- not to -ay that thcrc i- no rcation-hij at a ctwccn
thc quc-tion and thc an-wcr Thi- wi-dom i- thc o,cct ot jhio-ojhy
ut a- -omcthin oviny -ouht, not a- -omcthin jo--c--cd
17
Phaedrus 278.
18
Commentary on the Gospel of John I, 11.
127
Thi-, thcn, i- thc r-t joint that i- madc y thc lythaorcan and
Socratic-latonic intcrjrctation ot thc word philosophia Thi- joint
i- thcn takcn uj and turthcr rcncd in thc Metaphysics ot Ari-to-
tc lt wa- a-o adojtcd y thc rcat thinkcr- ot thc `iddc Ac-,
jarty throuh Ari-totc Ior cxamjc, in thc commcntary writtcn
y Thoma- Aquina- on thi- ja--ac ot thc Metaphysics ot Ari-totc
can c tound -omc rcmarkac and quitc jcnctratin variation- on
thc thcmc -uch a-, that wi-dom, ccau-c it i- -ouht tor it- own
-akc, cannot ccomc thc tu jo--c--ion ot any man Thc rc-ut- ot
thc -jccia -cicncc- wc can comjctcy havc and jo--c--. ut it
con- to thc naturc ot thc-c rc-ut- that thcy arc mcan- thcy
can ncvcr c -o -ati-tyin to u- that wc woud -cck thcm out tuy tor
thcir own -akc- Lut what can -ati-ty u- can a-o c -ouht tor it-
own -akc, and cvcn that i- ony ivcn on thc a-i- ot a hojc Ony
that wi-dom i- -ouht tor it- own -akc (-ay- Thoma-) which doc-
not comc to man a- a jo--c--ion. much morc -o, woud thi- oviny
-ouht-tor wi-dom c -uch a- to c rantcd to man a- a oan (aliquid
mutuatum)
19
lt thcrctorc con- to thc naturc ot jhio-ojhy that it ony ha-
it- o,cct in thc manncr ot a ovin -carch And -omcthin quitc
imjortant i- imjicd y thi- -omcthin controvcr-ia, in tact Ior
cxamjc, Lcc ajjcar- to havc cxjrc--y ojjo-cd thi- dcnition ot
jhio-ojhy, in thc jrctacc to hi- Phenomenology of Spirit, whcrc
hc writc-, \hat l havc intcndcd i- to aor to arrivc at thc oa ot
cin ac to rcmovc jhio-ojhy- namc ot ovc ot knowin and havc
rca knowin in-tcad \ith thi-, a caim wa- tormuatcd that oc- in
jrincijc cyond a human jo--iiity a caim which cd Gocthc to
-jcak in an ironic manncr aout Lcc and othcr jhio-ojhcr- ot hi-
19
Commentary on the Metaphysics I, 3.
128
day a- thc-c cntcmcn who cicvc thcy can contro God, thc -ou,
and thc word (and a thc othcr thin- noody can undcr-tand)
20
Lut thcrc i- yct a -ccond tcachin in that ancicnt namc jhio--
ojhy, which i- ony rarcy cxjrc--cd `ot ony in thc ccndary
-tatcmcnt- ot lythaora-, ut a-o in lato- Phaedrus and in Ari--
totc, thc human jhio-ojhcr i- contra-tcd with thc divine wi-c man
lhio-ojhy, that i-, i- not a ovin -carch ot thc human cin tor ,u-t
any wi-dom ut i- oricntcd toward thc wi-dom that God ha- Ari--
totc cvcn ca- jhio-ojhy a divinc wi-dom c cau-c it -cck- to
attain a knowcdc -uch a- God aonc woud c ac tuy to jo--
-c--
21
Thi- -ccond doctrinc, containcd in thc oriina dcnition ot jhi-
o-ojhy, ha- -cvcra a-jcct- Iir-t, it rin- morc -harjy into tocu-
thc r-t doctrinc (that jhio-ojhy cannot tuy attain it- o,cct). thc
oundary -ct hcrc i- morc -jccic than thc oundary ctwccn man
and God man can jo--c-- that wi-dom ony to thc cxtcnt that hc
can cca-c to c man Iurthcr, it con- to thc vcry conccjt ot jhio--
ojhy to incudc an oricntation to thcooy An ojcnnc-- to thcooy
in -tatcd hcrc, in jhio-ojhy- caric-t dcnition Somcthin, in othcr
word-, i- cin -aid that i- thorouhy ojjo-cd y thc mcanin ot
jhio-ojhy that ha- aincd currcncy in morc rcccnt timc- Thi- ncw
conccjt ot jhio-ojhy -ay- that it- jccuiar charactcri-tic i- to c
distinguished trom thcooy, cict, and tradition And yct a third
joint i- madc ccar y thc ancicnt word jhio-ojhy thc rctu-a ot
jhio-ojhy to takc it-ct tor a doctrinc ot -avation
Lut what, now, i- mcant y -jcakin ot wi-dom, -uch a- God
woud jo--c-- Thc undcr-tandin ot wi-dom that ic- at thc a-i-
ot thi- i- a- toow- That onc i- rcay wi-c, who know- thc utimatc
20
In a letter to Zelter, Oct. 27, 1827.
21
Metaphysics 983a.
129
cau-c
22
(cau-c cin mcant hcrc not ony in thc -cn-c ot ccicnt
cau-c ut a-o in thc -cn-c ot na cau-c, or jurjo-c) `ow, to know
thc utimatc cau-c not thc cau-c ot -omcthin dcnitc or -jccic
ut in cncra, to know thc utimatc cau-c ot thc -umtota ot a
thin- thi- mcan- to know thc why and thc whcrctorc, thc oriin
and oa, thc a-ic -tructurc and toundation, thc mcanin and thc
-y-tcmatic ordcr ot rcaity a- a whoc, to know thc word in it-
utimatc -cn-c Such a knowcdc, howcvcr, in thc -cn-c ot a com-
jrchcn-ivc knowcdc, coud ony c -aid to con to thc a-outc
-jirit, or God Ony God undcr-tand- thc word trom a -inc joint
ot vicw. that i-, y it-ct and in tcrm- ot it- onc, na cau-c Lc
aonc i- wi-c, who know- thc hihc-t cau-c in -uch a -cn-c, God
aonc i- mcant
So thi- i- thc oa, to which jhio-ojhy i- dircctcd undcr-tand-
in ot rcaity in tcrm- ot an utimatc jrincijc ot unity Lut it i- ot
thc naturc ot jhio-ojhy, ot cour-c, to c ony on thc way (ovin,
-carchin, hojin) to thi- oa, and yct, it i- in jrincijc incajac ot
rcachin thi- oa Loth a-jcct- con to thc conccjt ot jhio-ojhy,
a- undcr-tood and cxjicatcd y antiquity
\ith thi-, thc crucia joint i- madc it i- imjo--ic, workin
within thc conccjt ot jhio-ojhy, and in a jhio-ojhica manncr, to
rcach a rationa intcrjrctation ot thc word trom knowcdc ot thc
hihc-t cau-c lt mcan- that thcrc i- no -uch thin a- a co-cd
-y-tcm ot jhio-ojhy A caim to havc a tormua tor thc word i-
y dcnition un-jhio-ojhy or j-cudojhio-ojhy'
And ncvcrthcc--, Ari-totc
23
-aw in jhio-ojhy, and in mcta-
jhy-ic- in jarticuar, thc hihc-t ot thc -cicncc-, jrcci-cy ccau-c ot
thi- oa (to know thc utimatc cau-c), cvcn it it i- ony rcachac in
22
Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologiae II-II, Q. 9, a. 2.
23
Metaphysics 983a.
130
hojc and a- -omcthin ivcn on oan to man ln hi- Commentary
on the Metaphysics, Thoma- add- Thi- ittc, that can c rcachcd
y it | ic, y mctajhy-ic-| i- morc imjortant than anythin c-c that
can othcrwi-c c known y -cicncc
24
And -o it i- ,u-t in thi- twotod, two-aycrcd -tructurc ot jhio-o-
jhy in thc tact that wc travc a road which ncvcrthcc-- ha- no cnd
in thc tact that jhio-ojhy ha- a uit-in -tructurc ot hojc jrcci-cy
hcrcin i- jhio-ojhy -hown to c -omcthin comjctcy human and
indccd, in a ccrtain -cn-c, a- thc tumcnt ot human cxi-tcncc it -ct
24
I, 3.
131
132
IV
ln thc jhio-ojhica act, thc human cin- related-ness to thc to-
taity ot cin i- rcaizcd. jhio-ojhy i- oricntcd toward thc word a- a
whoc Thi- i- what wc maintaincd And yct, prior to a jhio-ojhy,
away- jrciminary to it, an intcrjrctation ot rcaity ha- arcady
ccn ivcn a on timc ctorc And thi- i- an intcrjrctation ot rca-
ity, a tradition (y way ot tcachin and hi-torica dcvcojmcnt) that
ra-j- thc whole ot thc word and -jcak- ot that whoc
`an i- arcady within a rciiou- tcachin tradition which ocr-
a jicturc ot thc word a- a whoc And it i- ot thc c--cncc ot -uch a
tradition to c thcrc arcady, to havc it- vaidity jrior to a jhio--
ojhy, to a intcrjrctation ot thc word that uid- ujon cxjcricncc
Thcrc i- a thcooica doctrinc which i- dcrivcd trom thi- archaic
tradition and thi- jrimcva rcvcation. in othcr word-, a commu-
nication that took jacc at thc cinnin ot human hi-tory, an un-
vciin |rc-vcatio, trom velum, vci| ot thc mcanin ot thc word,
and ot thc mcanin ot human hi-tory a- a whoc. an announccmcnt,
rathcr ovcrrown and corrodcd with dccay, ut which ivc- aain in
jojuar myth- and tokway- \c cannot -jcak aout thi- in any
turthcr dctai at jrc-cnt
Ior thc jrc-cnt contcxt, it i- imjortant to o-crvc that thc rcat
toundcr- ot \c-tcrn jhio-ojhy, ujon who-c achicvcmcnt- jhio-o-
133
jhy today -ti dcjcnd- tor it- itc, aovc a, lato and Ari-totc,
not ony di-covcrcd and conrmcd thc cxi-tcncc ot -uch an arcady
ivcn vicw ot thc word, thcy a-o jhio-ojhizcd aout it Thc an-
cicnt- kncw thc truth. it wc coud ony nd it, why woud wc havc to
invc-tiatc thc ojinion- ot mcn So wrotc lato
1
And how ottcn,
othcrwi-c, doc- hc -ay that thi- or that doctrinc i- handcd down
y thc ancicnt- and i- not ony an honorac tcachin ut i- truc
in an cxtraordinariy unquc-tionac way A- thc od tcachin -ay-,
God hod- thc cinnin, middc and cnd ot a thin-, and uidc-
thcm accordin to what i- c-t accordin to thcir naturc, wrotc thc
acd lato in thc Laws
2
And it i- thc -amc with Ari-totc lt ha-
ccn handcd down to u-, thc atcr cncration-, y our vcry ancicnt
torctathcr-, that thc whoc ot naturc i- -urroundcd y thc divinc
-o rcad- thc Metaphysics
3
lt i- imjortant to -cc thi- to -cc that thc rcat, jaradimatic
urc- ot \c-tcrn jhio-ojhy wcrc cicvcr- in a jrcviou-y ivcn,
jrcviou-y handcd-down intcrjrctation ot thc word Attcrward-,
modcrn hi-torian- ot jhio-ojhy, dominatcd y thc rationai-t- taith
in jrorc--, havc ocatcd thc cinnin ot jhio-ojhy in thc de-
parture ot thinkcr- trom tradition jhio-ojhy i- toundcd on thc
comin-ot-ac ot rca-on, in rccion aain-t tradition. and aovc
a, thc dcnia ot religious tradition i- -ujjo-cd to c ot thc c--cncc
ot jhio-ojhy thc jrc-Socratic, and jrc-Athcnian jhio-ojhcr- arc
undcr-tood a- Lnihtcncd thinkcr- whcrca-, thc mo-t rcccnt
-choar-hij ha- -jokcn tor thc jroaiity that thc Lomcric vcr-ion
ot thc od- (aain-t which thc lrc-Socratic- trom Thac- to Lmjcdo-
cc- ojjo-cd thcir own tcachin-), that thi- Lomcric thcooy wa-
1
Phaedrus 274.
2
Laws 715.
3
Metaphysics 1074b.
134
in tact a kind ot Lnihtcnmcnt thcooy, which thc lrc-Socratic
jhio-ojhcr- wantcd to rcjacc with a morc ancicnt, rc-torcd, jrc
Lomcric thcooy
So, thcn, what thc hi-tory ot jhio-ojhy rcvca- oth at thc
cinnin and durin thc r-t rcat owcrin ot \c-tcrn jhio-ojhy
(ic, with Socratc-, lato and Ari-totc a owcrin that wi ncvcr
c rcjcatcd) i- thi- that a jrcviou-y handcd-down intcrjrctation
ot thc word -tand- ctorc a jhio-ojhizin, a- a kind ot doctrinc
away- arcady -jokcn, trom which jhio-ojhy ct- a -jark
And lato oc- -ti tarthcr `ot ony doc- hc -ay that thcrc i- a
tradition handcd down y thc ancicnt-, which thc jhio-ojhcr mu-t
rc-jcct. lato i- a-o convinccd, that thi- wi-dom ot thc ancicnt-
wa- utimatcy ot divinc oriin, lt i- a itt ot thc od-, which, a- it
-ccm- to mc, camc down to u-, thank- to -omc unknown lromcthcu-,
aon with -hinin rc, and thc ancicnt-, who wcrc cttcr than wc
arc, and who ivcd co-cr to thc God-, handcd down to u- thi- rcvca-
tion |thi- rcjort or -jokcn word, or jh emc| Thi- i- trom
thc Philebus, madc with rctcrcncc to thc doctrinc ot thc ldca-
4
Accordin to thc tcachin ot lato, thcn, a wi-dom, -uch a- God
ha-, ha- ccomc avaiac to u-, before our ovin -carch tor thi-
vcry wi-dom in othcr word-, ctorc jhio-ojhy it-ct \ithout thc
contra-t with thi- -trancy iuminatin itt, jrocrcd to mankind
y thc od-, ctorc any human cort ot thinkin wa- accomji-hcd
without -uch an imjicd contra-t, jhio-ojhy a- a ovin -carch
tor thc wi-dom, -uch a- God ha- i- -imjy unthinkac, and yct
jrcci-cy hcrcin can c -ccn a ,u-tication ot jhio-ojhy- autonomy
a- wc Thc autonomy ot jhio-ojhy with rc-jcct to thc away-
arcady ivcn tund ot tradition that rc-ut- trom divinc rcvcation
con-i-t- in thc tact that thc jhio-ojhica act cin- with thc invc-ti-
4
Philebus 16c.
135
ation ot thc vi-ic, concrctc word ot cxjcricncc yin ctorc onc-
cyc-. that jhio-ojhy cin- trom cow, in quc-tionin thc cxjc-
ricncc ot thin- cncountcrcd cvcry day, a quc-tionin which ojcn-
uj cvcr ncwcr, morc a-toundin dcjth- to thc onc who -carchc-
And in contra-t, it i- thc jrojcrty ot thc away- arcady, jrcviou-y
ivcn tradition, to precede a cxjcricncc and a rationa invc-tia-
tion ot cxjcricncc. it i- it- naturc not an accomji-hmcnt won
trom cow ut i- rathcr ivcn ctorchand, arcady tormuatcd,
and rcvcacd
\hat wc arc dcain with, now, i- thc a-ic rcation-hij ctwccn
jhio-ojhy and thcooy with thcooy cin undcr-tood in a
cncra -cn-c a- intcrjrctation ot thc tund ot rcvcation lt -omconc
want-, thcn (and it thi- i- a -imjication, l cicvc it a jcrmi--ic
onc) to -um uj in a tcw jrincijc- thc c--cntia rcation-hij ctwccn
jhio-ojhy and thcooy a- lato and ancicnt jhio-ojhy a- a whoc
undcr-tood it, onc coud -ay -omcthin ikc thi- thcooy away- a-
rcady jrcccdc- jhio-ojhy, and not ony in thc chronooica -cn-c,
ut a-o in thc -cn-c ot an inncr, oriina rcation-hij. a jrcviou-y
ivcn intcrjrctation ot thc word that -cc- thc word a- a whoc, out
ot which jhio-ojhica quc-tion- -jrin torth. jhio-ojhy, thcn, i- c--
-cntiay ound uj with thcooy. no jhio-ojhy i- in cxi-tcncc which
doc- not rcccivc it- r-t imju-c and imjctu- trom -omc jrcviou-y
cxi-tin, uncriticay acccjtcd intcrjrctation ot thc word ln thc thc-
ooica rcam, thc jaradim ot a wi-dom, -uch a- God jo--c--c-,
indcjcndcnt ot a cxjcricncc, woud c conccivac, trom which thc
ovin--carchin movcmcnt ot jhio-ojhica quc-tionin takc- it- mo-
mcntum and nd- it- oricntation
`ow thi- i- not to imjy that thcooy rcay ha- what jhio-o-
jhy want- Thc thcooian ha- what hc ha- a- a thcooian, a- thc
136
cu-todian and cxjoundcr ot thc tund ot rcvcation, ut not thc cn-
uinc jhio-ojhcr- knowcdc ot cin Ccrtainy, thc rcvcacd \ord
a- thc logos, throuh which a thin- wcrc madc, i- cxacty a -tatc-
mcnt aout thc -tructurc ot rcaity a- a whoc. ut thc thcooian,
who-c u-inc-- it i- to makc ccar, to jrc-crvc, to dctcnd thc mcan-
in ot thi- \ord on thc a-i- ot thc whoc tund ot traditiona truth
thc thcooian doc- not jo--c-- thc wi-dom ot thc jhio-ojhcr,
which accruc- to thc attcr trom cow On thc othcr hand, thc
jhio-ojhcr, in hi- quc-tionin ot thin-, i- ac on hi- own jart to
rcach a knowcdc y thc iht ot -uch a \ord, that woud othcrwi-c
rcmain hiddcn to him and yct hi- knowin i- not a thcooica way
ot knowin, ut a jhio-ojhica onc, that i- dcmon-tratcd in thin-
thcm-cvc-
Thc hamark ot latonic jhio-ojhy i- it- ojcnnc-- to thcooy
lato woud havc -tarcd in juzzcmcnt it -omconc had jointcd out
to him that hc had ovcr-tcjjcd thc ound- ot jurc jhio-ojhica
thinkin y ja--in ovcr into thc cd ot thcooy -uch a- whcn,
in thc Symposium
5
hc ct- Ari-tojhanc- tc that tac that amo-t
rotc-quc tarcc in which thc r-t human cin- wcrc -hajcd ikc
-jhcrc-, with tour arm- and c-, and cin ot oth -cxc- at oncc,
thcn wcrc atcr -jit into two havc- (a- onc -icc- jcar-, to jut
thcm uj tor cannin), with cach hat thcn -cckin it- o-t hat.
and thi- i- ovc (eros) thc dc-irin and huntin tor whocnc--
And yct, chind a thc comic dctai- ot thc -tory, thc toowin a-ic
narrativc can c madc out jrcviou-y, at thc vcry cinnin, our
naturc wa- whoc and -ound. ut man wa- drivcn y hi- hubris
6
, y
thc con-ciou-nc-- ot hi- own jowcr and rcat thouht-, to a-jirc to
5
Symposium 189c-193d.
6
hubris: (noun) 1. pride: excessive pride or arrogance 2. excessive ambition: the excessive pride and
ambition that usually leads to the downfall of a hero in classical tragedy. [Late 19th century, Greek].
137
thc cvc ot thc od-. and a- juni-hmcnt tor thi- ovcr-rcachin wi-h
to c a- thc od-, man o-t hi- oriina whocnc--. thcrc wa- ctt
ony thc hojc, that cro- (which i- thc dc-irc to rcturn to thc oriina
and whoc -tatc ot cin) woud rcay nd thi- tumcnt it wc
rcvcrc thc od- Ot cour-c, thi- i- not jhio-ojhy. ot cour-c, thi-
coud not c oicay thouht out a- a concu-ion, attaincd throuh
rca-onin on thc a-i- ot rca cxjcricncc' Lowcvcr, i- it not rcay
hcrc, in thc a-kin ot thc quc-tion, \hat i- ovc, anyway, in thc a-t
anay-i- and (aon with that) in thc con-idcration ot an an-wcr
comin trom a rciiou- tradition doc- not thi- indin-tocthcr
ot jhio-ojhy and thcooy ivc thc latonic diaouc that -jccia
ccmcnt, which ct- u- cxjcricncc it a- -omcthin -o jcrtincnt to our
human itc At thc -amc timc, i- not thi- a-o thc vcry -ourcc ot
thc diaouc- jowcr to comjctcy tran-ccnd thc -jhcrc ot human
cxi-tcncc it-ct
lt woud c imjo--ic, thcn, to try to jur-uc a jhio-ojhy that
i- radicay and con-ciou-y ojjo-cd to thcooy, and ca on lato to
,u-tity -uch an undcrtakin' lt you want to jhio-ojhizc in a latonic
way and with latonic a-jiration-, you mu-t jhio-ojhizc ctorc a
thcooica ackdroj lt onc i- -criou-y inquirin into thc root- ot
thin- (which i- what hajjcn- in thc jhio-ojhica act), thcn onc
cannot, at onc and thc -amc timc, rc,cct (tor thc -akc ot -omc kind
ot mcthodooica jurity) that jrcviou-y ivcn rciiou- tradition
and it- tcachin, which conccrn- cxjrc--y thc vcry root- ot thin-
cvcn it you no oncr acccjt that tcachin' And yct, to acccjt it,
to cicvc in it, and at thc -amc timc, in your jhio-ojhizin, to
rc,cct it that i- what -omconc cannot do in any -criou-nc--
And now, thc quc-tion naturay ari-c-, whcrc i- to c tound,
today, thi- authcntic jrcjhio-ojhica tradition \hat i- thc con-
138
tcmjorary torm ot knowcdc ivcn to u-, a- lato -aid,
7
a- a itt
ot thc od-, y -omc unknown lromcthcu- To thi-, onc can ony
an-wcr -incc thc ta ot thc loman Lmjirc, thcrc ha- not ccn any
jrcjhio-ojhica tradition apart from thc Chri-tian tradition ln
thc \c-tcrn word, thcrc i- no thcooy ut thc Chri-tian \hcrc i-
a nonChri-tian thcooy to c tound, in thc tu -cn-c ot thc word
8
Thi- mcan-, that, it onc intcnd- to jhio-ojhizc in -uch a way
a- to -ati-ty thc caim- tor jhio-ojhy lato madc, in thc Chri-tian
cra, onc can ony do thi- ctorc thc ackdroj ot thc Chri-tian in-
tcrjrctation ot itc Low i- Chri-tian jhio-ojhy jo--ic thi-
quc-tion ajjcar- c-- dicut to an-wcr than anothcr quc-tion, Low
i- a non-Chri-tian jhio-ojhy jo--ic -o on a- it i- a--umcd
that wc arc undcr-tandin jhio-ojhy to c what lato undcr-tood
it to c
Ot cour-c, it -houd not c -aid that it i- cnouh to c a Chri--
tian, or to acccjt thc Chri-tian rcvcation a- truc, in ordcr to rcaizc
jhio-ojhy in thc arcr -cn-c that i-, a- a quc-tionin ot thc word,
a jcnctration into cin, a jath toowcd trom cow, a accom-
janicd y a natura, cnia attitudc toward thc word no, it cannot
c -aid that only Chri-tian jhio-ojhy can c a ivin jhio-ojhy
lhio-ojhy can a-o ivc in ojjo-ition to thc Chri-tian vicw Thcn,
ot cour-c, onc ojjo-c- Chri-tianity throuh a -ct ot articc- ot c-
ict cvcn thouh thc-c articc- may ajjcar to c tuy rationa,
lationai-m -ti ha- it- own articc- ot taith and thcn thc authcn-
tic -tructurc ot jhio-ojhy i- -ti jrc-cnt, a- a ccrtain rc-jon-c to a
7
Philebus 16.
8
In the course of the Bonn Week for Higher Education in 1947, it was brought to my attention, that in
the works of Walter F. Otto, a renewal of the life of ancient theology can be ascertained so that one no longer
can say that the single available theology is the Christian. In reply, I would say, that admiration is not
the same thing as faith. Does someone seriously want to maintain that in this new Hellenism, the ancient
theology is precisely taken as the truth, is so fully believed in that in the extremity of an existentially
threatening situation (such as the approach of death), one would really pray to Apollo or Dionysus? If this
is not the case, then one cannot be speaking of theology in the full sense of the word.
139
-ct ot cict- (whcrc thc rciiou- tradition i- completely atrojhicd
-o that onc can no oncr know thc mcanin ot thc word- od,
rcvcation, oo-, ony thcn woud jhio-ojhy no oncr ivc and
row)
lhio-ojhy ct- it- itc and inward -timuu- trom it- countcrjoint
rcation-hij with thcooy That i- whcrc it ct- it- -jicc, it- cxi--
tcntia -at And it wa- ,u-t ccau-c ot thi- dccinc that, oncc
jhio-ojhy -hrank to a -jcciaizcd acadcmic di-cijinc, it ccamc -o
at a- to avoid with anxicty any contact with thcooica thcmc-
(which coud a-o c -aid, in jart, tor -o-cacd Chri-tian jhio-o-
jhy) and thi- i- jroay why thc jhio-ojhy ot Lcidccr had
-uch a -tirrin, dazzin ccct lt- cxjo-ivc charactcr con-i-tcd in
nothin othcr than thc radica way it jo-cd quc-tion- ot thcooica
oriin (which dcmandcd thcooica an-wcr-), whic radicay dcny-
in thc vcry jo--iiity ot -uch an-wcr- Suddcny thc ta-tc ot thc-
ooy wa- traccd on thc tonuc' And in Irancc today, ajart trom
what i- mcrcy ta-hionac, thc -ituation i- -imiar thi- cxi-tcntia
athci-m i- y no mcan- a jurcy jhio-ojhica or cvcn -cicntic
jo-ition, ut i- theological in naturc, and that i- why it cnd- jhio--
ojhy a ccrtain thcooica dimcn-ion Thi- jhio-ojhy, howcvcr, a- a
j-cudothcooy or cvcn an antithcooy, i- no co-cr to thc truth,
ut i- at ca-t morc aivc lt i- truy rccvant to thc human jcr-on,
ccau-c it dca- with thc A, with which jhio-ojhy y dcnition ha-
to dca So that, it !can-lau Sartrc -ay-, Athci-tic cxi-tcntiai-m
concudc- trom thc noncxi-tcncc ot God that thcrc i- a cin that
cxi-t- without cin dctcrmincd y any hihcr wi, and that cin
i- man, noody woud takc thi- tor a jhio-ojhica thc-i- rathcr
than a thcooica onc, tor an articc ot taith And yct -uch a -tatc-
mcnt amo-t torcc- thouht to thc cvc ot thcooy' And in rcation
140
to that ojjo-in joc, jhio-ojhy can ivc aain
Ot cour-c, a ivin jhio-ojhy that i- a-o true woud ony c
jo--ic in countcrjoint with a truc thcooy, and attcr thc irth ot
Chri-t, that mcan- with a Chri-tian thcooy Lut, aain it i- not
a- it a actua jhio-ojhy that ca- ujon Chri-tian thcooy i- ac,
,u-t with that, to rcaizc -uch a unity ot truth and life ln-tcad, a
jhio-ojhy that i- oth ivin and truc wi cithcr not c rcaizcd at
a (and it i- quitc jo--ic that wc wi wait in vain tor it to comc),
or it it i- rcaizcd, thcn it wi ony c a- a Chri-tian jhio-ojhy in
that -cn-c
And thi- i- no oncr a jurcy jhio-ojhica -tatcmcnt Lut it
i- ot thc naturc ot jhio-ojhy, which ha- ccn undcr-tood trom it-
cinnin a- a ovin -carch tor wi-dom, -uch a- God jo--c--c-
it i-, y thc naturc ot thc jhio-ojhica act, unavoidac tor onc who
jhio-ojhizc- to ja-- ovcr to thc rcam ot thcooy a rcam that
i- thcorcticay and mcthodicay, ut not cxi-tcntiay, -cjaratc and
di-tinct. a cd that i- conccjtuay, ut not rcay di-tinct and
takc uj a thcooica jo-ition Ior othcrwi-c, onc cannot jhio-o-
jhizc' And thi- i- -o ccau-c jhio-ojhy, a- a a-ic human attitudc
toward rcaity, i- ony jo--ic on thc a-i- ot thc totaity ot human
cxi-tcncc, to which con it- utimatc jo-ition-, a- wc a- it- r-t
jrincijc-'
A tcw rcmark- nccd to c madc on thc conccjt Chri-tian jhio--
ojhy a- a concu-ion to our cort- to an-wcr thc quc-tion, \hat
doc- it mcan to do jhio-ojhy At thc -amc timc, l do not want
to rai-c thc cxjcctation that thi- many--idcd jrocm ot Chri-tian
jhio-ojhy wi c cxhau-tivcy trcatcd, or cvcn iuminatcd in it-
c--cntia tcaturc-
To cin with, it i- nccc--ary to countcr a currcnt ojinion, which
hod- that Chri-tian jhio-ojhy (or any Chri-tian jhio-ojhy woud
141
c di-tinui-hcd trom a non-Chri-tian onc y thc Chri-tian jhio-o-
jhy havin -imjc an-wcr- to jrocm- Thi- i- not thc ca-c Lvcn
thouh Chri-tian jhio-ojhy think- with rctcrcncc to comjctcy un-
doutcd ccrtaintic-. ncvcrthcc--, it i- -ti truc that Chri-tian jhio--
ojhy can morc jurcy rcaizc thc truc -cn-c ot jhio-ojhica wondcr,
or a-toni-hmcnt, which i- a-cd on not-knowing Onc ot thc rcatc-t
ot tho-c thinkcr- in our day, who havc takcn Thoma- Aquina- a- a
uidc, ha- -aid that thc charactcri-tic mark ot Chri-tian jhio-ojhy
i- not that it ha- ca-y -oution- at it- di-jo-a, ut rathcr that it
jo--c--c- thc sense of mystery to a hihcr dcrcc than any othcr
jhio-ojhy
9
And cvcn in thc rcam ot taith and thcooy (dc-jitc a
thc ccrtainty taith rin-), it i- y no mcan- truc to -ay that cvcry-
thin ccomc- ccar tor thc cicvin jcr-on, that cvcry jrocm
i- -ovcd lndccd, a- `atthia- !o-cjh Schcccn -aid, thc truth- ot
Chri-tianity arc inconccivac in a vcry jccuiar way. inconccivac
too, ot cour-c, arc thc vcry truth- ot rca-on, ut what i- di-tinctivc
aout thc truth- ot Chri-tcndom arc that, dc-jitc thc rcvcation,
thcy rcmain hiddcn ncvcrthcc--
10
`ow, onc may a-k, Low coud a Chri-tian jhio-ojhy havc -omc-
thin ovcr a non-Chri-tian jhio-ojhy, it it doc- not rcach to a hihcr
cvc ot -oution-, it it cannot ct handy an-wcr-, it thc jrocm- and
quc-tion- arc -ti thcrc \c, jcrhaj- a greater truth coud c
jrc-cnt in it- aiity to -cc thc word in it- truy my-tcriou- charac-
tcr, in it- incxhau-taiity lt coud cvcn c thc ca-c that hcrc, in thc
vcry cxjcricncc ot cin a- a my-tcry, that it i- not to c ra-jcd in
thc hand a- a wc-roundcd truth hcrcin i- rcaity morc dccjy
and truy ra-jcd than in any tran-jarcnt -y-tcm that may charm
9
Garrigou-Lagrange, Der Sinn f ur das Geheimnis und das Hell-Dunkel des Gestes (Paderborn, 1937),
pp. 112 f.
10
M. J. Scheeben, Die Mysterien des Christentums, ed. Josef Hofer, nal edition (Freiburg, 1941), pp. 8
f.
142
thc mind ot thc -tudcnt with it- carity and -imjicity And thi- i-
thc caim ot Chri-tian jhio-ojhy to c truer, jrcci-cy ccau-c ot
it- rcconition ot thc my-tcriou- charactcr ot thc word
ln no way, thcn, doc- jhio-ojhy ccomc ca-icr lato ajjcar-
to havc di-covcrcd and tct that too it a ccrtain intcrjrctation ot
lato i- corrcct,
11
maintainin that lato undcr-tood jhio-ojhy to
c -omcthin traic for this reason, that it mu-t con-tanty havc
rccour-c to mythos, -incc thc tcachin ot jhio-ojhy can ncvcr co-c
it-ct into a -y-tcm
`or i- Chri-tian jhio-ojhy ca-icr tor thinkcr-, a- onc may c
incincd to think, ccau-c taith iuminatc- rca-on `o, thc cx-
jicit rctcrcncc to thcooica arumcnt- (in thc jhio-ojhy ot Thoma-
Aquina-, tor cxamjc) i- not tor thc jurjo-c ot cttin an-wcr- morc
ca-iy, ut rathcr tor thc jurjo-c ot rcakin throuh thc mcthodica
narrownc-- ot jurc jhio-ojhizin, to ivc rcin to thc rca philo-
sophical imju-c, thc ovin -carch tor wi-dom, to ojcn and roadcn
a -jacc tor my-tcry a -jacc which, y dcnition, i- charactcrizcd y
cin without ordcr- -o that onc can o into thc innitc without
cin ni-hcd On thc othcr hand, thc rationac tor thc-c thco-
oica truth- aout thc word a- a whoc, and aout thc mcanin
ot human cxi-tcncc, i- a -avin tunction ot thcooy, that it jro-
vidc- a `o' to thc -ou that naturay ju-hc- torward to carity,
tran-jarcncy, and -y-tcmatic co-urc (and thi- i- thc mcanin ot thc
tamou- -ayin that thc truth ot taith i- thc ncativc norm tor jhio-
-ojhica thinkin)
Lut thi- woud not makc jhio-ojhy any ca-icr' On thc con-
trary, it i- thouht to c jrcci-cy thc ojjo-itc, and how coud
onc othcrwi-c cxjcct, than that Chri-tian jhio-ojhy woud c morc
11
The interpretation is that of Gerhard Kr uger, Einsicht und Leidenschaft: Das Wesen des Platonischen
Denkens Insight and passion: the nature of Platonic thinking (Frankfurt, 1939), p. 301.
143
dicut tor a thinkcr than a jhio-ojhy that woud not tcc it-ct
ound to traditiona truth- ot taith ln L odcrin- Hyperion arc thc
toowin inc-
The hearts wave would never have splashed and
frothed so beautifully,
and become Spirit
Had not the grim, old cli of Destiny stubbornly
opposed...
lt i- thc od, -icnt, unyicdin, irrcvocac ci ot rcvcacd truth
that hindcr- jhio-ojhica thinkin trom owin into a -mooth, wc-
channccd -trcam lt i- throuh thc comjication ot thouht that
ari-c- trom thi- ojjo-ition, whcrcin Chri-tian jhio-ojhy dicr- trom
thc non-Chri-tian lt i- a kind ot jhio-ojhy ot hi-tory, which mu-t
dca with thc comin ot thc Antichri-t at thc cnd-joint, and that
mcan-, with acccjtin that human hi-tory, in human tcrm-, mu-t
cnd in a cata-trojhc -uch a jhio-ojhy ot hi-tory, which ncvcrthc-
c-- doc- not c comc a jhio-ojhy ot dc-jair -uch a Christian
jhio-ojhy ot hi-tory cannot jo--iy turn into a -imjc hi-torica
-chcma, whcrca- thc jhio-ojhy ot jrorc-- (to c -urc, it i- rcvca-
in how ittc onc -jcak- ot it any morc') i- a -imjcr jhio-ojhy
ccau-c it rctu-c- to -cc any ajocayj-c' Lut jhio-ojhy doc-
not ccomc -imjcr y cmracin thc norm ot Chri-tian rcvcation
ln-tcad and thi- i- an oviou- caim on thc jart ot a Chri-tian
it ccomc- trucr, morc taithtu to rcaity \hat rcvcacd truth
rin- to jhio-ojhica thinkin i- a crcativc and truittu ojjo-ition
Chri-tian jhio-ojhy -ct- a hihcr ta-k tor it-ct Chri-tian jhio-o-
jhizin dicr-, y havin to with-tand a torcc cxcccdin thc rcam ot
mcrc rationa dicutic- Chri-tian jhio-ojhy i- morc comjicatcd
144
ccau-c it doc- not jcrmit it-ct to arrivc at iuminatin tormua-
tion- throuh inorin, -ccctin, or drojjin ccrtain arca- ot rcaity.
and thi- i- ccau-c, jaccd in a truittu -tatc ot unca-c throuh it-
imj-c ot rcvcacd truth, it i- comjccd to think morc -jaciou-y
and, aovc a, not to c contcnt with thc -ujcrciaity ot any ra-
tionai-tic harmony Chri-tian jhio-ojhy i- dicrcnt ccau-c ot thi-
-ja-hin and toamin ot thc -ou- rcakcr- aain-t thc ci ot thc
divinc Truth
Ly it- dcity to thc countcrjoint ot Chri-t- truth, Chri-tian jhi-
o-ojhizin ain- an cnrichmcnt ot it- contcnt And it mu-t c un-
dcr-tood, ot cour-c, that not ony it- Chri-tian charactcr i- thcrcy
madc -troncr and morc authcntic, ut it- jhio-ojhica charactcr a-
wc (thi- nccd- to c rcjcatcd ovcr and ovcr ccau-c it i- not at a
oviou-') A tamou- ook on thc hi-tory ot mcdicva jhio-ojhy y
`auricc dc \ut co-c- with thi- -cntcncc Schoa-tici-m coaj-cd,
not trom a ack ot idca-, ut trom a ack ot rain-'
And -o, thc `o ot thcooy, a- a norma negativa ojjo-cd
to jhio-ojhica thinkin, i- anythin ut ncativc Ior -omconc
woud not con-idcr -omcthin ncativc that hindcr- thinkin trom
tain into ccrtain crror- lt i- rcay -omcthin jo-itivc tor thc hu-
man mind to c -trcnthcncd throuh it- cicvin acccjtancc ot
rcvcacd truth, to acccjt in a much morc ccrtain way ccrtain jhio-
-ojhica truth-, which in thcm-cvc- arc attainac y rca-on in a
natura way A -tatc without ,u-ticc i- nothin othcr than a iant
dcn ot thicvc- Thi- -tatcmcnt i- naturay intciic, ut it i- not
y chancc that it i- not to c tound in a tcxtook ot ca jhio-ojhy,
ut in a thcooica work, thc City of God, y Saint Auu-tinc
`ow, onc can a-o jo-c thc quc-tion, l- not jhio-ojhy -ujcru-
ou- tor thc Chri-tian \oudnt thcooy c cnouh, or taith aonc
ln hi- Introduction to Philosophy, \indcand wrotc, Lc who a-
145
rcady ha- a wordvicw, and i- dctcrmincd to continuc to hod to
hi- cict in a circum-tancc- |and thi- woud in tact c truc ot thc
cnuinc Chri-tian|, ha- no jcr-ona nccd what-ocvcr tor jhio-ojhy
ln tact, tor salvation, jhio-ojhy i- not nccc--ary. ony onc thin i-
nccdtu, and that onc thin i- not jhio-ojhy Thc Chri-tian can-
not cxjcct trom jhio-ojhy an an-wcr to thc quc-tion aout human
-avation, or cvcn aout -avation it-ct Lc cannot jhio-ojhizc in
ordcr to -ati-ty -uch cxjcctation-. hc cannot jhio-ojhizc in -uch a
way a- it hi- -avation dcjcndcd on rc-carch into thc -tructurc ot thc
univcr-c To o-c onc-ct in jrocm- (tor thi- i- thc mark ot a jhi-
o-ojhy that i- comjctcy -ct-dcjcndcnt, and a thc morc -o, thc
morc -criou-y it i- takcn), thi- -o-cacd cxi-tcntia idcntication
with thc jrocm- ot thouht i- torcin to thc cicvcr ln Thoma-
Aquina- you can -cc a ccrtain chccrtunc-- aout notcinac
toundcr-tand, an attitudc vcry co-cy rcatcd to a -cn-c ot humor
lhio-ojhy i- ,u-t a- nccc--ary, and ,u-t a- -ujcruou-, a- thc natu-
ra tumcnt ot thc human cin i- nccc--ary or (cvcn) unnccc--ary
To do philosophy is to realize the naturally essential in-
clination of the human mind toward totality. \ho woud
want to dctcrminc (in a concrctc ta-hion) thc dcrcc ot nccc--ity that
i- jrc-cnt, tor thi- potentia, thi- c--cntia cajacity, to nd it- natura
rcaization
Onc a-t joint rcmain- Lithcrto, wc havc -jokcn a- it thc Chri--
tian wa- cxcu-ivcy, or at ca-t jrcdominanty, a mattcr ot tcachin,
doctrina jrojo-ition-, and truth And wc havc -jokcn ot a Chri--
tian jhio-ojhcr in a -imiar ta-hion, in thc way onc i- accu-tomcd to
-jcak ot a Iantian jhio-ojhcr, whcrcy i- mcant -omconc who-c
jhio-ojhica ojinion- arc in arccmcnt with thc tcachin ot Iant
Lut whcn it i- -aid that -omconc i- a Chri-tian in hi- jhio-ojhy,
146
that cannot ony mcan that hi- vicw ot thc word i- in arccmcnt
with Chri-tian tcachin Ior Chri-tianity i- a rcaity, and not ,u-t a
tcachin' Thc jrocm ot a Chri-tian jhio-ojhy i- not ony to urc
out whcthcr, and in what manncr, natura knowcdc ot thc word
can c ,oincd in thcory to -ujcrnatura taith. rathcr, what it conccrn-
i- whcthcr, and in what manncr, thc jhio-ojhizin ot -omconc who
root- hi- thinkin in Chri-tian rcaity can ccomc a truy Chri-tian
jhio-ojhizin
lt wa- Iichtc who -aid, Thc kind ot jhio-ojhy a man choo-c-
dcjcnd- on thc kind ot man hc i- which i- not -o hajjy a -ayin
ccau-c it i- not a- it onc -imjy choo-c- a jhio-ojhy' Lvcn -o, thc
joint i- ccar and ajjrojriatc Ior cvcn in thc rcam ot thc natura
-cicncc-, it i- not thc ca-c that onc -imjy nccd- to ajjy hi- rain
with morc or c-- cncry in ordcr to arrivc at a ccrtain truth. and
thi- i- truc aovc a, it thc truth in quc-tion conccrn- thc mcanin
ot thc univcr-c and itc it-ct. and thcn, it i- not cnouh mcrcy to c
riht you a-o havc to havc ccrtain quaitic- a- a human cin
and a- a jcr-on `ow Chri-tianity i- a rcaity that wi torm and
mod thc jcr-on thc morc comjctcy in a hi- aiitic-, thc morc hc
ojcn- him-ct uj to it Lut thi- i- not thc timc, nor i- it my jrc-cnt
ta-k, to -jcak in any morc dctai aout -uch mattcr- \hat l havc
-aid may c cnouh to -ucc, to indicatc thc cxi-tcntia -tructurc ot
Chri-tian jhio-ojhy
St Thoma-
12
cmjoy- a di-tinction, which woud -ccm to c a
vcry modcrn onc, ctwccn two way- ot knowin ctwccn jurcy thc-
orctica knowin (per cognitionem), on thc onc hand, and knowin
on thc a-i- ot an c--cntia rcatcd-nc-- (per connaturalitatem), on
thc othcr ln thc r-t way, onc know- -omcthin that doc- not con
to onc. in thc -ccond way, onc know- what i- jccuiar to onc-ct ln
12
Summa theologiae I, Q. 1, 6; II-II, Q. 45, a. 2.
147
thc r-t way, a morai-t or cthica jhio-ojhcr can ,udc what i- ood
without him-ct nccc--ariy cin a ood human cin. in thc -ccond
way, per connaturalitatem, thc ood man know- what i- ood on
thc a-i- ot hi- immcdiatc -harin and jartakin ot it, on thc a-i-
ot an inncr corrc-jondcncc, thank- to thc uncrrin -cn-c ot -omconc
who ovc- (tor ovc i- that whcrcy thc torcin ccomc- onc- own,
whcrcy connaturalitas comc- into cin, a- Thoma- a-o -ay-')
13
And that jcr-on may ,udc ot divinc thin- on thc a-i- ot an c--
-cntia rcatcd-nc--, a- it hc wcrc ,udin what i- jcr-onay hi- own.
who, accordin to Liony-iu- thc Arcojaitc, i- not ony learning
thc divinc, ut suering it a- wc
14
ln thi- way, thcn, that jcr-on wi rcaizc in hi- jhio-ojhizin thc
comjctc torm ot Chri-tian jhio-ojhy, who not ony carn- and
know- what i- Chri-tian, tor whom it i- not mcrcy a doctrinc,
to which hc can coordinatc hi- concu-ion- in -omc jurcy conccj-
tua union, -omc thcorctica unity or harmony. rathcr, thc Chri-tian
jhio-ojhcr i- onc who aow- thc Chri-tian taith to c rca in him-
-ct. on thc a-i- ot thi- c--cntia rcatcd-nc--, thcn, and not mcrcy
knowin and carnin, ut -ucrin and cxjcricncin rcaity, wi
hc win Chri-tian truth tor hi- own and o on to jhio-ojhizc aout
thc natura jrincijc- ot thc word- rcaity and thc mcanin ot hu-
man itc
13
Summa theologiae II-II, Q. 45, a. 2.
14
De divinis nominibus 2,4. (Quoted by Thomas, ibid.).
148
Part III
Appendix
149
Appendix
A Retrospective of Reviews from the First English
Edition
Times Literary Supplement
15
The philosophy taught in universities was never perhaps more remote from the experi-
ences and preoccupations of ordinary life than it is in England to-day. In The Philosophical
Predicament, Professor Winston Barnes, for example, has shown that English philosophy
is not unconscious of being at odds with itself. But there is as well the world of men and
women. Notwithstanding the recent abatement of extreme poverty and the recent multipli-
cation of means of popular entertainment, the general mood, whether in town or country,
cannot be called happy. Notwithstanding a supercial cheeriness, a generous give and take,
there is restlessness and fret, and they seem to betoken an underlying emptiness which bor-
ders on despair. But that this has anything to do with philosophy, or with the teaching
of philosophy, is a suggestion which to many ears will sound preposterous. That, too, the
trouble is primarily one of education may be regarded as paradoxical at a time when schools
are lavishly equipped and the road to the highest education is without obstruction to any.
In an era of ve-day weeks, paid holidays for everybody, and the intensive organization of
leisure, few will conceal incredulity on being told that the twentieth century has forgotten
what leisure really is.
Accordingly, whoever picks up unwarned a little book just published is likely to have a
shock. The book is the rst work to be oered in translation of Dr. Josef Pieper, who has
been making his mark as a philosopher in Germany since the war and who teaches in the
University of Westphalia. It consists of two essays which are complementary, and of which
the rst thing to be said is that their joint argument lies athwart the current of contemporary
habit and purposes and appears as a challenge to certain assumptions by which we allow
perhaps too easily the course of our daily lives to be steered. The second thing to be
said is that they are written with a winning simplicity and clarity which Mr. Dru has ably
reproduced, so that, by the unprejudiced at least, they will not be denied a hearing.
What will be an obstacle to some, an incitement to others, should also be mentioned
without delay. The theme of each of the two essays is announced in an epigraph. Over the
rst are the striking words of the Psalmist: Be still and know that I am God. Over the
second the quotation is from Aquinas: The reason why the philosopher may be likened to
the poet is this: both are concerned with the marvellous. The import of the two epigraphs
will be considered later. The immediate point is that their sources are not fortuitous. West-
phalia is a predominantly Catholic province, and Dr. Pieper is a religious. He belongs, that
is, to a species which ourishes on the Continent in greater number apparently than in this
15
Be Still and Know (February 1, 1952), p. 85. Copyright c 1952 by the Times Literary Supplement.
Used with permission.
151
country. But its rarity among us cannot be due to want of encouragement, for we welcome
warmly the work of such religious philosophers as comes to us from abroad. Apart from the
already well known Jacques Maritain, Etienne Gilson, Gabriel Marcel, for example we
have lately come to know of Simone Weil and Gustave Thibon. Each has received attention
in these columns, and the posthumous writings of Simone Weil have begun to appear in
translation, while the rst book of Gustave Thibon to be issued in English here another
came out in America six years ago is now in the press. All those religious philosophers,
however, belong to France. It was time to hear of one out of Germany, and especially of one
who promises to arouse at least an equal interest.
Nor need the vigour and extent of that interest surprise the native academic philosopher
absorbed in his linguistic exercises and the pursuit of category-mistakes. The immediate
appeal of the religious philosopher oers no puzzle. It is attributed to the obligation imposed
on him of keeping philosophy in juxtaposition to ordinary life. His readers may nd that
they are confronted with abstract thought, but they can be sure that they will be shown
its bearing on their own problems and aspirations. Moreover, his writings may be expected
to have not only appeal but substance also; for he embarks upon his inquiries already fully
equipped. That is an advantage in the philosopher which is not always appreciated. Profes-
sor Michael Oakeshott, in his brilliant introduction to the Leviathan, repeatedly emphasizes
how Thomas Hobbes did not formulate a political philosophy till he had elaborated a com-
plete metaphysic; and possibly we have there the reason why Hobbes is so dicult to refute.
The philosopher who is a Catholic and who, like Gustave Thibon, writes of political matters
and on moral questions has the same implicit support for his statements. His metaphysics
can, like the metaphysics of Hobbes, be personal, even though, unlike Hobbes, he has had to
make them follow an age-old pattern; in any event, the metaphysics will be there. Simone
Weil during her short life remained only on the brink of the Church, but in her writings,
too, it is the depth and majesty of her religious themes which invest the expressions of her
political insight with both cogency and poignancy.
Admittedly the philosophy of a religious philosopher can seem old-fashioned. Yet not
only is that not necessarily a defect but also it would be foolish to imagine that the philos-
ophy thereby somehow loses status or is any the less real philosophy. Dr. Pieper does not
compose vast, massive volumes. His normal literary form is the essay that can be read at
a sitting. On the present occasion eight of his booklets in German have been submitted for
notice, and only one exceeds 120 pages. No doubt in some the theological element may be
felt to preponderate. In Wahrheit der Dinge he propounds an ontological theory of truth to
which, although it is grounded in the teaching of the medieval Schoolmen, a philosopher who
is not also a Christian may refuse intelligibility. In

Uber das Ende der Zeit he is, as the title
indicates, being eschatological, and if the views he develops in it seem more sound to some
than those contained in a much-trumpeted little book published a year ago, In the End,
God... , by the chaplain of Wells Theological College, the Rev. John A. T. Robinson, it may
well be owing to qualities as a theologian which rival, if they do not surpass, his qualities as
a philosopher. Let so much, and more, be freely admitted. It remains that with the religious
philosopher who is a Christian we can be condent that his theology and his philosophy are
distinct. For this there is a very good reason. It is in the rst place, as Etienne Gilson has
shown in a book unfortunately not published in this country, that philosophy in Ancient
Greece was not religious and, in the second place, that this Greek philosophy originally
152
non-religious has been the ocial philosophy of the Christian Church ever since Augustine
brought it into harmony with the Churchs teaching. Thus Dr. Piepers oldest inspiration
is pagan, in

Uber das Schweigen Goethes he deals with a tradition according to which, if
we live and watch in profound stillness, we can win from the world that which it cannot
bring to us with re and sword, and traces that tradition back from one pagan, Goethe,
to another pagan, Pythagoras. Very properly, in order to introduce to English readers the
writings of one so full of challenge, two essays dealing with the fundamental subject of epis-
temology have been chosen for translation (the rst is called in German Musse und Kult and
the second Was heisst philosophieren, and for that subject, too, Dr. Pieper goes back rst
of all to the Grove and the Lyceum.
Be still and know that I am God. The view of the nature of knowledge which Dr.
Pieper attacks is, he says, the view held by Kant. For Kant, knowledge was exclusively
discursive. Mans knowledge is, he taught, realized in the act of comparing, examining,
relating, distinguishing, abstracting, deducing, demonstrating all of which, according to
Dr. Pieper, are forms of active intellectual eort. It is, he declares, that view held by
Kant which has come to be taken as the simple truth, so that no other kind of knowledge
is imaginable. But it is only needful to go back far enough before Kant to nd that a wider
view was then generally entertained. Dr. Pieper says:
The Philosophers of antiquity thought otherwise ... The Greeks Aristotle no less than
Plato as well as the great medieval thinkers, held that not only physical, sensuous
perception, but equally mans spiritual and intellectual knowledge, included an element
of pure, receptive contemplation, or, as Heraclitus says, of listening to the essence of
things.
Among the Schoolmen of the Middle Ages a distinction was drawn between two equal
faculties of the mind, ratio and intellectus. Dr. Pieper continues:
Ratio is the power of discursive, logical thought, of searching and of examination, of
abstraction, of denition and drawing conclusions. Intellectus, on the other hand, is
the name for the understanding in so far as it is the capacity of simples intuitus, of
that simple vision to which truth oers itself like a landscape to the eye.
Upon this distinction Dr. Pieper bases his view of the double nature of knowledge and
his view of the nature of philosophy. Although he reminds his readers of Chestertons quip,
that there is a kind of madness in which a man loses everything except his reason, he betrays
no sign of despising the achievements of discursive thought. But for him it is not in those
achievements that we are to seek philosophy. He regards philosophy as being altogether
in the province of the intellectus. In Mr. Eliots introduction, one of his merits is said to
be that he equates philosophy with wisdom, and this wisdom turns out to be that which
puts us at peace with ourselves and in harmony with the world around us. He shares the
medieval belief that this wisdom is vouchsafed to us in a grasp of the things that exist
and an unveiling of reality. Whereas Kant may be taken as having established the
assumption that knowledge is essentially the result of eort, of work, of activity,
Dr. Pieper would revive the conviction of the Ancients and the Schoolmen, that
153
the highest knowledge is attained without eort, while we are at rest, while we
are passive, in a ash of insight, a stroke of genius, a sudden illumination, in
true contemplation. For knowledge, he says, is like grace: it is a gift.
Be still and know. To receive the gift we need to be at rest. It is not only a discarded
notion of the nature of knowledge that we are bidden to recover; it is also a discarded notion
of the nature of leisure. In Dr. Piepers indictment of the contemporary world, no charge is
meant to be more grave than that it is a world in bondage, a world that has succumbed to
the idolatry of work, of activity for its own sake. He says:
Work is the process of satisfying the common need an expression that is by no
means synonymous with the notion of common good. The common need is an
essential part of the common good; but the notion of common good is far more
comprehensive ... More and more, at the present time, common good and common
need are identied; and (what comes to the same thing) the world of work is becoming
our entire world; it threatens to engulf us completely, and the demands of the world
of work become greater and greater, till at last they make a total claim upon the
whole of human nature.
The charge can hardly be denied, and its accuracy is reected in the degradation of the
notion of leisure. For leisure is now treated as being for the sake of work, as required simply
in order to t the worker to resume his task, and, in addition, so great apparently is the fear
that leisure may turn into idleness and sloth, leisure is now organized, every moment of it
lled with activity, no matter how trivial. In the Middle Ages, on the contrary, the notions
of idleness and sloth were closely associated with the inability to put oneself at leisure, and
for Aristotle and his fellow-countrymen work was for the sake of leisure and not the other
way round, so that an Athenian could say, We are unleisurely so that we may be at leisure.
If, then, a man is to be a philosopher, if he is to undertake the philosophical act, the
indispensable preliminary, according to Dr. Pieper, is that he shall step clean outside the
everyday world in which the notion of work dominates; for it is only if he escapes from the
total claims of that world and makes himself free that he can put o its restlessness and
fret, and enter into the stillness where he may wait to be visited by the intuitions and insights
of philosophical knowledge. Dr. Pieper does not mean that philosophy is only of value if it
is, so to speak, up in the clouds or else is nourished on whimsical fancies issuing from an
oracle in ones own breast. He means, he says, that the philosophical act should be like the
eect of love or death, or like the aesthetic act or the religious act, and convulse and shake a
mans relation to the world around him. To see things as they are is how H. W. B. Joseph,
in his posthumous book on Leibniz, denes the philosophers task, and, oddly enough, the
denition would be likely to win Dr. Piepers approval. He declares that if the philosopher
aims at embracing the whole of reality he does best to set out from the concrete, from the
signicant detail of the tangible, visible world. But also he insists that philosophy must be
objective. We cannot see things as they are unless we stand back from them and unless, too,
we are at peace with them.
That is, of course, impossible so long as a stream of solicitations condemns us to rest-
lessness and fret, and we are under the strain of striving and eort. Leisure does not have to
be lled with activity. There is no danger that it will degenerate into laziness and vacancy
if it is true leisure; for it is then simply inward calm and being silent, silent with the silence
154
that allows things to happen. Echoing his essay,

Uber das Schweigen Goethes, Dr. Pieper
says that only the silent hear and that it is solely in silence that the human soul is able to
respond to the reality of its whole environment. He quotes Newman, and it is apposite
16
;
for his understanding of both the nature of philosophy and the nature of leisure are akin to
Newmans. Like Aristotle he looks upon leisure as the basis of culture, and, like Plato, he
considers that philosophical receptivity is best gained during an education, it being under-
stood that the term education is to be contrasted with the term training, as culture is
to be opposed to instruction. There are accordingly a number of passages in Newmans The
Idea of a University which may be said to anticipate Dr. Piepers thought. For Newman,
education implies an action upon our mental nature, and the formation of a character ... is
something individual and permanent, and is commonly spoken of in connexion with religion
and virtue. The university of which Newman dreamed would have been a place of leisure
in the sense of a place of rest and stillness, where young men could be receptive. Only so
could the liberal knowledge which was Newmans other name for philosophy be acquired.
And Newmans description of philosophy chimes with Dr. Piepers:
I consider, then, that I am chargeable with no paradox, when I speak of a Knowledge
which is its own end, when I call it liberal knowledge, or a gentlemans knowledge,
when I educate for it and make it the scope of a University. And still less am I incur
ring such a charge, when I make this acquisition consist, not in knowledge in a vague
and ordinary sense, but in that Knowledge which I have especially called Philosophy.
Newman says again that some philosophy is desirable, though nothing come of it, as
being of itself a treasure, and a sucient remuneration of years of labour. In short, as
Newman wanted a leisure class that had been made worthy of its leisure, so Dr. Pieper calls
for the revival of a leisure class, provided it is as signed denite responsibilities. Naturally
he does not imagine that the men and women who are now the most restless and who yield
to every distracting call upon their attention would ever be transformed into people who sat
still in contemplation and waited for aeolian visitation. It was Platos opinion that only the
exceptionally gifted man could become a true lover of wisdom, and Dr. Pieper would not
dream of dissent. But he believes that for even no more than a few to revive the quest for
wisdom in silence and patience would be for the ultimate good of the whole community.
But if Dr. Pieper is at one with Newman on education and leisure and on the scope of
philosophy, he goes beyond him in developing the meaning of the second of the epigraphs,
the words of Aquinas, The reason why the philosopher may be likened to the poet is this:
both are concerned with the marvellous. There has long been a restless anxiousness to leave
nothing unexplained, and now in every sphere and to every age explanations are ever forth-
coming glibly. They have one defect: nothing is thereby made intelligible. Explanation turns
out to be a game of synonyms. A problem is merely restated in another form, and all that
happens is that we lose the capacity of wondering, the power to marvel. Dr. Pieper believes
that we should be the better for regaining that capacity and power. The irrational at the
far end of every scientic inquiry has now become familiar, and we should know that little
16
apposite: (adjective ) particularly appropriate: especially well suited to the circumstances [Early
17th century, from Latin appositus, past participle of apponere add to, put near ponere put (see
position)]
155
in the world can be penetrated to the heart. It is more simple and less eort to marvel,
to possess ourselves of that spirit in which Sir Thomas Browne found his own life to be a
continuous miracle and in which Dr. Johnson, after him, was brought to reect that, in
one sense, all life is miraculous. Dr. Pieper declares that when truly at leisure, we may
perceive how mysterious are the workings of the universe.
Why Kant refused to recognize any knowledge that was not discursive, and why there
should be the irrepressible impulse to explain things instead of wondering at them, are ques-
tions which Dr. Pieper does not examine. But the two matters are surely connected with the
rise of modern science, and the fact gives direction to his argument. It was entirely thanks
to philosophy that science, as an independent activity and study won its present-day impor-
tance. One consequence was to make a few scientists pose as philosophers, but another has
been to taint all post-Renaissance philosophy. Science suers less, because, once indepen-
dent, science should forgo all support from philosophy, whereas philosophy did not throw o,
and has not thrown o yet, the unintended thrall of science. If at the Renaissance primary
and secondary qualities were distinguished, it was mainly in order to enable astronomers
and physicists to measure and number the objects of their attention. Once science was on
its own there was no need for philosophers to go on worrying over the distinction. Instead,
however, they allowed it to lead them into an excessive preoccupation with questions of
knowledge and perception, and whenever they oered tentative solutions to those questions
it was invariably in terms that suited science. As Professor Gilbert Ryle remarks in The
Concept of Mind, The great epistemologists, Locke, Hume, and Kant, were in the main ad-
vancing the Grammar of Science, when they thought that they were discussing parts of the
occult life-story of persons acquiring knowledge. That is how Kant, for instance, came to
hold that knowledge was exclusively discursive, and how for Hegel the real could be rational
and the rational real. That is also how academic philosophers today came to concentrate on
matters of language and meaning. Against these views Dr. Pieper is bold enough to contend,
appealing for a return in philosophy to a pre-scientic wisdom and humility. After all, the
great modern philosophers do leave something out. As Johann Georg Hamann, Kants friend
and fellow-citizen, remarked, they were heathen and although they may have recognized the
almighty power, grandeur, holiness, and goodness of God, of the humility of Gods love for
man they knew nothing.
156
The Spectator (London)
17
These two short essays by a contemporary German philosopher go a long way towards a
lucid explanation of the present crisis in civilisation. In criticising our attitude to work, and
particularly to intellectual work, which has become increasingly identied with wage-earning
by intellectual means, he shows that by our constant preoccupation with rewards and with
social utility we have cut away the roots on which our culture rests. These roots grew in the
leisure of the Greek philosophical schools, in the monasteries and the universities; and this
leisure was not identical with idleness but with a freedom from subservience to immediate
and tangible aims. Leisure, therefore, is the prerequisite for any cultural revival, which can
only originate from a leisured and dedicated caste. As Professor Pieper sees it, much of
our most strenuous activity is in fact carefully organised and heavily publicised idleness, for
it is activity to no purpose; even the rewards it gains us bring us none of this vital and
refreshing leisure. His attitude is that of a Thomist more conscious of Christianitys debt
to Plato and Aristotle than of its Hebrew origins, and seemingly unaware of the support
he might gain from his argument from the earliest Hindu caste laws. He has, however,
worked back suciently close to essentials to be able to argue simply and without the use
of philosophical jargon. The rst essay in this little book should be read by anyone and
young people in particular anxious to come to some conclusions about the nature of society.
The New Statesman and Nation
18
Dr. Piepers short book contains the title essay and one other on The Philosophical
Act: the latter is reviewed by Mr. Eliot in his preface, and it is here only necessary to give
a brief indication of its theme. With refreshing clarity and directness, Dr. Pieper opposes
the rationalist tradition of most professional philosophers of the last two hundred years, who
have felt it necessary for the freedom of philosophy to insist on complete independence from
theology. There is no such thing as a philosophy which does not receive its impulse and im-
petus from a prior and uncritically accepted interpretation of the world as a whole, says Dr.
Pieper. It is in the eld of theology, and quite independently of experience and previously
to it, that the object of mans desire wisdom as possessed by God becomes visible, and
it is this aim which provides the impulse and guides the course of philosophical enquiry in
its loving search as it moves through the eld of experience. The argument leading to this
statement is lucid and humane; it fullls the requirement which, Mr. Eliot says, common
sense demands that philosophy must deal with insight and wisdom; and it would lead us
forward to positive interpretations of personal and social action. If we ask whether it is ac-
ceptable we can rst call to mind the diculty which scientists and scientic philosophers
17
J.M.C., review, vol. 188 (May 30, 1952), p. 726. Copyright c 1952 by The Spectator. Used with
permission.
18
Guy Hunter, The Sabbath Made for Man, vol. 43 (April 5, 1952), p.410. Copyright c New Statesman,
1998. Used with permission.
157
are having with rst principles and the insistence of, for example, Professor Polanyi on the
faith which must underlie science; but we can also remember that a belief in the given-ness
of rst knowledge was almost universally held by the philosophers of antiquity, by poets and
prophets, by Jung today.
The essay on leisure is in some ways more immediately stimulating, though of less fun-
damental importance. Protestant culture in particular seems today to have a morality (of
a sort) almost wholly detached from theology, and a theology which stops short, in general
practice, with a kind of organisational chart of the Trinity, or a historical morality play
in which history and myth are inextricably confused. What it lacks, and what Catholics
occasionally get from an Encyclical, is a searching analysis of social function in terms of
religious philosophy. This is just what Dr. Pieper has done for the concept of leisure. Per-
haps his most striking point is that leisure exists on a dierent plane from the world of
work (utility) it is a state and activity of the soul which is concerned with the divine,
and this gives meaning to the words cult, culture, celebration, feast. The success
of Dr. Piepers analysis is proved in the new illumination he gives to concepts of work and
the worker state, wages, the proletariat; it explains with precision how the CommunistCom-
munist slogan slogan From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs
becomes in Stalins mouth (1933): It is not correct that the worker should be rewarded
according to his needs, and in the 1936 Constitution ... to each according to his work;
while the Catholic statement is The primary right of the worker is to a wage which will
enable him to support a family. Just as the conception of a temple a piece of land set
aside to God which is not used for utilitarian purposes is foreign to the factory-state, so
the idea of a piece of time set aside neither for work nor for recovery in order to work, but
for another purpose in its own right, is foreign to utilitarian planning. Ruskin, seeing wealth
and value in that which avails for life, would have raised a cheer for this argument which
provides the theological basis for what he saw intuitively. At the present moment, when the
air is thick with sociological studies of leisure and educational pronouncements on its use, it
is of extreme value to have some tight and principled analysis. I believe that I shall be only
one of many for whom Dr. Pieper has done that invaluable service the rear rangement of
whole groups of thought both into a wider consistency and on deeper support.
158
New York Times Book Review
19
Josef Pieper, a German Catholic philosopher, is unknown to the American layman, and
the career of his small but profound book in this country can teach us something about our
capacity to receive criticism from a point of view to which most of us are hostile. Our failure
to reach a thorough understanding of the rapid totalitarian drift of Western culture, says
Pieper, is the result of an earlier failure of thought which occurred when philosophy was
completely divorced (at the time of Kant) from theology. This looks at rst like a compar-
atively useless academic distinction, but its consequences in Piepers profound insight are
impressive and even formidable.
The emancipation of philosophy left it vulnerable to the modern mystique of work,
which has eliminated from philosophy the ancient pursuit of wisdom based upon a just notion
of leisure. The result is that philosophy has become either the errand boy of the natural
sciences or the playboy of linguistic shell-games whose name at present is logical positivism.
On this point T. S. Eliot in his introduction observes: For as surrealism seemed to
provide a method of producing works of art without imagination, so logical positivism seems
to provide a method of philosophizing without insight and wisdom. The force of this obser-
vation may well be lost on us, who as a people have not had a vigorous theology since the
eighteenth century. Largely because of this lack we take for granted a long chain of inevitable
separations not only of theology from philosophy, but of church from state, religion from
education, work from play, morality from business, art from society, leisure from work, love
from sex, the individual from the community.
The dierence between work and leisure which we take for granted today follows the
pre-supposition that leisure is merely compensatory an empty compulsive escape from de-
humanizing labor. This is precisely the theme of Josef Piepers book. His ultimate purpose is
to restore the identity of leisure and the contemplative life which has a tradition, even older
than Christianity, in Plato and Aristotle. Although contemplative leisure is listening and
receptive, it is not passive and slothful. It is rather a quality that the social man, when his
being is properly ordered toward a certain end, may achieve in his ordinary activity, which
may be quite as strenuous as the compulsive escape.
From this point of view the end of man is not labor, for the end of labor must be the end
of man himself. This end cannot be the loving search for any kind of wisdom, but rather
the wisdom which is possessed by God. We must look sharply at the word search. It
distinguishes philosophy, whose search is never done, from Christian theology, or the order-
ing of revelation, which its nal but which we never fully understand.
We never understand it because ratio, or pure reason, is only operative and empty,
and without wisdom. And this kind of reason, the servile work of the mind has suppressed
the liberal and receptive leisure of intellectus, the spiritual activity of the free man. Thus,
though philosophy and theology are distinct modes of the mind, philosophy has no end with-
out theology: it doesnt know where it is going.
Pieper then proceeds to a comprehensive indictment of a decaying civilization. The mod-
19
Allen Tate, In Search of the Wisdom Possessed by God (February 24, 1952), p. 12. Copyright c
1998 by the New York Times Company. Reprinted by Permission.
159
ern reduction of all human action, including philosophy, to servile labor is daily creating a
proletarian society from top to bottom, from executive to machine tender. This society uses
men for ends that defy denition beyond the latest project or plan, economic, social or
political. Piepers message for us is plain. The American democracy is not blissfully immune
to the Western blight; we have in fact done our part in generating the totalitarian epidemic.
The idolatry of the machine, the worship of mindless knowhow, the infantile cult of youth
and the common man all this points to our peculiar leader ship in the drift toward the
slave society. Leisure the Basis of Culture may help to show us that we had not known
all this as well as we had supposed.
Commonweal
20
The popular notion of leisure as opportunity for escape leaves many deeply puzzled
by the words of the psalmist: Have leisure and know that I am God. In order to under-
stand the words we must recover a loftier, more classical concept of leisure as an armative
condition (the very opposite of idleness) by which man transcends the world of work and,
having transcended it, is enabled to contemplate those things which lie beyond it himself,
the universe, and God.
This concept of leisure is one of the foundations of Western culture, more, one of the
indispensable conditions without which man is something less than man a mere worker, a
functionary, a thing. It is the subject of a brilliant examination in two essays by the German
philosopher Josef Pieper, now published under the title Leisure, the Basis of Culture.
The rst and title essay is a profound investigation, historically and sociologically, into
the nature of leisure itself. The second essay, The Philosophical Act, studies philosophy
as leisures highest good, the human act par excellence. This essay is a logical extension of
the rst because, as Dr. Pieper observes, philosophy, which is the eternal search for wisdom,
presupposes silence, a contemplative attention to things, in which man begins to see how
worthy of reverence they really are.
The basis for both essays is the authors thesis: Culture depends for its very foundation
on leisure, and leisure, in its turn, is not possible unless it has a durable and living link
with the cultus, with divine worship. A quotation from Plato, which introduces the essays,
remarkably illustrates the antique origins and classical importance of this thesis:
But the gods, taking pity on mankind, born to work, laid down the succession of
recurring Feasts to restore them from their fatigues ... so that nourishing themselves
in festive companionship with the gods, they should again stand upright and erect.
The nature of leisure is thus basically united to contemplation in the great tradition of
[W]estern culture, and both are dependent on a real awareness of the transcendent and the
20
William P. Clancy, review, vol. 56 (April 11, 1952), p. 18. Commonweal Foundation, reprinted with
permission.
160
Divine. Here lies the secret of freedom.
The diculty is that modern civilization has placed the idea of leisure in double jeop-
ardy: the triumph of a purely utilitarian social idealism has left little room and less regard
for a concept which produces nothing immediate and concrete toward progress; the very
idea of a leisure class has fallen into disrepute as an aristocratic anachronism, something
incompatible with egalitarianism. And the growing externalization of life, the almost uni-
versal phenomenon of an activist mass-culture, has emptied the virtue of contemplation of
any meaning for the majority of modern men, and left them dismally unprepared to cope
with leisure in the few moments when they may still have an opportunity for it.
Boredom and ennui
21
, a frantic search for diversion, are the common reactions to an
hour, or a day, of quiet. The modern Cleopatra in Eliots Waste Land desperately asking
What shall I do now? What shall I do? ... What shall we do tomorrow? What shall we
ever do? undoubtedly gives voice to one of contemporary mans most pathetic problems.
Manufacturers of television sets and producers of endless thirdrate movies have made their
fortunes providing an answer, an answer itself symptomatic of the problem.
It does not seem far-fetched to speculate that future historians may mark down this
disappearance of any popular regard for or understanding of the nature of leisure, and, at
the same time, the near-hysterical search for external diversion, as one of the major culture
crises of modern civilization. And there can be little doubt that it followed upon the victory
of the bourgeois spirit (with all that this implies) over the older Hellenistic-Judeo-Christian
tradition of [W]estern culture. For leisure, and its highest goal, contemplation, lie at the
heart of this tradition, but they are eternal strangers to bourgeois value. In his memorable
essay, The Bourgeois Mind, Nicholas Berdyaev has dened the state of being bourgeois as
a state distinguished by its particular soullessness, its constitutional inability to compre-
hend the heroic and the transcendent. Consequently, the genuine bourgeois, to the extent
that he is a bourgeois, is at heart the enemy of Christ. Berdyaev quotes Leon Bloys bitter
aside of bourgeois religiosity: The Lord Jesus is very decorative in shop windows.
When the bourgeois is a social reformer, when he occupies himself with building a bet-
ter world, he reduces man to a functionary, a thing, and robs him of that unique dignity
and freedom which consist in his transcending the realm of things. The totality of reality
is thus something to be used rather than something to be reverenced, and concepts such as
leisure and contemplation lose all meaning, become, indeed, a scandal. Both God and man
are exiles from a bourgeois world.
So complete has been the triumph of the bourgeois spirit in the modern world that,
in Christopher Dawsons words, we are all more or less bourgeois, and our civilization is
bourgeois from top to bottom. To look for the bourgeois, then, in one economic group or
in some particular ideological faction is to mistake the nature of the bourgeois spirit, which
is a universal one. (It is ironic that the bourgeois is the favorite whipping boy of Marxist
propaganda, but, once the true nature of the bourgeois spirit is understood, Marxism must
appear as its terrible, but nal and logical reductio ad absurdum.) The bourgeois spirit is ev-
erywhere, in the schools, in the press, in the legislatures, in the churches. It is found among
21
ennui: [noun] 1. Etymology: French, from Old French enui annoyance, from enuier to vex, from
Late Latin inodiare to make loathsome (Date: 1732); 2. a feeling of weariness and dissatisfaction
boredom.
161
rich and poor, among capitalistscapitalism!capitalists and Communists, among Catholics
and Protestants and Jews.
This triumph of the bourgeois spirit has witnessed the almost universal acceptance of the
bourgeois virtues the virtues of the practical and immediately useful, of work for works
own sake, of the rational. We need only consult our own experience to realize the extent
of this triumph in our world and the extreme diculty of rejecting its implications.
We live in a world which has come under the control of a mystique of work, and we
are all, more or less, wedded to the practical. A good education is one which prepares one
for a good job, and a good job is one which pay lots of money. A successful man is
one who has accumulated a signicant amount of the worlds goods, and used them in a
practical way.
Josef Pieper denes the proletarian as the man who is fettered to the process of work.
Every man whose life is completely lled by his work, he tells us, is a proletarian because
his life has shrunk inwardly, and contracted, with the result that he can no longer act sig-
nicantly outside his work, and perhaps can no longer even conceive of such a thing.
Thus dened, the great majority of modern men are proletarians; the mystique of work
controls more and more of life. Leisure itself, in this world, becomes a mere necessary stop
between rounds of work and its value is seen as preparing us to work more eciently on the
morrow
22
. It is at once an escape from work and a prelude to more work. Civilization thus
progresses toward the level of the bee-hive.
It is necessary for the perfection of human society, Aquinas wrote, that there should
be men who devote their lives to contemplation. Bourgeois civilization, in failing to un-
derstand and value the true meaning and lofty dignity of leisure, has lost the concept of
contemplation, and, in so doing, has lost the concept of man. For it is in leisure, genuinely
understood, that man rises above the level of a thing to be used and enters the realm where
he can be at home with the potentialities of his own nature, where, with no concern for
doing, no ties to the immediate, the particular, and the practical, he can attend to the love
of wisdom, can begin leading a truly human life. Thus, transcending the world of work, man
ceases to be a proletarian. He begins to function as man.
There is one institution in the world, Pieper reminds us, which forbids useful activity
and servile work on particular days, and in this way prepares, as it were, a sphere for a non-
proletarian existence. The Church, through her liturgy and cycles of feasts, invites man to
that leisure and contemplation where he can again stand upright and erect. It provides
one of the last remaining refuges from a workaday bourgeois world.
Leisure the Basis of Culture is a profound and rich book. It should remind us that if
we become so engaged in the activities connected with saving Western civilization that,
in the process, we lose what capacity for leisure is left us, then we can never save Western
civilization at all, but only that dreary counterfeit, the world of the bourgeois functionary.
We will have prepared the way for the nal and universal reign of the sub-human.
22
morrow (noun) 1. The following day: resolved to set out on the morrow. 2. The time immediately
subsequent to a particular event. 3. Archaic The morning. [Middle English morwe, morow, variant of
morwen, from Old English morgen, morning]
162
The Nation
23
The two essays contained in this small volume are the rst works of the German philoso-
pher Josef Pieper to be published in English. Professor Pieper is a Catholic, and his largest
purpose is to show that divine worship is the foundation of culture and that genuine philos-
ophy is inseparable from theology.
The book leaves the reader both stimulated and unsatised, for while the author is often
an excellent critic when pointing out the cultural failures of modern society in the West, he
is less happy in his ideas about the dependence of culture and philosophy upon religion and
theology at least to a reader who does not share his religious convictions.
In the rst essay, which gives the book its title, Pieper discusses the relation between
leisure and work, saying, quite rightly, that the doctrine of work of practical industry both
physical and intellectual has assumed an importance out of proportion to its place in life.
Western culture is endangered by this emphasis upon the immediately useful to the detri-
ment of the good the good being those values dealt with by disciplines having no proper
use in economic gain or in propaganda. Pieper claries this distinction between the useful
and the good by contrasting wage and honorarium, servile arts and liberal arts. He
points to the Soviet Union as the worst example of the modern tendency to judge everything
by its immediate utilitarian value.
But the seeds of this tyranny of the useful, he argues, are found in all Western countries,
and the emphasis upon work, or the practical, is found not only in physical production but
also in intellectual matters. To discuss the emphasis on the practical in matters of the mind,
the author takes two terms from the scholastic theory of knowledge, maintaining that ratio
the power of logical thought has been stressed in modern philosophy to the detriment
of intellectus, which is that simple vision to which truth oers itself like a landscape to
the eyes. To think by ratio is work, and hard work at that, but it is the unique quality of
intellectus that it is eortless; thus in all true knowledge there is a combination of eort and
ease, of work and vision.
Leisure is impossible when the doctrine of work becomes dominant over passive recep-
tiveness and the wonder that things exist, the wonder which is the source of all philosophy.
And leisure is not simply spare time for pleasure; it is the opposite of acedia in the old sense
of fretfulness, of disharmony in the soul. The author quotes Baudelaire to illustrate this.
One must work, if not from taste then at least from despair. For, to reduce everything to
a single truth: work is less boring than pleasure. (But Baudelaire was more complicated
than this, for he also said that one of the most terrible things he could imagine was to be a
useful person. He meant this precisely in the sense discussed in this book.)
Leisure, then, is an attitude of mind and a condition of the soul. It is a form
of silence in which the souls capacity to answer to the reality of the world is left undi-
minished. And this leisure, insists Pieper, has its origin in celebration, which is the point
at which the qualities leisure eortlessness, calm, and relaxation fuse and become one.
But if celebration is the cause of leisure, then leisure can only be made possible ... upon
23
Carl Houde, The Useful and the Good, vol. 175 (October 18, 1952), p.362. Reprinted with permission
from the October 18, 1952, issue of The Nation magazine.
163
the same basis as the celebration of a feast: and that formation is divine worship.
Chicago Tribune
24
Ever feel that you were being swallowed up by your job or activities? Ever wonder if you
were being selsh or lazy in resisting or resenting being swallowed up? A German professor
has provided a powerful argument that it is a persons duty to self and others not to be
swallowed.
Most readers will expect little excitement from an academic philosopher, and they have
reason. Pieper is exceptional. He has subjects involved in everyones life: he has theses that
are so counter to the prevailing trends as to be sensational, and he has a style (and/or his
translator has a style) that is memorably clear and direct.
The extent and quality of leisure and philososing in a mans life are of tremendous
importance not only to the man but also to society. How tremendously important the
readers of Pieper are in the best position to know.
His theses are, in part, that leisure is prerequisite to culture and full humanity, that won-
der (the beginning of philosofy) and joy go together, and that neither leisure nor philosofy
can be fully realized in the absence of religious experience. These propositions are not widely
held. The man who urges them with persuasiveness and power is challenging the way we
live now at basic points.
Pieper champions an old and honorable philosocal tradition though one now largely in
eclipse. It is that the best things in life are freely given, not won with eort. Contem-
plation, it is alleged, can yield a more precious knowledge than can rigorous
reasoning.
The gift of self-reliance and independence, say Pieper, has always been regarded as
the decisive element in personality in the philosocal tradition of Europe. This gift is char-
acteristically a fruit of the philosocal act, performed at leisure, by a worshipful man in a
meaningful religious context, says Pieper. It is a gift repudiated in the workers utopias in
which humanity is sacriced to social functions. And it is a gift forfeited in the West when
we justify bits of leisure for the sake of greater on-the-job output, when we spend our free
time in idleness and distractions instead of in genuinely contemplative leisure.
These essays, in their authors own words, were not designed to give advice and draw
up a line of action; they were meant to make men think. They attain their objective. They
make their readers think about fundamental, personal issues, and to highly rewarding eect.
24
A. C. Ames, Helpful Book on Leisure Its Use, Value (April 13, 1952), p. 6. Copyright c 1952 by
the Chicago Tribune. Used with permission.
164
San Francisco Chronicle
25
Pieper, a German philosopher, is a Catholic grounded on Plato, Aristotle and the Scholas-
tics. This is his rst book to be translated into English. His concept of leisure is not idleness
but freedom and detachment of the human spirit which enables a man to contemplate and
be at peace in those worlds of ideals from which he draws strength and nourishes his soul.
The book is made up of two essays, the one used as title and one called The Philosophical
Act. In the introduction T. S. Eliot claims for Pieper that he restores insight and wisdom
to philosophy.
25
J.V., review (March 16, 1952), p. 22. Copyright c 1952 by the San Francisco Chronicle. Used with
permission.
165
166
Index
2o
The passage from Plato, quoted at the beginning of the book, was taken from The
Laws (653c-d). The line from the Psalm (45,11) was taken from the Septuagint Greek
version, which uses the aorist imperative form of the verb scholazein: scholasate (be at
leisure). Joseph Bernhart said that during the Middle Ages, this sentence acquired the
status of an axiom of mystical knowledge-doctrine (Die philosophische Mystik des Mittelal-
ters [M unchen, 1922], p. 83).
Academic, 23-25, 38-39, 56, 75, 125
Academic freedom, 75
Acedia. See Idleness.
Angel, 12, 120
Animal, 82-85, 87, 89, 91, 93, 107
Antiquity, 56, 115
Antisthenes, 16
Anxiety, 36, 125
Apollinaris, 108
Apollodoros, 72-73
Aquinas, Thomas, 19-20, 26, 28-29, 34, 59,
62, 92, 107, 114, 127-28
Aristotle, 3-6, 21, 36, 49, 86-87, 102, 107,
112, 114-15, 118-119
Arius, 108
Augustine, 88, 131
Bacon, Francis, 78
Banausic, 40
Baudelaire, Charles Pierre, 54
Body, 8, 21, 35, 66, 9293, 108, 113, 125
Boredom, 54
Break from work, 53
Carlyle, Thomas, 16, 55
Christ, 5, 18-20, 2829, 35, 40, 46, 52, 54,
58-60, 79, 92, 108, 124, 127-134
Christian philosophy, 124-30, 132-34
Common good, 25, 42, 64, 76
Common utility, 20, 64-65, 74
Comprehension, 112
Contemplation, 25-26, 29, 32-34, 64, 77
Contemplative life, 5
Death, 68-69, 124
Deproletarization, 41
Descartes, R., 78
Despair, 28, 30, 54, 58, 74, 130
Dilthey, W, 110
Doubt, 37, 59, 104-5, 111, 127
Empedocles, 119
Environment, 60, 68, 82, 84, 87
Eros, 122
Existentialism, 125
Festival, 2, 33-34, 5054, 57, 59
Fichte, J. C., 132
Field of relations, 81-82, 84-86, 88, 93
Freedom, 22, 36-37, 40, 74-75, 77-79, 86
Functionary, 2125, 35, 37, 43
Gehlen, A., 87
Gentleman, 25, 35, 74
Gift, 20, 35, 53, 119-20, 123
Goethe, J. W., 25, 57, 102, 113
Grace, 19
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 104, 113
Heidegger, M., 67, 125
26
Pagination in this PDF document does not correspond with the book pagination, this Index was included
here just for conformity. Please see the PDF document Index at the very end.
167
Heraclitus, 11, 32
Hercules, 16
H olderlin, F., 33, 129
Homer, 17, 111, 119
Honorarium, 45-46
Hope, 54, 57-60, 63, 71, 73, 92, 107-11, 113,
116, 122
Humor, 72
Idleness, 27-30, 32-33, 54
Intellect, 3, 8-15, 19-22, 24-26, 29, 34, 39, 46,
55, 65, 85, 87-88, 91-92, 101
Intellection, 85, 87-88
Intellectual vision, 9, 12-13, 15
Intellectual work, 8-9, 13-15, 19-22, 2426, 39
Intellectual worker, 8, 20-22, 2426, 39
Inwardness, 82, 90
Joy, 12, 33, 107
J unger, E., 6, 9, 19, 24, 31
Kant, I., 10, 14-17, 132
Kerenyi, K., 33
Kierkegaard, S., 28
Kr uger, G., 128
Kult, 51
Leibniz, G. W., 67
Liberal arts, 21-22, 24-25, 45, 47, 57, 74
Love, 17-18, 33, 60, 68-69, 77, 111, 113, 122
Magic, 70
Marx, K., 47, 78
Mystery, 32, 105, 127-28
Myth, 57, 117, 128
Newman, J. H., 22-23, 25, 35, 74-75
Otto, W. F., 123
Parmenides, 63
Pascal, B., 95, 107
Person, 6-7, 12-13, 25, 31, 33, 43, 45, 48, 70,
77, 88, 90, 96, 101-2, 106, 109-10, 125, 127,
131, 133-34
Philosophical education, 22, 56
Philosophy, 8, 10-11, 13, 15-16, 22-24, 46, 63,
65-66, 68-72, 74-79, 87-89, 99-102, 104, 106-7,
109-34
Philosophy of progress, 130
Plants, 85, 89
Plato, 2, 10-11, 16, 40, 56-58, 68, 70-73, 97,
99-100, 102, 109, 111-12, 114, 118-24, 128
Play, 13, 18, 33, 68, 83, 97, 108
Poetry, 17, 46, 67-68, 70, 76
Prayer, 68, 70
Professional training, 24
Progress, 76, 78, 118, 130
Proletariat, 39, 41, 43
Proudhon, P. J., 4748
Ratio, 1114, 16, 27, 31, 34-35, 38, 44, 47, 50,
53-55, 57-60, 68, 70, 81, 95, 105, 115, 118,
124, 129-30
Refreshment, 2, 34-35
Rest from labor, 52
Sacrament, 59-60
Sacrice, 19, 53, 56, 59
Sartre, J.-P., 46, 125
Scheeben, M. J., 127
Scheler, M., 29
Schiller, F., 15
School, 4, 38, 56
Science, 19, 23-25, 70, 75-76, 96-97, 110, 113,
116, 133
Servile arts, 21-22, 44-45, 47, 74, 76
Servile work, 5
Sisyphus, 55
Sleep, 32,35
Socrates, 16, 70, 72, 99-100, 104, 109, 111,
119
Sombart, W., 28-29
Soret, Fr., 25
Specialist, 21, 41
Suering, 134
Surroundings, 85, 87, 89, 93, 101, 104
Temple, 52-53
Thales, 71, 119
168
Theology, 114, 12327, 129, 131
Theoria, 77, 79, 102
Theory, 132
Tradition, 79, 85-86, 90, 92, 114, 117-23, 125,
129
Truth of things, 88-89
Uexk ull, J. V., 83-84, 87
University, 38, 74-75
Usener, H., 56
Virtue, 12, 17-18, 53, 78, 93
Wages, 44-46
Weber, M., 4
Weiss, K., 31-32, 68
Windelband, W., 104, 131
Withdrawal, 60
Wonder, 10, 62, 72, 78, 100-110, 127
Work, 4-9, 16-17, 19-29, 35-37, 39-48, 52-56,
58, 60, 64-71, 74-75, 79-80, 94, 98, 103, 115,
123, 131
Worker, 6-8, 14, 16, 19-22, 24-28, 31, 37, 39-
40, 45-47, 53
Working world, 8, 24, 35-36, 53, 60, 65-66,
68, 70-71, 74-75, 80, 98, 103
World of work, 4, 21, 24, 36-37, 39, 44, 5356,
64-66, 71, 79-80
Worship, 35, 50-51, 53-55, 57-60
169
$12.00
One of the most important philosophy titles ... published in the twentieth century,
Josef Piepers Leisure, the Basis of Culture is more signicant, even more crucial, today
than it was when it rst appeared fty years ago. This special edition, commemorating the
50th anniversay of the works rst appearance in Germany, has a new introduction by the
eminent British philosopher, Roger Scruton, and a new translation by Gerald Malsbary, and
contains a retrospective of past reviews from the rst English edition in 1952.
Leisure is an attitude of mind and a condition of the soul that fosters a ca-
pacity to perceive the reality of the world. With a series of philosophic, religious, and
historical examples, Pieper shows that the Greeks understood and valued leisure, as did the
medieval Europeans. He points out that religion can be born only in leisure a leisure that
allows time for the contemplation of the nature of God. Leisure has been, and always will
be, the rst foundation of any culture.
Further, he maintains that our bourgeois world of total labor has vanquished leisure,
and issues a startling warning: Unless we regain the art of silence and insight, the ability for
nonactivity, unless we substitute true leisure for our hectic amusements, we will destroy our
culture and ourselves.
These astonishing essays contradict all our pragmatic and puritanical conceptions about
labor and leisure; Josef Pieper demolishes the twentieth-century cult of work as he predicts
its destructive consequences.
Piepers message for us is plain ... The idolatry of the machine, the worship of mind-
less knowhow, the infantile cult of youth and the common mind all this points to our
peculiar leadership in the drift toward the slave society ... Piepers profound insights
are impressive and even formidable. New York Times Book Review
Be still and know. To receive the gift we need to be at rest. It is not only a discarded
notion of the nature of knowledge that we are bidden recover; it is also a discarded
notion of the nature of leisure. In Dr. Piepers indictment of the contemporary world,
no charge is meant to be more grave than that it is a world in bondage, a world that
has succumbed to the idolatry of work, of activity for its own sake. Times Literary
Supplement
Dr. Pieper has done [an] invaluable service the rearrangement of whole groups of
thought both into a wider consistency and on a deeper support. New Statesman
and Nation
[Piper] has subjects involved in everyones life; he has theses that are so counter to
the prevailing trends as to be sensational; and he has a style that is memorably clear
and direct. Chicago Tribune
Cover photo of the Rotunda of the National Gallery of Art by William Schleisner, Gottscho
Schleisner Collection (Library of Congress). Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
ISBN: 1-890318-35-3
St. Augustines Press
South Bend, Indiana
170
171
172
Index
academic, 4244, 58, 59, 74, 75, 93, 159
academic discipline, 140
academic freedom, 93
academic philosopher, 152, 156, 164
Academy in Athens, 18
acedia, 4750, 73, 163
American politics, 13
angel, 33
animal, 14, 90, 101103, 106, 107, 109, 111,
123
world of the animal, 104
Antichrist, 144
antiquity, 17, 27, 63, 74, 130, 153, 158
Antisthenes, 36
anxiety, 54, 140
Apollinaris, 124
Apollodoros, 91, 92
Aquinas, Thomas, 18, 33, 37, 39, 41, 45, 48,
49, 53, 77, 81, 88, 94, 106, 110, 119,
120, 123, 124, 126128, 130, 142, 143,
146, 151, 155, 162
Aristotle, 10, 18, 2527, 31, 32, 41, 55, 67,
88, 104, 106, 119, 123, 128130, 134,
135, 153155, 157, 159, 165
Arius, 124
atheism, 140
atheistic existentialism, 140
atheistic existentialists, 58
existential atheism, 140
Augustine, 18, 106, 153
St. Augustine, 145
Bacon, Francis, 96
banausic, 60
Barnes, Winston, 151
Baudelaire, Charles Pierre, 73, 163
Berdyaev, Nicholas, 161
Bergson, Henri-Louis, 7
Bloy, Leon, 161
body, 110, 111, 124
Bonn, 17
boredom, 73, 161
Bosanquet, Bernard, 9
bourgeois, 48, 117, 119, 161, 162
bourgeois civilization, 162
bourgeois mind, 161
bourgeois religiosity, 161
bourgeois spirit, 161, 162
bourgeois value, 161
bourgeois virutes, 162
bourgeois world, 161, 162, 170
genuine bourgeois, 161
non-bourgeois, 117, 119
petitbourgeois, 66
Bradley, Francis Herbert, 11
break, 50, 53, 59
break from work, 53, 72
Browne, Thomas, 156
Brutus, 70
capitalism, 26
Spirit of Capitalism, 26
Carlyle, Thomas, 36, 73
Catholic, 152, 158, 159, 162, 163, 165
Catholic philosopher, 10
Catholic province, 151
Chesterton, Gilbert Keith, 121, 153
Christ, 77, 124, 141, 145
Christendom, 142
Christian, 10, 27, 38, 39, 54, 60, 77, 110, 139,
144146, 148, 152
Christian character, 145
Christian Church, 153
Christian Europe, 40, 65, 76
Christian philosophy, 139148
Christian reality, 147
173
Christian revelation, 144
Christian teaching, 48, 147
Christian theology, 139, 141, 159
Christian tradition, 97, 139, 161
Christian view, 139
Christianity, 10, 139, 142, 147, 157, 159
genuine Christian, 146
Christmas, 78
Christological, 124
common good, 44, 61, 84, 95, 154
common utility, 40, 84, 85, 93
Communist, 162
comprehension, 127
contemplation, 33, 38, 44, 45, 49, 51, 53, 54,
84, 96, 153155, 160162, 164, 170
contemplative life, 27, 159
cult, 7577, 170
infantile cult of youth and the common,
160, 170
culture, 17
cultus, 1719, 160
death, 48, 87, 88, 139, 154
Descartes, Rene, 96
despair, 151, 163
Despair (vice), 50
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 126
discursive, 30, 32, 34, 40, 153, 156
nondiscursive, 33
discursive reasoning, 3234
discursive thinking, 33, 35
discursive thought, 32, 153
dispair, 92
doubt, 57, 77, 120, 121, 126, 152, 161
East, 58
Eastern culture, 160, 161
Eckermann, Johann Peter, 44, 119
Elijah, 15
Empedocles, 134
Encyclical, 158
English, 6, 17, 26, 70, 151153, 163, 165, 170
ennui, 161
environment, 78, 87, 101103, 105, 106, 109,
111, 113, 115, 155
Eros, 37, 137, 138
Europe, 86, 164
European culture, 25, 77
European thought, 12
Europeans, medieval, 170
existentialism, 10, 140
faith, 15
feast, 15, 158, 160, 162, 164
festival, 14, 15, 23, 52, 53, 6972, 75, 77
Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 147
eld of relations, 100102, 104, 106, 108, 111
freedom, 10, 17, 18, 41, 54, 57, 59, 9397,
104, 157, 161, 165
French, 66, 161
French Revolution, 70
functionary, 40, 4244, 54, 57, 62, 160162
Garrigou-Lagrange, Reginald Marie, 142
Gehlen, Arnold, 105
gentleman, 44, 54, 93, 155
German, 6, 26, 36, 52, 59, 66, 70, 152, 153,
157, 159, 160, 163165
German word for leisure, 75
Germany, 17, 25, 42, 70, 151, 152, 170
East Germany, 58
gift, 18, 38, 39, 54, 72, 154, 164, 170
gifted, 155
Gilson, Etienne, 152
God, 6, 23, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 76, 87, 106, 110,
114, 120, 122, 123, 125127, 129, 130,
134136, 140, 141, 151153, 156161,
170
City of God, 145
goodness of God, 156
Justice of God, 39
nonexistence of God, 140
Praise of God, 69
selfdedication to God, 89
worship of God, 54
God and the World, 113, 114
GodMan, 77
Gods, 23, 60, 70, 71, 75, 117, 124, 134, 135,
138, 139, 160
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 35, 44, 75,
119, 128, 153, 155
174
grace, 38, 39, 154
Gymnasium, 58
H olderlin, Fridrich, 52
H olderlin, Friedrich, 144
Hamann, Johann Georg, 156
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 11, 44, 120,
128, 156
Heidegger, Martin, 86, 140
Heraclitus, 32, 51, 153
Herculean, 35, 36
Hercules, 36
Hercules, Labors of, 36
historian of philosophy, 10
history of philosophy, 10
Hitler, Adolf, 35
Hobbes, Thomas, 152
Homer, 37, 127, 134, 135
honorarium, 64, 65, 163
hope, 7678, 110, 123, 125, 126, 128, 131, 138
hopeful, 125
hopefulness, 83, 123, 126
hopeless, 73, 90, 92
hopelessness, 77
Hume, David, 156
humor, 91, 146
Idea of a University, 41
idleness, 1315, 4752, 73, 154, 157, 160, 164,
165
intellect, 32, 73
intellection, 104106
intellective knowing, 103
intellective vision, 35
intellectual, 13, 40, 163
intellectual action, 29
intellectual activity, 40, 60
intellectual being, 33
intellectual eort, 153
intellectual enterprise, 29
intellectual heritage, 25
intellectual knowing, 31, 32
intellectual knowledge, 153
intellectual labor, 40, 65
intellectual luxury, 85
intellectual matters, 163
intellectual means, 157
intellectual sense, 117
intellectual soul, 109, 110
intellectual understanding, 109
intellectual vision, 30, 33, 35
intellectual work, 29, 30, 34, 35, 39, 40, 42,
59, 157
intellectual worker, 29, 40, 42, 44, 45, 59
intellectus, 32, 33, 49, 53, 153, 159, 163
Intimate Journals, 73
inwardness, 101, 108
J unger, Ernst, 28, 30, 39, 43, 51
Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, 31
Jews, 162
joy, 123, 164
spiritual joy, 123
Kant, Immanuel, 30, 31, 3437, 146, 153, 156,
159
Kantian epistemology, 31
Kantian philosopher, 146
Kerenyi, Karl, 52, 53
Kierkegaard, Sren, 15, 48
Kr uger, Gerhard, 143
Kult, 6, 70, 153
labor, 23, 31, 33, 34, 36, 52, 59, 65, 71, 73,
128, 159, 160, 170
Herculean labor, 35
labor improbus, 34
nuisance of labor, 34
total labor, 170
Labor Day, 70, 72
labor, born to, 78
labor, distribution of, 40
laborious, 35
Latin, 26, 32, 49, 70, 71, 77, 155
Late Latin, 161
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 86, 154
leisure, 13, 14, 17, 19, 21, 23, 2528, 47, 50
55, 57, 59, 66, 67, 69, 7176, 78, 151,
154165, 167, 170
o scole/leisure, 25
a place of leisure, 155
175
ability to be at leisure, 54
absence of leisure, 73
Aristotelian concept of leisure, 27
attainment of leisure, 55
authentic leisure, 54
beatleisure, 26, 28, 67
being at leisure, 69
concept of leisure, 158
conception of leisure, 57
deepest source of leisure, 76
degradation of the notion of leisure, 154
heart of leisure, 69
idea of leisure, 15
inability to be at leisure, 47
inability to put oneself at leisure, 154
InabilityforLeisure (vice), 50
intensive organization of leisure, 151
justication of leisure, 74
lack of leisure, 47, 50, 76
leisure as a condition of the soul, 50
leisure as nonactivity, 50
leisure class, 155, 161
leisure of contemplation, 38
leisure of the Greek, 157
leisureless, 26
leisured caste, 157
man at leisure, 51
nature of leisure, 154, 155, 161, 170
nonleisure, 50
notatleisure, 26, 27
notleisure, 26
origin of leisure, 53, 75
otium contemplationis, 38
real understanding of leisure, 26
region of leisure, 75
scholasate be at leisure, 167
scholen agein, 69
scholen agein - to do leisure, 67
secondary forms of leisure, 73
sphere of leisure, 19
true leisure, 67, 154
ultimate root of leisure, 76
unleisurely, 154
liberal, 41, 42, 64, 94, 159
Liberal Arts, 27, 4144, 6466, 75, 93, 163
Artes Liberales, 41, 44, 63
liberal knowledge, 155
liberality, 41
life
vita activa, 54
Linnaean Botany, 9
Locke, John, 156
logical positivism, 8
love, 6, 14, 3739, 49, 78, 88, 89, 92, 95, 128,
137, 138, 148, 154, 156, 159, 162
machine
idolatry of the machine, 160, 170
machine tender, 160
machinery, 42
machinery of purposes, 89
magic, 89
Marcel, Gabriel, 152
Maritain, Jacques, 152
Marx, Karl, 66, 97
Marxism, 161
Marxist, 13, 161
mathematician, 8, 117
Principia Mathematica, 8
mathematics, 8
meal, 14, 111
meal-times, 14
mental laborer, 44
Metaphysics, 25, 41, 88, 128
Musse, 6, 52, 75, 153
mystery, 51, 121, 142, 143
myth, 133, 143, 158
mythical, 73
mythological, 75
Newman, John Henry, 41, 42, 44, 54, 93, 94,
155
notbeingabletograsp, 51
notbeingabletoreceive, 35
notbeingabletounderstand, 146
Oakeshott, Michael, 152
omniscience, 9
Otto, Walter Friedrich, 139
Parmenides, 83
176
Pascal, Blaise, 15, 112, 123
person, 11, 13, 14, 28, 33, 45, 50, 52, 62, 64,
67, 89, 95, 96, 108, 113, 118, 119, 122,
125, 126, 140, 142, 147, 148, 156, 163,
164
Phaedo, 91
Phaedrus, 129
Philosopher, 712, 30, 31, 33, 36, 59, 81, 88,
90, 91, 94, 99, 106, 116, 117, 119,
122129, 134, 135, 137, 146, 148, 151
160, 163165, 170
pseudoPhilosopher, 90
religious Philosopher, 152
scientic Philosophers, 157
Philosophers question, 86
philosophic, 58, 170
Philosophic character, 93
Philosophical, 7, 18, 28, 34, 42, 81, 9294,
113, 114, 140
non-philosophical question, 112
Philosophical act, 18, 84, 85, 87, 88, 93,
97, 99, 112, 115, 119, 133, 135, 138,
141, 154, 157, 160, 165
What is the philosophical act?, 83
Philosophical anthropology, 83
Philosophical argument, 9
Philosophical aspect, 18
Philosophical character, 145
Philosophical culture, 29
Philosophical education, 42, 74
Philosophical enquiry, 157
Philosophical Faculty, 42, 93
Philosophical impulse, 143
Philosophical jargon, 157
Philosophical knowing, 93
Philosophical knowledge, 42, 154
Philosophical manner, 42, 43, 90, 93, 130
Philosophical mind, 7
Philosophical opinion, 146
Philosophical pedagogues, 9
Philosophical Predicament, The, 151
Philosophical question, 83, 87, 90, 112
116, 125, 127, 136
Philosophical questioning, 116
Philosophical receptivity, 155
Philosophical school, 18, 157
Philosophical statement, 141
Philosophical studies, 7
Philosophical thesis, 140
Philosophical thinking, 137, 143145
Philosophical truth, 145
Philosophical understanding, 109
Philosophical way, 9395, 137
Philosophical wonder, 118, 142
philosophize, 8, 9, 18, 83, 84, 86, 88, 92, 99,
112, 115, 116, 121, 122, 124126, 134,
135, 138, 139, 141, 143148, 159
freedom of philosophizing, 96
genuine philosophizing, 85, 89
Philosophy, 612, 15, 18, 29, 3136, 4143,
65, 83, 85, 86, 8897, 106, 107, 112,
116, 117, 119123, 125131, 133136,
138148, 151157, 159, 160, 163, 165,
170
Catholic philosopher, 10
English Philosophy, 151
freedom of Philosophy, 95, 97
genuine Philosophy, 10, 35, 43, 85, 96,
137, 163
historian of philosophy, 10
history of philosophy, 10, 120
How is a nonChristian philosophy possi-
ble?, 139
How is Christian philosophy possible?, 139
idea of philosophizing, 126
non-Christian philosophy, 142, 144
oneman philosophy, 11
Philosophy of despair, 144
Philosophy of history, 144
Philosophy of philosophy, 15
Philosophy of progress, 9, 144
Philosophy of work, 31
Platonic philosophy, 137
Platonic way, 138
political Philosophy, 152
prephilosophical tradition, 138, 139
pseudophilosophy, 31, 89, 130
religious Philosophy, 158
Romantic Philosophy, 31
seeming philosophy, 89, 90
177
un-philosophy, 130
Western Philosophical tradition, 104
Western philosophy, 91, 133135
What does it mean to do philosophy?, 83,
141
What does it mean to philosophize?, 85,
109, 112
What is it to philosophize?, 103, 112, 122
plant, 100, 101, 103, 111
internality of the plant, 100
world of the plant, 101, 104, 107
plant life, 100
planted, 70, 71
Plato, 10, 18, 23, 31, 32, 36, 59, 60, 74, 77,
8892, 106, 114, 116118, 124, 127,
129, 134139, 143, 153, 155, 157, 159,
160, 165, 167
school of Plato, 74
Platonic, 74, 75, 92, 138
Platonic academy, 74
Platonic philosophy, 137
play, 38, 52, 88, 114, 123, 158, 159
inter-play, 33
playboy, 159
playing dead, 102
poetry, 37, 65, 8789, 95
destruction of poetry, 95
false poetry, 89
fashion poetry, 89
genuine poetry, 87
pseudopoetry, 89
Polanyi, Mihaly, 158
Politics, 27, 67
pray, 54, 87, 89, 139
prayer, 87, 89
To work is to pray, 73
profession, 10, 119
professional hazard, 119
professional philosopher, 157
Professional Training, 43, 89
progress, 9, 94, 96, 134, 144, 161, 162
proletariat, 5862, 158
deproletarianization, 5861, 6367
proletarian, 40, 5962, 66, 67, 160, 162
non-proletarian, 162
proletarian worker, 28
proletarianism, 6163
proletarianization, 66
proletarianization of everyone, 64
proletarianize, 61
proletarianizing, 60
proletarianness, 61
Protagoras, 89
Protestant, 162
Proudhon, Pierre Joseph, 66
puritan, 13
Pythagoras, 126, 129, 153
Pythagorean, 128
ratio, 18, 3234, 53, 153, 159, 163
Rauschning, Hermann, 35
refresh, 23, 53, 157
refreshment, 23, 53, 54
religion, 10, 14, 17, 52, 53, 71, 73, 77, 88, 89,
155, 159, 163, 170
religion of Work, 36
religiosity, 161
religious, 10, 14, 7072, 74, 75, 88, 133,
134, 138, 140, 151, 152, 154, 163, 164,
170
non-religious, 153
religious Philosopher, 152
religious Philosophy, 158
rest, 36, 49, 52, 54, 57, 73, 97, 154, 155, 157,
170
holy rest, 27, 87
rest from labor, 71
rest from work, 71
resting form, 102
resting grasshopper, 102, 103
restless, 155
restlessness, 47, 51, 73, 151, 154
Restlessness (vice), 50
theory of rest, 66
Ryle, Gilbert, 156
sacrament, 14, 77
sacramental character, 77
sacramental Sacrice, 77
sacramental sign, 78
178
sacramental visibility, 78
sacrice, 14, 17, 72, 77, 78, 164
places of sacrice, 71
sacrice maker, 74
selfsacrice, 39
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 10, 64, 140
Scheeben, Matthias Joseph, 142
Scheler, Max, 48
Schiller, Johann Christoph Friedrich von, 36
Schlosser, Johann Georg, 31
Scholastics, 165
school, 8, 10, 18, 26, 151, 157, 161
Gymnasium, 58
high school, 58
medieval Schoolmen, 152
schola, 58
school of Plato, 74
Schoolmen, 153
Schoolmen of the Middle Ages, 153
Schule, 26
scola, 26
science, 911, 15, 42, 43, 94, 113, 126, 130,
131, 156, 158
functionary sciences, 44
Grammar of Science, 156
medical science, 42
modern science, 156
natural sciences, 42, 147, 159
particular sciences, 93, 94
psychological science, 114
special sciences, 88, 89, 94, 113, 125, 126,
128
Servile Arts, 27, 41, 6366, 93, 94, 163
Artes Serviles, 63
servile labor, 160
servile work, 27, 63, 159, 162
Sisyphus, 73
sleep, 51, 52, 54
asleep, 51
sleeping child, 51
sleeplessness, 51
sloth, 154, 159
Socrates, 36, 8991, 114, 116, 117, 120, 125,
127, 135
Socratic-Platonic interpretation, 128
Sombart, Werner, 48
Soret, Friedrich, 44
soul, 49, 50, 52, 54, 95, 97, 104106, 109111,
114, 123, 124, 126, 129, 143, 145, 155,
158, 163, 165, 170
condition of the soul, 50
soullessness, 161
specialist, 10, 40, 61
Spinoza, Baruch, 11
spirit, 54, 104111, 144, 156, 161, 162, 165
absolue spirit, 130
absolute spirit, 107, 123
Cartesian spirit, 121
celebrating spirit, 52
nite spirit, 110
Holy Spirit, 39
industrious spirit, 49
nonabsolute spirit, 107
nonspiritual, 109
Phenomenology od Spirit, 128
pure spirit, 110, 111
spiritual joy, 123
Western spirit, 25
Spirit of Capitalism, 26
spiritual, 14, 32, 60, 73, 103105, 109, 111,
124, 153
spiritual activity, 159
spiritual being, 107, 111
spiritual poverty, 63
spiritual soul, 106, 111, 124
spirituality, 106
spiritually impoverished, 62
Stalin, Iosif Vissarionovich, 65, 158
Stolberg, Friedrich Leopold, 31
suer, 8, 90, 156
aimless readiness to suer pain, 47
readiness to suer, 39
ready to suer pain, 39
suering, 148
surrealism, 8
surrounding, 102, 124, 134
environment, 115
surroundings, 103107, 111, 118, 120
Umgebung, 102
Umvelt, 104
179
Symbolic Ethics, 8
Symposium, 91
temple, 71, 158
Temple of Holy Relics, 75
Temple of the Muses, 75
Thales of Miletus, 90, 134
Theaetetus, 60, 90, 91, 116, 117
theology, 10, 11, 15, 129, 136143, 145, 152,
157159, 163
ancient theology, 139
antitheology, 140
Christian theology, 139, 141, 159
dogmatic theology, 12
Enlightenment theology, 135
Homeric theology, 134
nonChristian theology, 139
preHomeric theology, 135
pseudotheology, 140
theological, 152
theoria, 95, 97, 118
theory, 147
philosophical theoria, 18
pure theory, 18
theory, 19
theory of culture, 15
theory of knowledge, 163
theory of rest, 66
theory of truth, 152
Thibon, Gustave, 152
Thracian maiden, 112
total, 43, 47, 62, 70, 84
sumtotal of all existing things, 112
sumtotal of all things, 130
sumtotal of being, 108
sumtotal of existing beings, 106
sumtotal of existing things, 104, 106, 107
sumtotal of reality, 105, 116
sumtotal of things, 109
total claim, 154
total education, 63
total labor, 170
total reality, 112, 113
total understanding, 110
total work, 26, 29
total world of work, 40, 43, 57, 58, 63, 71,
73, 74
totalrelatedness, 106
total-work state, 61, 66
total-working state, 62
totalitarian, 59
totalitarian demands, 94
totalitarian dictator, 65
totalitarian drift, 159
totalitarian epidemic, 160
totality, 146
totality of being, 104, 105, 107109, 115,
133
totality of existing things, 108, 114
totality of human existence, 141
totality of reality, 161
totality of the world, 112
totality of things, 109111
world of total work, 26, 29, 72, 85, 88, 90
tradition, 18, 58, 129, 133136, 153, 159, 161
Christian tradition, 97, 139
classical tradition of the West, 110
great tradition of [W]estern culture, 160
main tradition of European thought, 12
philosocal tradition of Europe, 164
philosophical tradition, 164
prephilosophical tradition, 138, 139
rationalist tradition, 157
religious tradition, 138, 140
tradition of [W]estern culture, 161
traditional, 18, 137, 144
traditionalism, 58
Western philosophical tradition, 104
Western tradition, 105, 108
truth, 13, 32, 35, 40, 70, 106, 134, 139, 140,
146, 147, 153, 163
Christs truth, 145
Christian truth, 148
Disputed Questions on Truth, 33
Divine truth, 145
greater truth, 142
Living the Truth, 107
loving searcher of the truth, 126
nature of truth, 114
On Truth, 105
180
ontological theory of truth, 152
perfectly rounded truth, 83
philosophical truths, 145
revealed truth, 144, 145
the truth of things, 107
theological truths about the world as a
whole, 143
traditional truth, 137
traditional truths of faith, 144
truth of faith, 143
truths of Christendom, 142
truths of Christianity, 142
truths of reason, 142
unity of truth and life, 141
well rounded truth, 142
Uexk ull, Jakob Johann von, 101103, 105
University, 8, 43, 93, 94, 155
Idea of a University, 44, 93, 94, 155
medieval University, 42
university education, 58
University of Westphalia, 151
Usener, Hermann, 74
virtue, 33, 37, 38, 72, 96, 111, 155, 161, 162
wage, 6365, 158, 163
wage earner, 40, 62, 157
war, 151
First World War, 57, 63
postWorld War II era, 58
Second World War, 25, 63
Weber, Max, 26
Weil, Simone, 152
Weiss, Konrad, 51, 87
West, 110, 163, 164
Western, 104
Western blight, 160
Western civilization, 162
Western countries, 163
Western culture, 159161, 163
Western European culture, 25
Western philosophy, 91, 133135
Western spirit, 25
Western tradition, 105, 108
Western world, 139
Westphalia, 151
University of Westphalia, 151
Windelband, Wilhelm, 121, 145
withdrawal, 78
wonder, 31, 81, 88, 96, 117126, 142, 156,
163, 164
capacity of wondering, 155
genuine wonder, 118
old doctrine of wonder, 120
thaumazein, 121
wonder of the creation, 120
wonderful, 88, 91, 118, 120, 123
mirandum, 88
work, 9, 11, 13, 14, 5967, 72, 73, 76, 84, 89,
130, 151154, 157159, 162, 163, 170
banausos hand worker, 59
break from work, 72
cessation of work, 14
collective workingstate, 62
concept of the worker state, 158
concept of work, 158
contemporary working day, 85
doctrine of work, 163
frenzied need to work, 13
genuine work, 73
idolatry of work, 154, 170
intellectual work, 59, 157
intellectual worker, 59
isolated working intellect, 73
lifework, 66
modern mystique of work, 159
mystique of work, 162
nationalization of the workplace, 66
principles of work, 72
process of work, 162
process of working, 84
rest from work, 71
selfsucient world of daily work, 92
servile work, 63, 159, 162
the sake of work, 72
theological work, 145
total work, 26, 29
total work state, 61, 66
total working state, 62
181
total world of work, 40, 43, 57, 58, 63, 71,
74
Work and Do Not Despair, 73
work for works one sake, 162
workaday, 90
workaday bourgeois world, 162
workaday machinery of purpose, 89
workaday reasoning, 90
workaday world, 8487, 89, 99, 112,
115, 119
workday, 78, 87
workprocess, 67
worker, 57, 65, 73, 154, 158, 160
worker ideal, 64
workers, 11
workers utopias, 164
working character of Philosophy, 97
working day, 115
working environment, 78
working human, 62
working man, 63
working person, 64, 67
working process, 62, 85
working world, 29, 43, 54, 55, 72, 8487,
89, 90, 93, 94, 99, 112, 115, 119
working world of the workday, 78
workingpower, 62
workingprocess, 61, 62
workings of the universe, 156
workplace, 86
works of, 139, 163
works of art, 8, 159
worl of the worker, 72
world of everyday work, 26
world of the Worker, 57
world of the worker, 43, 71
world of the working day, 84
world of total work, 29, 72, 85, 88, 90
world of work, 14, 26, 54, 59, 72, 74, 84,
85, 88, 90, 97, 99, 154, 158, 160, 162
world, 14, 15, 26, 38, 43, 49, 5154, 58, 60, 66,
69, 71, 72, 7478, 8492, 9597, 99
109, 111113, 115, 116, 118121, 126,
129, 130, 133136, 139, 142, 143, 148,
151, 153, 154, 156, 161163, 165, 170
basic meaning of the world, 53
bonum utile, 85
bourgeois world, 170
daily world, 118
daytoday world, 116
divorced world, 115
essential world, 117
everyday world, 117, 154
formula for the world, 130
God and the World, 113, 114
goods of the world, 18
holidayworld of philosophy, 86
human world, 103
interpretation of the world, 136
invisible world of essences, 118
knowledge of the world, 147
partial world, 109
partial worlds, 107
rational interpretation of the world, 130
sadness of the world, 48
selective world, 111
senseworld, 102
senseworld of the animal, 103
sensuously concrete world, 111
series of worlds, 107
to have a world, 101
totality of the world, 112
tristitia saeculi, 48
universal world of essences, 115
unsettling call of the world, 112
view of the world, 147
visible world, 115
Welt, 102, 104, 105, 115
world as a whole, 133, 136, 143, 157
world of daytoday life, 125
world of hunger, 84
world of man, 99, 108, 109
world of objective being, 108
world of plants, 107
world of reality, 124
world of supply and demand, 84
world of the citizens workday, 87
world of the human being, 103
world of the plant, 101
world of the Thracian maiden, 112
182
world of useful good, 85
world view, 11
worldasawhole, 57, 106
worldview, 146
worldly man, 90
worship, 6, 17, 19, 69, 70, 72, 7577
alienation from worship, 73
Christian worship, 77
cultic worship, 77, 78
Culture lives on worship, 75
divine worship, 160, 163, 164
midstream of worship, 72
religious worship, 70
space for worship, 71
worship is to time, 71
worship of God, 54
worship of mindless knowhow, 160, 170
worship of the Creator, 69
worship without the Gods, 70
worshipful celebration, 72, 74
worshipful man, 164
Wulf, Maurice de, 145
Zinzendorf und Pottendorf, Nikolaus Ludwig
von, 26
183