UNDERSTANDING SeyThe Amateur’s Code ONE ‘The Amateur is Gentlemanly ... He never knowingly uses th efor soe aren such wy so kn the Plesure of others. He abides by the pledges given by the [RRL in his behalf to the public and the Goverament Two The Amateur is Loyal ... He owes his amateur radio to the ‘American Radio Relay League, and he offers it his unswerv- ing loyalty. THREE The Amateur is Progressive . . . He keeps his station abreast of science, It is built well and efficiently. His operating prac- tice is clean and regular. FOUR The Amateur is Friendly . .. Slow and patient sending when requested, friendly advice and counsel to the beginner, kindly assistance and cooperation for the broadcast listener; these are marks of the amateur spirit FIVE The Amateur is Balanced . .. Radio is his hobby. He never allows it to interfere with any of the duties he owes to his home, his job, his school, or his community. SIX The Amateur ig Patriotic ... His knowledge and his station are always ready for the service of his country and his com- ‘munity. Pave M, SpearUnderstanding Amateur Radio BY GEORGE GnANMER Published by ‘The American Radio Relay League Newington, ConnecticutCopyiht 1971 by ‘THE AMERICAN RADIO RELAY LEAGUE, INC ern Copii wcFOREWORD Understanding Amateur Radio originally was written to fill a gap between beginners’ books and publications featuring the latest amateur technology. Quoting from the Foreword to the frst edition: ‘The bepinner in amateur radio faces such an accumulation of {echnology that he isn't to be blamed for feling helpless before it ‘The ARIEL family of publications alms to supply the amateur with Uupto-date technical and operating information, but the quar rows rapidly with the ar, There is therefore a definite need ‘book that selects those subjects which establish the groundwork f ail phases of amateur radio, and which teats them in freer and more leisurely style than is posible in, for example, The Radio Amateurs Handbook... The things that are omitted in this volume are the more-advanced phases: concepts and techniques that itis best to approach only after the fundamentals are well in hand, Here the accent is on helping you to an understanding of the busic ideas on circuits and equipment ate bul. ‘This edition, while maintaining the same objective, reflects the changes that have occurred in the several years that have elapsed since the book first appeared. ‘To use the text to best advantage the really “raw” beginner ~ one starting out with no knowledge of radio or electronics — should first become acquainted with the contents of the latest edition of How to Become a Radio Amateur, also published by the American Radio Relay League. The present volume assumes that the reader has obtained, or is ready {9 obtain, his Novice License and is preparing to 20 ahead with his studies for the General Class ‘Traditionally, the amateur builds at least part of his station, thereby acquiring practical knowledge along with useful equipment. To help him in this, constructional projects are included in several chapters of the book. For the most part these have been selected from the wealth of such material that has appeared in QST, the monthly journal of ARRL. The advantage of using previously published designs lies in the fact that they have been field tested by having been reproduced by other builders; thus hidden “bugs,” if any, have been discovered and eliminated. A list of the original OST articles is given in the Appendix. ‘The final chapter, on operating practices, was contributed by Richard L. Baldwin, WIRU. If you've just received your license and. have a station ready to go, read Chapter 16 first! Then look over Chapter 1. After that you're on your own, Good luck! Jon Howroon, WIRW General Manager, ARRL Newington, Conn,SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS USED IN CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS rouno aeCONTENTS Chapter 1 Setting Up a Station Some Needed Fundamentals How Receivers Work How Transmitters Work What Yeu Should Know About Phone Antenns and Feeders Workshep and Test Bench Building Receivers Aceessoties for Your Receiver Building Transmitters ‘Transmitting Accessories The Power Supply Modulators and Speech Amplifiers Making Measurements Antennas and Masts Operating Your Amateur Station Appendix IndexChapter 1 Setting Up a Station Somener, someting, der mst hve Been an tamatear who went though the tals of studing for iene, and th tbulatons of king te ‘examination, bat who dd gt ‘he very east posible minut fe fang the doorbell with the "ket" i hand ‘Wee sil foking fr tha cp, and se ay We ay meet hi ‘he impatience to ge going a soon a the bare minimum ot eqlpment at hand tan Th , insch a cei ie Peer XH, by making sil titton, can so pee R as Pere, ‘Te unt of power ie the wat “Thee expresions, 10, an Be trnspod In fact sien any woof the four quantities — allge,cuten, rosance, and power the ‘ther two can always be found It bepe to have the formu hay, se yori fd eed fo ‘hem more often than you ght think: Table 2 ‘imac hem, hs Law Fomine or DE eat vata] caret | mean | RRA pout | a word sbout power: In phys, power the rat of doing work (Anything foqiing the ex ppondlare of eneay\ work inthe. physic {ose wha is done does not have tobe wef) ‘You might gusts from the formula in Table 2 that ins destatent cet the work Jone it fn ofercoming the reine of the cit and {ecg current to ows "You wo berg. esitance ea cnesay deadend rest Enery {hat gout ito i never comer back out inthe sme form. In a rsstor much a ¥0W Buy intThe Fundamentals eat energy, aiag the temperate of the ‘sor. The ater the ale at Which oer is pul in — tat i she preater the power the Imove heat generated, "igpower” rere have to be lige in der 0 tana the heat without ‘cing emprive hat would ba em want Lobe waned by i ou ado ecaipment ft & wally sien = mt women Dpproduat of reitane in the various cet, Mot that ceitiecs est moveury ch alts tho fae tha hat many tite wes. few cates, such atin heting the extde of 3 ‘The Nature of Resistance “The formulas in the thie column of Table 24 se weal defiaidons of resstance, The st one ReEjD) mast teased with caution, bea the the other two cam be ued alte pence. They fefinereastnce at something tat hat os Feltonsip with power: tha, a seething oct wth the expenaltue of neg). Eng tnd power make no tinction between et {nd trating curents, A wat nan se cia ea is te se tig a a wat 8 Let's tok at it by the “black-box” method In i 22 there i 4 battery hang an oxtpat voltage, B- When Tis comected to 4 pair af Termini on he box a eutent flow! In he onnecting wes, We do ot know what inside the box. But‘on applying Ohm's Law, we ind that it sem to coma 2 reaance, Real Lit. Shosld we conclude that there Han actal ‘sor in the box? Is posible, of couse that {here is But the most "that we can sy" With ertainty is that whatever Is inthe box be com Sing ener fom the battery lhe sae Way that ach a revisor would Now it could, be that on opening the box weld find. that it actully "contised. radio Tranter, and thatthe de power tom the ‘ery Wat Geng converted nto radio foquency power which in torn war being rated a int face, The taster scvtaily nt a restr, 7 although before we knew what was a the box i {etmod to act tke one: Would tbe legltnate to {all tach deve 8 *edtanoe™ simply Deomse ‘his Lav’ seemed fo sy wes one? "Tho aner "yer" a geerdzeddetsion ot Tenance tha 1 sotething that et power. Ln sing the power tea iter convert {o"some other frm, olen one that epretets hell endo diate titers in {he form of heat. t may do both simltancouy In farts etieal davies do dapat a ofthe power tenseler I's Just the nate of ‘ing for thi fo happen “This appaent or -oqivalent setnce is 2 ef concept in dealing with cies, although Ie docs not physialy dese what actly Is fon Tt pets unfortnate that there ome other ame iven foi (itt the bn instance in raio Sore where You wil nd ‘Hades of meanings) But whether ressance I en Stina eon or “apparent,” a In he eons ahora, thors cow Bee Yo sen bar fon tm onfer to qually ab reiance in let ‘portion, I has to oe al the as that govern ‘tinny elstanc. Series and P ‘Throughout your work with cuits youl be eat band to undecisad. When ceil cour ponents to connected In suey the curse fas ‘Grou thom ‘one afer the other Pig. 234 ‘ows thls fora oumber of reso conned > | CER} 1 we apply Ohm's Law co such eet the Voltage meaured between the ends of RY wil be {ound wo be A uliped bythe eae; fat TRI This olage Is eal the voltage dop tress ‘R1-Sinlay, the voltage drop aero R21 1R2, And the voltage drop atoss R36 TRS. Obvious, ‘he foal of all these vllge drops has to add18 (0 the voltage coming fiom the source. By ‘ome simple mathematics, tht lets to the ue that the tla resistance of ® number of reat lances In sels isegual tothe sam of the Indi renttances. hat ey "Tota R= Ri + R2+R3, and soon, ora ny sistance a thre ae ini, ‘Now look at Fig. 23. Here the rensancst have their lemmas comected together. The sine voltage, Ei applied to exch one. The ‘leon coming fom the source wil be divi Up. among them, some going thyotgh RJ, Some trough 2, andthe reminder thigh 2. The mons tach Branch have toad up ff the Total erent oming fom the power source, The arent though cach Testor wil obey Oh Lav: that the earent through AZ feel 0 E divided by RE, the cent tough R28 eal fo B divide by R2, and 30 on. If we any Avie Eby, we wil ave arse value tht We euiaint Yo that ofa the ute a Parallel, Since the fot cuten gee than 25 Bf the individual resistor caren, hs oguitet ‘estance mat be smaler than in of the ind UNDERSTANDING. dares, Te most inportnt peti! ese Tte"one where Jon wo reas te It Pane Theeguilent seasane can be ca inte tom tae, RS Youll run into many practical applications of You ood a certain value of restance Bal don't hve all in one restr, you can make Ip by {ing to OF move sale seston Whose Healt nce valves 04 up to what you want. They ‘il be connected in Series inthis ae of cute (OF you may ave couple of restos of Inger ‘aloe than you want, bat which cat be connected In orale Yo give You a dosed smaller vate Sometimes, too, you may want certain vale of ce tha can dsate moe power than can be handled ty. any. sie resstor you have. IE ‘you need S00 ohm with + sfe power dissipation {four watts, fr example, you can connect C0 Todd ohm, 2watt ressor in paral, or to 250.ohm, Dat reson nse Alternating Current The probleme of altsnating current stem fiom the Tat that the-cutent (vl) ie hanging throughout the eyee. ea "sendy" alternating carfnt each coe i Bethe one before it and ao tke the oe tht ‘wil fllom ut within te eye three no such pene repose is" we fad ithe tehavor of det rent. "The coals! reser leds 10 all Sorts of effets that are abet wih de. (That isnt eeept dig thee finer when te dee sent tng sated stopped. oro wn subjected fo change. These prods ca be, Be ior Ie ay statin aoa Fst, thor the question of ow to asgn 8 ateat throughout a eel, we may find that at Scesve instant He inresng wl teach, Sty, ope ampere. ‘At thet instant tsa 0 Secrest, eventaly dying say to nothing: Thee It teyerios ise todo the same thing” while Mowing lath. opposite rection, Next tats the whole busine over sys. At no pont dos 1 stay stl ong enough for vs to ay, “thar the ‘ale of the eure ‘AC Ampares and Volts The due fo sting on 4 number to wse for ‘ne cue found ins statement made exter Power maker po distinction between ac ad des A feeb gts art a hot when creat fos oak {op to Bottom a when H fiw frm bottom 10 top, Thar the power will Be the sme rpsdese ot the direction of errent low an ine thie $5, Ht dost mater how rp the cst ay fetes ition It folly tht we cin sty We fave ne ampere of altemaingcitent whem tat pee of ieet arent would ‘hent i 1 the ltenting cuentas the Toe of & sine wave when plotted ‘on «raph ob IF. 24,3 wil hie a etfective value af one ampere when ie ‘maximo vale during the eye equal to L41 impere (the exactfigue, YP). "The. same ‘eitonsip holds for" the elfectw alue ofAlternating Current ota, An alterte term for effective ams Uwootmeam square), hit nine ting dred rom {he mathod by which rach x wave i aealyand ‘mathemati "Te effets ascited with alternating caret sre innately ested tothe frequency of the forrent, or the number af eels per scond. The principal one retetnce, term You hve el Bret in your sade Since youll be runing fonsidrtion. To appre vectance, soWeter, You need fist lo Know te abou ence) ‘erage inlet ecuts Stored Energy Suppose you carry a stone to a8 upper floor cof your howe and pace tan a window il You frokably dat thnk of ti toe tems, bat the fat that in erying up above the round you have been storing pvtatonal ent inthe Hone The energy sored equal to fe Wolk you id in conying i up. IF you now ps the Fone off the sil it stred energy terested, ‘Savence is sid tobe thereat of pation Seid an ive something tat tae bon hr ‘enlld to acount for an inrved effect. etal energy canbe stored, 0. If you senda dict" current though an indoctnes, ‘magnet flld comes into being wound 1 (Fig 2S) This eld represents sore energy. 1 you tow open the carat al the ose ewig cote TEA Tr comes tuck lo fave than i nt ito the fey beens i has fo get back "ho Very Fnsent you open the switch After tat would eto late sce thee would be no edt If the return energy ag, 1¢ wll make elt ‘ile by fat spat atthe site contacts ‘Magnetic Eneray Puting energy Into magnetic eld abo kes work Oot defitton of wodk i that conte it ‘recoming an ‘opposing force — prvi, nt, Tletion of whataveyou, tn the case &f mech 19 nical wok Im storing eneray In a magnetic et {he ‘work done consis in overcoming. «force eerste nthe lductane By the voy fact hat neey i being sored. This oppostion takes the {orm of an induced vllage which bucks the ‘plied vllge Ite valve depends not onthe ia value of custent bot on the tte st which {he cute changes. The cent changes I a ‘oat pil atthe lstant that voltage I appli {o an inuctaee, 40 at ths moment the inde Yettge almost equal fo the aplied voltae Then the rate of ctrent change Decomes Hower tnd dower, and eentsly tere ino. chanee fat can bo mestind. At this tine the work emplet; the maxi energy Hatred tn the fl there ino induced vollage, sod font ten fn. ihereatance of the clit governs the ‘tment ow Oha's Law finaly preva, Electric Field Storage You can store eneey in a capeitor 00, In ths cn the storehouse an ete il, nt = magnetic eld (Fig 20). Ifyou apply» de ollage to. capacior there willbe anita Taoeaue rush of cent into the captor to hate The only thing hat tims the current the Instant of closing the ste is whatever estan there maybe in the cul. Thee psclor iuelf ate lke a shoreeiout, at that Fstan, and all the voltage appeas across the esse, Then athe caacoy "ls Up with leteiiy|""iening that ‘oe set of plates Is Sequirng an excess of eleeuons while the ther fet"t being robbed af he same number — the Toltge scrow I ie Eventually the vole at The capactor teinae i equal othe sous toltge snd cuent flow stop It the sours of Tolle’ then doconnecied, the capacitor wil Tomain chaged to that volage. The charg wl Stay there jst as Tong as these is no path by ‘eh electrons can tel fom coe sot 6 les {othe other A capacitor With very TOW leakage YW hd charge for days on ed steven one e wetane to dhe charged fexrey} —-,capacitor the ener wil dspate isn esting {he resistor Ifthe capacitance and rsstanc ae Stppear ently ‘om the apace terminal Towser, te cputor canbe dhchred rally Into sow resane or short cna If you {owen a wie tthe tetmieals of 2 capaci of severt"ltofrads charged to. fw inde ‘ote youl get quite a spask Uf ye touch the Termine youre you get gles lt To void danger of ths, power spl apices diam ofa hare) ‘Time Constant The tie in seconds that i thes charge copii ot cae hoe sens ‘nd then in pact est appiations, One ‘ample the automatic ui contol ed i An easy rae to te gual to microaris liied by mega “There ina tne constant aeoclned with i Spposte way. That ithe Inert etance i Senor with gen fnductanes, the sorter the ine costal fe watt the cst fo bud Up ins bury In an induct cal, we have 1 us Sage resistance In see. ast what does all this fine 0 do. with reacties? Tt per boat ke thi: From the preceding dbcusion you've seen that energy ord inte magnetic fel when cua tough ‘inductance is increasing and in tho late ead when the von ats a captor i aductance i UNDERSTANDING ‘made to decease, energy wil come back into the Gri Tho indced Yelle wil tend 0 kegp Sent Mowing nthe sume” dicetion asthe ‘Stil currents By he sume token, ithe voltage ‘ppl to eapaitor ix made to decree, tbe poor wil dhare into the cel, seg Tae sored energy. ‘Now at llrnting voltage of cuent is one which not only revert Its diction period, Sut so Is one a which the vale ofthe vollage fe cutent continully charging. Becase oF this onal charge, cnet wile tines be sored {athe magaete ld and shorty thereat Fe fumed tothe. cuit, the chee contains fduetance. Slnilay with the electe fei ant Spscitane. Al of the energy stored ching ont part of eyle ferried By the tne the eye ‘Apparent Power In other words, inductance and eapucltance take" enerpy (oF power) from the power source ny to hod al of back age A “pure™ Inductanee o expacitance (Le, without out Testes) ane no. power. Nevertheless, cue ‘oer flow inthe sii wien voltage aplid Ite multiply te vltape bythe eurent the same af we do {0 find power in de ies, We ‘ny ems to dom, Secnse noel wosk Is Sm re etc re pet fale “apparent power or wiles power. To ‘ining it from rea power diferent ni is Sted voltamper. One voltampere Ie the fame one watt encept that i doen't do any "You ate undoubdly’ ctslous as to how it that there. can te voltage and cent BIL 10 power A detaled examination of wha goes on Inthe ciate beyond the scope of ths book. Bhi however, it mater soning (or ‘ii the technical rm fe ph). The voltage Tre coment dont pa fogetin, ey do int fp veitance, When one big the oe? Tey tbe smal oy even when fh psaly of the voltage t postive the cient muy be ees the that, Mowing In he “wrong” dete 1 something ies tugotvar in wich twoAlternating Current teams expend ot of effort in pling es other Sc wot mg yt roga Inductive Resctance We said eater that the ore rapfly. the current shunges, the lege the oppo Vota rernted in ta inductance. A highsoquency Iierating carent changes more rapily that lowtequency ‘on, ine there ate mom cles per mond. Thur the higher tbe Treucsey snd {he Ter the inductance the haedor 4 for men 1 flow throug fhe Inductance: ees ‘nore apposition. The messre of this opposites Tae inductive reactance ei meting ke fhe opposition that resance offer to cere fw, ant 20 the nit of reste aia named ‘te chm ie’ the wattes wat, though, it isan ohm without resitance, Tt des et Hike ate ob 10 {hs extents Given a fed fequeney, the euent {ivough Ie willbe" duet proportional tothe Coltge applied. In oter works, we can te for fescnce the equivalent of O's Lah fort gE where X stands for reactance. But for 8 given {ale of dndctane,seactanos incenes ith the THequeney, sot not constant ike rete i SNGnlest oe specify thatthe Fequeny stays Capacitive Reactance 1 capacitor act in just he opposite vay. The ‘more ply the apd voltage changes nau, the faster the capaci stores ents) Ths means thats hipteeguene attorating valle wl at more carent into a gien capacitor that ao Frequency valle cold. Thus the reactance of Celor gt dow at the fequency laceaes Noverthelee, the name formate applet Ute Frequency sty cont. All we ha Imemter i tha pets smaller a6 the easetance Ina lane and that tl gets ale athe Trequency Ismael. "To" dtingish inductive from capaine we setance the former Is usualy designated Xp at the ter Xo. Just pan X can mean het one fo a combination of oth. Inthe form ot eae 21 tions, the iar exprened stove is words sot in af J the frequency, L the Inductance, and Cth capacitance The proper Unis hive Go be wie We won't atempt plain the factor 2 hee because has 3 hole {opie ia itl, andr chiely of mathe Resctanees Combined ‘The “oppositenest” of induct and cx tive eacance has another important effet. When coll and capacitor are connected I sens In t Sent, "one fendr to undo. what the oer {uy to do. This i quite deren fom placing two fstancet fn eerie The retanes both ast fhe sme way, andthe loa esitance ste tm ‘of the two, ut we pa iniuctve and capac the reactance in sere fe total reactance fe the ference. Conventionally, capclve reactance i fale gate and Inductive eactanee Is elt poses Thus a ses cleat ght hae. an Indvetve sactane ‘of p13 ohms and t fapatine Teatanee of "minus" 10 ons the {ota reactance would be ony 3 ohms (18 ~ 10) Inthat one However, reactance of the some kind add wp just ar teisore do. That i, am induce fe ‘eine of 1S ons paced inn with ono of & ‘Sh wil cent foal of 23 ahi. These ‘would've tte of two capacitive tectances of these same values, except thatthe sgn Would be eet. ‘Also, reacances of the same kind connected Jin part are combined by the same rls that te efor reitance, Not 50 with reactanees of opposite kind in parallel! Things bepn to get ompieted” in that ens ~ too mach 200 be onsidered in this book, except for one special ase the resonant ciel scat sen ye e Resonant Circuits Sine the reactance ofan inductance goes up when we Increae the frequency, wl ts fee tance of a capacitance goes dovn, ii wexonate te expet that at some frequency the reetanoes fot gven inductance and capacitance wil be qua. Tals bso. The eguency at which it Iappent called the esonant fequeney of the combination, "Weve ttly able lo ignore resonance in eaior Jrequency circuits. Is important Bees atthe ssonantfrequcney the inctverestane flaneed ove bythe expaitie resctance Tht22 rerctanct » omus Beggs ese g8 § UNDERSTANDING Xe (50 9 FREQUENCY § MEGACYCLES leaves us with only resistance operating. in the Sheu. ‘There’s tore fo i an Jot cancelaton of eactite effets, though, as we tl se Tig 2-7 arate how reactance changes with fiequeney. Tn making up this. eoph We have shoson 5H for the Inductance st $0 pF or fe capacitanee The ae chonen Is us stow 2 Tage Tange valves, ofboth feguency aad reactance, with constant percentage acura” a ty point on cutves driv on Ht TeX, cle Shows: that the wacanee goes em about 30 ‘hme at Me to over 3000 cet 100 The capacite reactance does ua the oppo 11 goos frm 3000 om 31 ls 14 He over 30ahns at 100 il. Otiervales 9 inductance fu cpaciinse Would have ifeent ace foc but woul. bahwve simi the ores Picked jut happen to be convenient for sty “he stiking thing here tht hese two cures rom cach other t lone to 10 Miz. At {hie Taguency ther eatin are sql men: {ally Tn other wordy the combination of $i Sd sO pls. Peanant at TO Mls. Remeber that the is only one such combinton, psked fut simply’ to show graphically ew resonance (ocure Theoeticaly Gee inte member ft combinations that wil resale at ny en Tequency. Drscaly, however, we ae conned {o cera cans af inductance and capacitance, tear of constivetinalmistonsof seth fois and eapactors. Series Resonance ‘With respect tothe cist in which they are used the cot and capicitor mye connected citer in sis or pal This shown In Fi 28, If we hive a source of volte, at the foment isthe sume all around the scat By the Ohm's Law ‘euttons Tor reactance which ‘we ive cater, the caren wil nue. voltage f0 ‘xist trot cach reactance "These voltage, hate Ben labeled Fy, and ein the series cieuit Stages It ma seem, they can be many, many Tues lager than the sours vllge In Ta they are usually a Test fon ness age, and muy beat mich ata fow hundred tins ate "rhs can happen because the two reactance cone ot tn hy eet st TeeeaT Tomy nel 1 ‘SERIES 1 1 lh e h =< PARALLELResonant Circuits reactance, There is nothing, then, tit the Mow cument ‘except the revtnce in the ‘eats Alfhough we havent shown any titan In Tig. 28, thee is ways some, beause 40 Components" operate without at ieast ate omer fos Also, the sure of voltage Wil have minora estance But i the total esate Se Sal the cuent wl be large, by Oh Law [And Inge current wil es i ag at el, la drops aeoss each reactance. The Une of Blase of thse voltages i such tht the Valle feos 1, has It potibe minum at te sme Instant thatthe Yoltage serve Char Is npg fsntimum, The two volte thes nd Wp Jal We can look at thie anther way, wich may make it acem more tewonable: The neal Tage vltges ‘can eveop Decals. of ene) ored"in the reactance “Te nergy sg into {he magnets fl of the indocace’ henetgy ‘coming out of the sete Hel! of the apace, then stored te the rape art coming tek Int the cut and pot into the sects ‘eld, The meant tiat'y ft of enery ean be Indod tack and forth between Zand C witht taking it ncescy forthe source fo spl an. OO cate, he energy “bank acount” ee fom (he sour, But afer an intel gy, the source hit nly to supply the seal power wid ap Parallel Resonance We hae a diferent, tat comparable, state of aster when Land Cae connotted pas Fee there ae to cunent paths, With the st olla, #, appled to both Tae two branch aren, Zand Tech depend only on the Sie Oli Law fit fora reactive eet If {he rectane sal and the votlags Bs nae, teh brane carent wil be large, Bat the sa Yeltege applied to oth sealant ss ‘Geel both’ tad the sae" cuent). So i tht ‘ue tthe cucents that add upto 2a round the etuits Tholr phase Issue tat he camer ch ofl, inthe pat af the crit out the ‘ol and espactr. inthis ease ten, thee no tent Mowing around the cl 53 we "A" purlelsonant “cucu “ook ke™ an ‘open crcit to the souce of vel. Compare {withthe sees ciel, which "ook ike ‘het creat. The reason for this behavior of the paral sea the mame nn theses ae = Stored energy toned tack and forth tween the inuctante and eapaince “Thee Meas of “thot Geet” and “open ci alt must be taken With eatin, They would be Tray trv i we could have ea nd capacitors witout any loses. But dese component aye to have Tone, Ifthe loses st rey sal! te fever cit Is approximately a tort cc nd the. pure cent Is approximately ax open ‘Seu: Loses meant rat the voltages Ia the sever 23 leu don't quite balance each other, and the aes inthe pall ccit don't quite cancel fact other. Some of the energy i lot exch tine i heded back snd forth. Thi lot ener as {o be poled contiuoualy bythe sure, in order to Keep things going nt an eten rate. The Source “sies" 4 retane, Therefore = vey Stallone in the cane of he tls col and ¢ ‘ery Age one in the cseof the paral ele Impedance If you've digested what has gone before, you'e rey fo tsk impedancy, 8 ord thst fete Tat of undying aro in amateut cone tone Ie, bade dcattion is 'mples bu tie katate far fom being to. Infact, we cant hope to do more. than. ge You 4, speaking fequaintnce wit some’ of them in Thi book ‘The noe working of actual crt tale: {ong ‘Inthe Td of enginesng rather ean Ihobying. Fortunately, you dont eed to Xo them in onder to. balld and" operate amateur “n boad terms, impedance is a number you tat by dling the vallge apple to's ct By fhe etient lowing into Rororting fo the Black tox sein (Fig 23), suppore we mente the canent J owing into the ox and find it to be 4 Soper wen the applied ac vltge is 250 Yells. Diving 250 by ger 500 ar the anwer. ‘ithoegh thsi nots Chal Wo py thet fave’ 300 “ois,” since the ohm Bo ets B's unit rereonting the ato of voltage Girent (that In de work. Bat we dont Eno’ whats ithe box, a0 we can't say that there “ohne ar eter esitanes or reactance It ‘would ake more than a simple measurement of Siren‘ voltnge to determine that, bees ‘tive hie seen = there iran element of timing ‘oF plate that fas to be taken nto account. The eter and voltmeter don't he any for ‘mation about pha. “The fet I at we could got the se answer whether we had SOD ohm of "pure rss be spare” rettane, But we could aso ge the ‘ime’ anor i the box contained S00 oh of Something tat Wasa combination of both. Suet {combination not only ean exist but actualy24 Fikely tobe more common than either sone. The ‘hy then, in thi ce could be eter resistance (recta, but more probably would be ape ‘nce, the mse for the combination. Yeu can ee why hing sat et compl cated at tie pot In poe reactance they at fut of stop by exactly onequarr of eyes ‘Tse ae Both very special cae 18 3 comple Impedance one made up of bath esstance and fevtance th eumen and voltage may be ot fof step i. any dies between exo and. one SQaser cya ‘rw mame of pole caer Ee. Resistive Impedance 1 happens that inf work we te concerned ost” wih tesonant ssi Tote, ae we ave Explained, "ook ke” pure resistances when they fe exactly tuned to the frequeney OM the exact esonant frequency” the esse 1 longer pure, bat in many” cass the altention of Feaiance. by fesctance n't 00 gest Tt i ‘istomary, therefore, to use the tem impedance rather Tooay fo tan a esti mpedance. A reste fmpedance fs one in whi the este ‘ete fr over the rence elects enough So thatthe Iter ean be nepected for pct "You wile references fo impecance i ame tour pubicatins, with oecaond rues 2nd Formalasfor one ‘or asther special cise. Don't {ai ito the typ of thinking Ghat these aes and orm te wholly aecuat. In most cases they wont be. Theyre peat aways aproxmations sed on assuming that something can be eg Feeed. This i done 10 simplify them, Property Sed, such rast and fonlat co be Ey ef in practical work Oscnomly, thous, Uhey are missed thyoup ignorance of thei hie fen finitations Me exious theetore, out {ppiving them fo ems other than the oe they Ebay re intended fo say some other rat functions. Just semerber tht Impedance isthe rato of silage to exrent int ‘teat, and that the ning or eof the ‘volta and current are, im gnerl, mch that part ff the energy is sted in resstinge and part I stored in revctance, ~The Shorthand Number Another thing yu'l oa 2 ot stout and reat 4 ot about iQ Thiet a mimber eked on to oli and expats, and rats fosed by ther, {o tie sme ion of their characteris, Wih ts Iipy and with tome simpliving sumption, = ode of sleltion an bese in suing {he operation of vie, ‘One definition of @ is that ithe ratio of resetance to restance, Thr in ip 210 the Q of the combination of and. trol toXy, vided by Ry, Ry may be separa, a how, On the fer hand, may be the reste UNDERSTANDING fance of the coil if, Thi intemal resistance (n't te spuated from the coy of eau, bat it es Just the tre 8 though ere fn ses wih ‘Toate cot The Gof 4 capadtor be found a the sme way ™ thats the @ is equal fo the reactance, oy divided by the fesstance, Re. Inna fale ‘ahce here ate the sane atin ie cae of the oa "Thus the deflation of Q apples to compos ats hain item estanee. Buti sso apis to's cul, formed by the component, naa fxtemalvestance i sees with en ich oe the Internal and extemal sesutance hae to be ded Together to find the ale of that Ist te uted in the formula, Since led external ‘ettance can ly rise the tte rsanee the @ slvays goer down when restance Ir sdcd in Flstince of ol or capacitor, an this ie the {Qyexcep by bling a beter component. 5 of Components capacitors have mach beter Qs than col, ‘rsa At teat, tie tr of the typeof apis used in io equneyeicats where Stinportant There capstone near vay ae fae with iter ret or sis the insulator or Gldtewie between the plten The Qr af such ‘Spsclon sun well ove 1DDD at's general ru This meane tat Ur lateral loses ae voy Small "nother wowds, the Internal rests ‘ey smal, Col Iwses fom much higher A cealy oat col, one wound with are wie lh foaced turns of rather age ameter (a Tew lien cd vith a mtn of supporting tr teil (achat af thin stripe af elton) ray hve a0 high t $00. The Q of a. col wound Of eal we on & form a quarter of ich ot fo in dameter, with 2 powderedeon ag or ‘Rlustoent of the tntuctane, nay beat low at 2S at igh foquence, Youcan st tna th @ we ave a sort of gure of mest for a col or capacitor. For a piven value St feacano, the higher the Qthe lower the Intemal osa The Qi important ‘not only ‘case of these les ssc, bul becase of He tlfeton the operon of resonant cei. it youve been wearing. your thinking cop, you've cau a one point we Invent mehResonant Circuits tioned. Sine reactance varies with frauen, the (of 3 coll or eapactor cant he expaded tobe the smo at ll Frequencies. Unies tat fs Fesstane changes in exactly these ay a6 te feactnce, 1 jst happens that over 3 inited Fhequeney eange the reutan of oll mae for Idlodtequeney use doe end to move ong with Its eaetance, Over auch fequeneysange ‘which i uta the ata range for tht ot the does change a reat deal Bt it dose ‘hang Se Tuned-cireuit @ Besides it application to inductance nd ape cltane singly, aso i ved to rattan ‘eit, Looting agin st the resonant wie cr fu of Fig 28, the Q canbe defined he fat ft to; tha i the ratio ofthe ena ota tothe voltage apphied fo teckel ‘Ovviosy, he Qisalso equal too/E, since By, and gare equal "(erase the astute a ‘hua he resonant fequeney "nthe paral cucult of Fig. 28 the Q ie cual 10 Jl, oft Fl, a you can veal ace Uy analogy fo the sei ect Ite change the Teguency sight, ler sireut no Tonge exactly resonant he ote, ‘ult the two feactances no Tonge bale each ‘ther completely tere is tome retctaoe eft, fn it impedes the flow ‘of coment So. ths farent decreases, and slong with tthe voltages Sdeveloyedactse the coll and capacitor In the panel eal, moving the Truancy le ey from sesnance sy, ite higher — wl fuse the curent trough the capaci ine ease beau the pastor resclance becomes Slight Tower Out the sueat thou! the ie ‘ictunce wil deren, ‘because the dative reactance becomes sighly hight. The wo cur Fents no longer cancel ech othe: hue the He ‘ment, Seco as Pralla! Resonance Well be deating most with paatteionant pment Thee se we're inlrested in the voltage, , that evel ‘ros the terms of he eit stand net th fteonant frequeey. ‘The source of energy it sumed to be generator, for tomennce (hetaly, the eneray wl be iitouced nt the [Seu by some other means int praclel exe) In the second case, Fig 2-118, the cue of energy, G, souls the cut and the thing of Interest i he current, 1, owing Into the eeu In Bh these cuclls the Qs determined by the value ofthe Testnce in elation 10 the Induce reactane of, just ar thou these Iwo. formed an infependent Sree Ne Gah forget the capacitor because is owes ae 0 Hows in teary all cases, that racial all the sicit"rebtance sn the coil Thus the Qf the cat at tho vesonant Teguency te Q ot oe el 25 “Take Fig, 2-114 fit, We wll stm a seu tuned to 3500 ie. The geerator, G, a = Constant ostpt of 1 volt whi te fequency "aed zound 3500 Kt I the Q of th cet 40, te veltage st 300 kia wl be 100 volt Ite change the frequency to, 30, 360 ke, Wil be only sound 17 vote at shown by ihe (0-100 curve in Fig 212, though tor eal 1 Fett coming from. At'3800 Kile, would be ‘only vol, and 30am Mort of he resonant st in voltage fakes place quite ear the resonant Frequency. Ths i charscteritc of al cat Saving aly high values of. 1 seane that the Ciratt “responds” ony ¢o troqucnses close 19 ‘etonanc. Such cicult shap, or aac, (ite ollge thie cae fe elaine fox percentage tenn, since the fame sao Wl Hoi! for the sme’ cheut no rmatter what the seta vole applied though @) High and Low Circuits Now suppose that we hae a tei tod to Ae sume requency, but having Q of only 10 In tims of percenige eepons, would Took Uke the one! matted Q-10 In Fig 2-12, Ths response ie not abarp ike that ofthe 2°100 ve” AL 3800 Kil ii ging 50 erent st ImUCh Yltage a at resonance aprnt percent forthe ekult hating @ of 100 Such acute It toad, of "nonselective" Both shop and broad ‘apes of response hae thee wes a v u (8) oex BR 3 assesses PERCENT OF MAXIMUM VOLTAGE Oe cOnneNt FREQUENCY - KC. Incidentally, f we bad 1 vat fom G in both ict, the resonant voltage Inthe Q-10 eat etal Would be ony oneenth le av that Flom the Q=100 chit Th i shown Oy the ‘ue marked Ain Fl 2-12 Parallel Impedance “The clout of Fig. 24108 & supplied eneay fiom the owtie rotor than the fade andthe fonestor Gi asumed to he cnsant output foltage as the Trequety # vared AS we tar inthe paral ccute tefe caren, Fin cameron he Hee rae, Th ‘Gaont set atthe resonant Gequeney, sh ‘ona th Teqeey is sed to either side of ‘We could get rater good ida of how the lie soment wil depend om the eet Q snp tyr ooking at the cars. of Pig. 242 upsie rw. However seer move wet 10 ‘hime of the parle impedance of the eu, Preference to thiking of caveat rations. To [tthe relative impednee yarn we tar the fiver sight side" up agua In other words the fame. cures can he used’ 10 show ithe the feronantvllnge eo St sees cuit or the Itapedanee vie ina pa ccult As sven In Fig, 212, both ae on 2 porenige bss. The fetial ale of volts in the sens Sse, oF fs inthe purlel Cae, depend one sctual Te tance of Land © at the reson Gequency, fd alo the ect 0 The npedance of parle cai opeated seat resonance s usually conser tobe purely ‘uses Stet epeking, tie trae only the hat resonant Gequeney, Ar soon ate ove the feguoney ftom resonance we et reactive fete However, In ost chet wo csn ignore ei a a UNDERSTANDING. them because we opemte the crcl 40 near eronance that the inpedane i very cow 10 ‘eg pore estan, ‘Bandwidth Radiofrequency signals in a form useful or commaniction da sot const of jst one single frequen, even though we usually speak Of fens Being "on™ suchandsuch a Trequency ‘The ena actually cups a band of freuen Ges, The wid teased Inet or El Fett, depends nthe Hind of modulation used ‘An ediny phone tanemision cups band teat twice as rent asthe highest audio ifequeny in the modulation. Ths highest Te ‘quency. might e400 het in Which case the ‘andwidh ofthe sgl would be ice 4000, or ODO hers (8 kay IC such pone signals ‘onerodon eer Heguency of 3980 Kl, (etuly wil se band) of Sroqwendes ing etecon 3946 and 3984 ke "Al of the frequencies within such a band rma patt through ur selective eit. Other tine. we wouldnt get the ll benellt of the Inttipnce-bearing prt of Se signa It there fore eset To Know fast how wide. band ‘Sete clue wil pat The limite of sca pase Band re gonealy taken to be thas points Whee the response in voltage "down to Appeosinaely 90. por sont of the ssponse at Ric sons.” Seventy por cont in voltage vesente a 204 rofuoton in power so these rosa ofcn called the hal'power of 3.4 Fins. They hae been mked by small tows Ene camer in Figs 2-12. By low impetion Jou'can ate thatthe cucu with a of 100 has {andi of out 38 Rize he one with {0 of 10 hava bandwith of about 350 KzResonant Circuits Circuits with External Loadirg To repeat statement that war divased at some length caer In is chaper, eesance i Something tat sir up energy poner The ‘object of rei desig to comey ewer 10 4 vce ~ the loud ~ where some dosed we st te made ‘itn the toned seus 50 far onsidre, all the" power pt into the cicie Sayed there. Te was Used up i the resance the sci el Sometines the cult Wet actly the ese Toad, Ts I the case with may reser ‘Seuls where ~ asin supplying sal lage 4 vacuum fade amplifier no power breed ‘hom the cen case le thi the fest we made ofthe avlsble power when all fi wed {0 psnerte the maximums porsble Toon fae in alae However, tis setiom the cae in tame iti Here we Want to get power ou of the Seu, Toned deus are aways dy for feasons you wil met tater in the sition on ‘aceum tuber Past of the chews ob Co soe that an ampliier tbe is gen the Kind “ot esse Toad Hwan: The itu Toad ch isan antenna or tambon tine selon hs {he vate thatthe fobe woud kes Well ake ast, tne Simple ease at this jute, levine forthe ‘cussion or later inthis capt nd ts Chaplet Load Resistance and Citeuit © tn Fig, 213 the gemerator G repeats & vactumtbeanplifer ‘consected to es ‘ult, ZC. The geector seer estate ol a ‘aloe deternined by the Q af the cout nd the "Ractce of Zor C. It the Q slow this pul felstance (betwonn A and By wl be Hwa You have men, Low Yetance meat that mate cr tent wil be taken fro he penertoy, shin that ie voltage output ts more or less constant Sov the Tower tho Q)of the cri the mone fewly the geetiton loaded and vce ven, ‘Obiowiy i ne can vary te ecu Q we can atthe fad on the generator to any ale we ant, within patil ite. An est wy foray the ict Q's to comet the acta ond sta 27 aly part of the cola shown. F the aunber of il tims between andthe tap al come Ded with the number between" and the ‘tment going Into the lsd wl be atl. As we howe the tp up the coll the Toud takes mare ment This has the effet of towering the euit_Q/and thus lowering the enstane be ween and Soon by the gence “This is only one af many wipe tn which 9 load can be intodeed nto cet to vay the Gand with tthe pall retance or imped tee of the chcuitYou'l moet oles inthe Superson prt! crt applications, One af the” important ener ix hued "on the kindof Induetive Coupling We sow eater that changog apneic fll, suchas set up 89" the af cure lowing through a col. indaces »votge inthe cl Tis voltage dstibstes Ws» peru basi the Mek around all uns the ume. at ays the sme, tn the Kind of eo used In sf ec, for a tuiber of reson “one of which the ‘act tat there fs no way to Keep the il fom spreading out inthe sic) thee the. teresting thing: "Te ld dow cae whether the tums la whic ie icing vole are aM pact ‘of the sane co or ot, Wo ca have fo" oF more coll inthe sme eld andthe Yollge each wil bein proportion “tothe or of tus it bs, us ‘2 [Eon ‘This means that load can be connected to nent separate coll L2y at nig 214 The Secon cot ould have about the sae mumbo {tins the mer sco which he lal Was connected "inthe tapped ‘elt, F213. However, tat cae it would be neces for 12 "to be just as clove to LI at ie ow tn “This might be done by winding L2 ght ever the Tower pat of 11, for example, “The advantage of the tool amangement is ‘tat thee is'n0 direct connection between the load and the power source. This ie often son ‘ene tn Working with rac tubes that have Torre lage de voltages appli to them ‘A coll coupled to 2 tuned ici iy often called Tinks It dest hive o be wound ht emai eo, aetaly I the to ae28 sonewhat spate and th nk i movable with {tages to Liy the vllage aducod In 1 wll male a we move the ink father ay. Thi ic ‘led “vung the coupling” It gies smooth ‘ijustine ofthe losing 08 the et “The Transformer ‘wo cil wed in this way form what ical 8 rasormet, The raormer pncple att fal ina changing magnetic fed has a voltage Induced in it whether or ot thee beet Connection Netween it and the source of ene) Sopa af any troquncy, Ie widely sed 3 fhe’ powerine fequeey, 60 her, 8 You 0 Aout sredy bao Towfequency transformers a made. di feretty from those aed nthe if cheats We fave been condering up unl ov. Cols for if ‘Grate ate wound on inating fos. Cols for Sonertz tanormer, and for foquenees cor ‘exponding to the stration rate of Sound, up fo around 1500 fete, are wound on on cores (ig 215). Tey alo have many tore Cams an SECONDARY Fraguntec up Yo SSa00 of To,0c0 cite, The swe find in af cols, The lon coe and the Ise Imumber of turn ae secosy at sich ow Iiequences. Tir is Deease the goetic ld ‘ange soy at sy, 60 hertz as compared with SToo0a00 hers (7 Mie). fact, the Fate at he Titer fequesey Is aver 100000 tines taste!) So forget much indoed vttage we hive to use many ferns and asp we fron The Wor increas the Stent of the magnet eld any, many tes 36 ‘onpared with stent ae Turns Ratio ‘The ion has anotbor advantage. The manele fietd indy much exer to stay i than Teak out info'the a So all we have to do It tind the cal round the on core apd they aro Iin een the same apneic eld. Thc ‘cane that the vllge pr th Wl be the sme inal of them, Le soe how it wort ov UNDERSTANDING. Suppose me have 6O-ert tasfonnee ha lng two ci ooe of 200 tne andthe other 400 funn If we comect the. 200mm. col 10 a Tistoit sours, the voKageindoced in Hw be HHS volts tt 'snce the 400-0rn coll In he fate iid and has wie a6 many fellge induced Unt ll be 250 vot Spy by Indi on the right numberof fusos we ca get Thy. vlogs we want within eonstvtonal int {Mion This the way’ power tansformers— the {tanformers that eat the cathodes of our fae nd supply the power fr he plates we nade Primary and Secondary Power Dut dese Is another aspect. The tansformer can't manufacture power fuel tn fact el farm sme of the power supplied to I Lato heat eat in the windings and Bea nthe cove. This is Jot power, but cant be helped; the wie and ftom stat perfect from an elect standpoint Te ty were esect, all te power put Into the pinay ‘winding the one connected 10 the ower source ~ could be taken rom he eon Shy or output winding. However, for rowh stones wo tsaly ase that we ca tke as ‘uch power from the secondary Ip Into the rims). This i approximately tue, becuse ettdeignedtanformer wil tun nly 8 sal evaniage of the ttl power it heal ‘Now the consoquens of the Tt that dhe secondary power ie never ore th the primary power is ths I he veconaryellage Bee hone pelnay volta; the scondaty cent hs to be proportionately aller ah the nny cure and ice vor Instr Wor Ihe Ghent malipled bythe voles hao. be the fie" in Bath windings. (nepecting. those est owes af coun, whish show spat ation Power going Into the primar), Soi the seon ry valle of the trnforner in the example fove "twice the primary wll, the primary wl have fo"be ice the secondary Impedance Transformation ‘One thing about tansormers of this type th sou need to Keep in mind fr that the currents spend on what comected {othe secondary ‘winding If 2 23009hm rear iconnected fo the abot secondary winding the cure wil te 1 angers. The cut Inthe 11590 rina wining wil be 02 ampere, by he tle ‘at mentioned. The soure of power 1 eng” Sfoad of 02 ampere at 115 vote Thi load Tooks lke 115/020 oF 57S ohms, although the (al sesondary fad is 2300 ohms IT we ean tect 4 230m eslor 0 the Jecondary. the ‘Scondaty coment wil be Lampe and the Primary coment wil is to 2 amperes. Tn tat Ete the primary ses a load of $7 ohms. The load “looking ito the pinay not something tht ie 2 fixed property of the tan Fleer Te etermined 8 the Secondory TatTransformers resistance and the ratio of tune on th pimary fd secondary windings, By chooung the proper tar rai for the windings, we cin make ny ge Toad vitae Took Ike some value that ore stab for ot power source. Thi ie summed up intl! the Iinpedance silo af the trrsrmery ropor tonal (0 the aquere ‘of the turn rat Tn he transformer used ithe example above, ‘he tune ‘ato was 2101, 0 the impedance ratio wae 4 10 1 (We talked in tem of restnce rae than Impedance became ss snple, and ner fees we do deal with simple rosa cther than impedance generally) Impedance Matching Fig. 216 shows a couple of examples of impedance tasformstion alse gies is fr mle Transformers havi the reed taros Talo ate used for changing impedance eee tr tdi freguency cults when the ata oad foes ot match the tessance that would be ‘ptimun forthe generate fear expe is the output tandormer wet between annus power tbe anda loudspeaker ‘The speaker wal five some ow vale of pean ot restos, ach a4 olin, while the power tube wate & end resco pai Sd che forts bs ‘operation. Tie Unsformer fun ato would be hosen acorn between the pene Tncidentay, the restance that mashed is the opium’ oad reste for the. see of ower, not the resistance that maybe in that fouree Gd all sources of power do hae tena estan). We caudate the sources interna ‘stance and such matching ote in fot rest inthe highest pone power output However It also rests in poor een andy inthe ase of tevces such as Yacaum ‘tbe an tanstor, [Beat deal pte’ dtrtion than is waned. The ptm Ioud eistnesconidert thea cto, Si is chosen to. ghe ur the best posse a ound compromise Shielding 1 is worthunite a this polnt to get off the main tack of couing fora moment and ke tp nother aspect of ttt you wil we ont, “This the mats of shel Tr you puta coll ides metal encour, the lose il set Ike the seconds of 2 tame forme. The col tua i the primaty. The rage Indued In his stcondary” wil eae 2 catent {o flow ia i. The caren turn ste up eld hat “opposes the petmary magnotle fd that Produced i Ifthe restane ofthe enciogute Tow, tho two Gade wil fort about cane cach ‘ther ouedde the enclosure, The the enone A hlld which. prevents the call from being Imapneveally coupled fo other ccteoutide I Preventing such stay coupling hight neesay inmany eet "Tis method works fine a allo Sequences, ‘ou fo ot the same result at aio frequencies 29 Ratio 3101 awe FT e a the shield would have to be very thick. ta this Seqvency ange we depend on the lon coe fo enn the ity oteing it the most favorable path. An ton enclosure, sot nee of How let wesstance, aio. ep fo the sane let, ot contrasted to magpeti, Held se aay ‘confined side metal elon, yen in tones This te at al frequencies if te re fance of the met tow. The metal sly sorteleute he elect itd soit cn" pet throws Coupled Tuned-RF Circuits In Tig 2.14 one tei, dat formed by Li and C, wasted. The second, 2 sn the fod, was. The secondary eit a b's tuned one Tower. When both ciel are tned" Tots same requeney sore corent wil flow In the ‘Secondary, Because the reactance ofthe capacitor nels the rsctance othe cll ‘One result of this rete erent lw is that te two calls donot hie fo bes ‘near exh ‘ter for transfering given snout of pow from the primary to the secondary. Tht I oon mping can be ssed. Another ont to tnd coupled) clclts are_ more slste. than one Both of thom hve resonant Qs and thus both wilt ‘respond most stony” to. Just oe Frequeney.” ‘This ges area way ‘of neesing selectivity in echo Ext wlectiity often Sef in tanner, to, beware tena ‘He prone to penerte frequencies we do Mong withthe one we do want, These spurious30 w © oe eG oe, Tae ErucAsasd tor eating to mghvaue of frequencies can't be allowed to ge out with the Intended sis. “Two. common yper of indutely-coupled resmant cite are shown in ig. 217. The ‘Srangument atthe top Hr slace ues sed invecenes ware the lod often i very ih tne intrest in getting the lrgest possible val te fom the secondary cic The ower ett ised whan the Toad es low setae. Tes ‘cn found In transiting cuits Coupling and “The way chee crits operate depends pen cipaly on ie naval tnt the feet ‘Pionaing on the Oe I Boh etculs have hi Gone tm netmare~ the comple between ‘haa canbe ery Toone iadedy ven when the Imetiuin power i being tansfered Tom the Frimary tthe secondary. ‘The Tein ee Fy tl be gute high -On the other hand, if the Qe ae lows ithe neighborhood of 10 ich ~ the coupling between the wo coils must ‘be much fight for optimum power taster, and {he lect wil bs loves, The Bih-D toned teasfonner s the Kind we svat fot our rceners. Tae low? one i more eta in raat where Tage mount of power ust be handed aad we tart aford to Foor imac of inthe. cuca themselves, A ‘Ses aaded by awful reatave such aan ‘Stennis to work a¢ rately Tow @ s0 that ‘most of the power will go ino Toad instead ‘St bsing bunt up in hetig he Coefficient of Coupling ‘The deg of coupling between two cols i cxpreaed by a number ated Thc eoeffcent of UNDERSTANDING comping. At thi stag te extent for you to ftw ts techie dfition, ei sulient 10 hot that rnp al eoeficlent of coupling wi Sie for maximum power taser Ifthe two fouped cats hve high Qs, That i the cols ne rlstely well sepanted. Ifthe ccul Os IC vs the coupling cetiient mst be hg, ‘meaning that thew ols wil ave fo We rather ‘tose toyehe. Selectivity of Coupled Circuits What happens we vary the coupling between two tuned ucts? 1 the couplings very Tose, ying the fequency applied. ¢ the primary Ceutt wil cae the secondary respon 10 0 fhvoush the values shown by curve Ain Fi ip."The eueve sharp ~ god slctivity ~ bat tee avert tunafered al fhe posse 1 emery ‘om the peat to the scondny ine now Lares the coupling 10 the point where "the mcondary respone i as shown by ave Be ate geting the maximum possible ‘hogy tanfr Ths felled the pot of eed lung. The cure eth sme general Shape a RMBs tee sect. Ifthe cooplag Be eased stil farther the cous are sald 0 be ‘reroupled, As ofecouple. response, shown ty sues € and D, alway shows two “humps or point of mauinom response. "Thee aie holt equally spaced from the true resonant fEaqueney The dip in de center ofthe curve It fl the iru ate Jost beyond ttl Eiping, sv in The more the cucu are ‘Srecoupled, the deeper the ip and the farther Spat the hompe become Orereouping ives a bandpass effect that i often wel, The respons cure Is opproxt fiuely Tttopped If the cial are Nt too Dally orercoupld. This ie efor psig Se alt that hve appreciable bandwithVacuum Tubes Signa. (a) Si SIGNAL «, neu Co) Other Types of Coupling In somo teoines you may find ica sim Jue to thowe shown te Fig. 219. Thee no Ingoctve coupling betwoen the tuned ete ict and 1202. Ia fact, they maybe seed fiom ich othe. The “coupling i the apacltor, C3, coniected Between he to ere A, 3 connects the “hot” ser of et ‘izeuls The coupling ceticent depends on the “ale of ths caactans the ret Or a heh (C3 be quite stall when the coupling at It fica value At oven yery Tow radio frenences jst ep wl alice, 31 oureur outPuT 1B, tho crits ar coupled a the lowpo- tent site C3 comeon fo both iret and the Waa developed sere t by corentfowing fhrowgh It and CI intodacee energy ito Ue cul completed by C2 apd L2. Only vty sal Wollsge needed Yor ental coupling 20 the fapaeiance "of C3 in thi cic vey lage ‘Sompared withthe expactnces of C1 an C2 i 2191 i probably the one more quently ed. iy sulting in varousvaltee of C3 the oping — an hae the bandwidth of he ned Itansformer ean easly be changed To sul the Sindee of various type of gl, ‘Vacuum Tubes Youve slendy fomiig, wlth what iti tat makers vac ibe tc te we want pe tp some aditonal deal at wil be heal {your reading and in dicsion with othe ane “The diode or two-kment tube i 2 simple steele, having jut eathode and plate. Kony te sb neieatin”Reetiestion, the ably 1 ‘conde cute ia one dection but notin the ‘te, os to plinepa tle in xmaear equi iment, One the detection a ected signa The Second i converting ac Int dn power replies. cits for these purposes ave diced i ther flap The aifernce Between th two eae Emphasced bythe ferences stand cont Strton atthe tuber employed lt then These ezecos i ten rest Tom the ge dieser In the power leva tht the tubes het andl Power-Handling Ability 1A diode wsed at n detector in resher ie called to handle nly mlesracpic amnnts of Power‘It cat therctorebe quite anal The type {GALS tube ia good example I asia oder in the snes ball ied foreguarceing tubes In Tat, a couple of ode fen wl be ound, tes" whic are primacy tiode or pene receipe ampliers The later art [et tiny eyinders soanding an extention of a Fndiety Rented cathode. (On the other hand, diode (or double diode, which more sal) fora power epply vl lnvaribly have eather Inge bul ancl ‘ager pits We may need 30 or 40 watt of de power for an otdlaty receiver, a often mush fore for 2 aall wanker. ‘The ret tbe ia to handle th. "The diode retin, whether itis simply de tecting sgn!‘ serving to transfor a nto de in s power supply. docie't do i 100 per seat tincieny. Some of the power going nto the Date or plates dost goon throgph to the load ‘A oltage: must exist betweon fe plate aad32 cathode if cureat to flow though the tbe. IF {his vote (eld the ube vatage op) Is ‘mulpied by the easnt, We hve the power that toon the ube sll. Tks power beat the plate I'he cunt age ihe power heating the plate tw be lng, too, especially Hf the his fo be "ther lage oltag betwee the pt and eathode fo make the large curent low okep the lites A essoadble temperate It ecsary To make {her ig And to et the Heat ont nto the lt ‘ky te ube at to haves bulb wih plemty of Siac as, Plate Dissipation ‘You can seo what dffence thls makes by comparing the GALS wi sa. SUNG. Che later inthe ype of ectiiercommoaly usd in leven fecivert wheres conserable amount of de power Heseeded) Ifthe abe i Co have lng, ims He tho bly to got id of 4 Lt of eat. Tis sity is "sumed up the raed safe pate ‘isipaion of tho tube. “Tho safe plate dspation — meaning the ‘autr of weatts tat can he alowed to hest the ‘late without damaging the tube san Inprtant fhetorin'eny type of te, mot ast the dade rectier No rater what the tube ye, the Pate hating omer from the sane caus the Yollage drop and the plate cure. One of the dep pover lubes to make age ants ow with telat Ite voltage at MUST... GET R10 OF ALOT OF HEAT” ‘otwoen the plate and cathode, ths reducing the ‘ower let inthe pt 220 may help mae this cre. Although we havea’ shown anything connec to the pd, {he mighe bean ample eucut The patsy. Voltage Is 400 and the current is 100194. The Yale drop ta the Lod e300 (which means at the fod restos is" 3000 ohms, a you aa cay iute fiom Ohm's Lav) This Tees {0 volts between the plate and cathode the fube. The power inte foals. 300 vlts 1° ampere or 30" wats The power Tow i fhe fae pte e100 volts 01 ampere, oF 10 watts ‘You can cay see"wi we Wao MALE ios! ofthe voltage To be "ied up” it UNDERSTANDING te losd rather thin in_the tube, The fot ower Is useful power. The tbe power jst Feats he pie Fig. 220. is_ pretty ely simplified, in texms" of inary fue. opertion. ‘The. acta! fatten would be varying radio audio Tre Inency "when the tube ie ampli Als, the Toad probably won't be x rete, if ay power tring handed. Think of the load something (hat ovttike a vostasce in that it sonsumes ergy: For example, it might bea lovdpeaker eupied to he tbe tvough trasfrmer. Plate Efficiency Whencrer an attempt Is made to get mich power from tube, he raionhipbetveen and per Tost he ‘The Meare of it fale the plate efficiency of te ampli cea. Pate effiency isthe rato of the output owe! {othe de power lap to the plate Tm the abore example, the de nput i the sum of he plate disipaton andthe lad power) that. 10 + 30" 40 watts, Thos the ite elcleng) is 30°dided by 40, 01-075 {5 per cet) “Tube Characteristics A charset i¢ something that tls you what find of operation you cam expect frm a Tube, Probably the most important af thse it ‘ne having the rather teinealsounding name ‘ot eameondictnce, Tt simply cane the change Im plate current for a given change in wri vl ger 'A. tbe ean amplify beense 2 change ia the voltae. appled othe grid can cause the Date cument Yo. change, Thus, the biger the Dstecirent. change for 1 even gr-volate hang, te etter the tobe far an amp. {We eal stout say “in is ntended appli tion" Besa other thing than toon tance ean affect the" smplifeaton for eames he fequeney “at which the tbe wens) ‘Charcteritics slated (0 the uansconduc tance a the ampli Tatar, and the pate sitaes. "The amplifation fictor, often calVacuum Tubes ‘he mu i) els us something about the weation ‘hip hetween plate volgen gd alas Sup pose ie change the i vllge by one ell ad Sse ho mich te plate crn chan The wwe change the piste voltage by whatever seu eeesary fo bring aout the sae latcurent change. Petia the pate vstge wil hare to hanged by 40 vets to dot Ten the sepliice tion foctot 40 volts died by I valor 40, with -amplieston factor (10 oer 100 the platecathode circuit of The tune were cea oainaty restr, the plate restance would be equa to the platecathods vatage a ed by plate cree ena, Homeves that leads only’ toa "state” values not‘ much we Wee more intrest inthe set of clange Plate ellage on the ‘pate current, sine such ‘hangs are typical of what goes on ne be when is anplying So the plate tesitance Is ound by thing curent readings st two ier ent plate volts and iing the diference Fiate voltage Oy the lore. plate caren ‘This eure coresonds to the Iter esence of" geeraor The plate crit of x tbe nts Jost Ie sich generator when sniping, ‘Making Tubes Work Reduced to tare event, the tube ampli fer cieait i shown in Fig. 221. "The some’ of {© signal tobe amplified fe reposnted bythe fenerator The amplified gn apps the fonds The’ de volage which i appied to. the até to" make Ht atiactebctons fan fe fnthode region it of cours een, Wisout i the tbe cant function. The tbe He does not Supply power tothe oad sltougs His fometines handy to thnk oft ae'2 peterson "Simply converts de power, taken frm ths plate” power supply, sto aweful ‘Rnd of butpot” power ithe loud” Han this Bone hold &able'to contol he plate Note that a gid ae sien i dawn in the" cele This re td vllge pid VOLTAGE ON GRID -jerm+ | Bias] PoaTe| + owen (othe eid. 1 needed the great majority of cuts in onder'fo make the ube operate in ome desired aston. Ht ist sways een feime tabes are designed S0 they can operate ‘When pid bias & requied, the de_vottge applied to the gid alvaye neptvs This hs the effect of dcteasing the plate rent, you rey know. The signal voltage tobe sinpiied ivan oe voliage, When i res in the: poiive lection it cance part ofthe steady bas alage fan the gid. When it swings inthe negate Aitcton it ads tothe negative bs vlape This ip'own in Fi. 2.22, We sy that the tna “sopenpose onthe wi ig 222 shows 3 onal having a instante ‘us peak of 10 vols superimposed ons neptve de voltage of 20 vltz'At the poniv sia pea the actual voltage atthe andr 10 vals negative wit respect to the cathode, whe the egnive signal peak it ie '30 volts neat With respect tothe cathode,” At me tine uring. each cycle the instantaneous gd ollage pases though every pombe vas be tween “10 and 30 volt The plate curent Of te tbe follows theve changes, Being lagest When the gad ir at 10" vale and saat ‘when the iis at "30 vot. Nogetive-Grid_ Operation In this example the suk voltage never time signa34 reaches era ~ ta does aot rah the point Were there Iso vot betwoon the grid and {khoae' "even istantacouly- As you know, ‘tpnivety charged! sectrode in» be Wil not itwel ection. Sov if we always Keop the gd festive, nov cunent wil ow ia the eeu formed by the estode, gril, sign source, and far souge, The i important becuse tube fperted i thie way does aol abe ny power ‘om the sign source, (Both uit aod val fe we oonded to) ake power) This is fie edhe panpose Of ampying weak sens, be fe aly weak enale cant ply pre ‘ne power. "Te! dosvantge of keopng th id eniely ‘on the neptve ides that I Hits the range ‘rer which the plate curent can be made 10 ong We cin australe this by «simple gph, Fig 222 Tie shows the pst covent that wi ‘how for each voltage we put on the gid (ie lute voltage is asmed fo have sae fied vale table forthe tube) Mths it tube whi fated ay sown In Pig, 222, You ean see that the, isantanous plate cameat tthe poste peck of the TO-olt gal would be about 30, FA, while om ho negntive signal peak the pate funent would be about S mA. fh toll Ghange OF°20 mA. If we beresed the gal feilge fo a pea of 20 volts the istantapeous Dil oltage would be jot zero othe postive ipa peta wch time. the pate current fPould Be most 50s. On te rogatie peak of UNDERSTANDING sch goal the gid yltage would ech —40 tin fhe plate cuent Would be zero. This a most SOA change the most we ean ot the (Bol eto stay negate all the Hime. But asthe Ente shows, the plate cient Keeps ing > wen the pd Is tae postine with respect 0 te eathoae Grid Power If the sgn source could die the ri pos tive, we could get ger singin plate coment fn theshy inreate te tbe'scutput. But the insant the gd goes pose, coment sats to Flow in the grit seul a shown bythe ct faked "fg This ans thatthe ral source Fist spply tea power whenever the gid is Dose If the source can supply the power, well hd gad. Some sures ean and some can, The Cutoff Point Fig. 223 shows that the pte cusent gets somalles and salir at we take the gid bile hore negate. At~240 volts Bias the cure is rectly oro that Hut off Making The aad voltage stl more neat ant do more isn that to the plate caren. But thee ate tually advantages to setng the Dis "beyond Sito for certain types of Operation, partie ‘Sly in power amplifier. Tn sll other ‘pes of amphiers there ate vantage 0 sting the Bish at of not que €, fhe ewatt point neither ease the benefit sth Increasing the plate etfieney of the ampli, x Compared with the type of operation just die aed which fhe plate curent flows though: ‘ut the signal eycl. Just how this comes about was feces! subject which you can fit fret in more avaneed books. Far the present, i cnompt to now that operating a tbe wih thas eae beyond eatof docs help inerease the Pine efiensy of the amps, Distortion ‘The inctemed ficiency hat te price, The output sgl cant be. exaclly ike the ial Sta forthe grid Hf te plate current sot off (Riing are ofthe eyee- In omer words, theres ‘Sometimes there & a fot of distortion. But in any hinds of ampli ditrdon does" mat ter te mattes nan audio amplifies Tt does nat mite rch in many types of power am ve Youll ind morn this subject In sab ‘eent chapter ‘Voltage and Power Amplification ‘thin bangs up the pont that here are 0 Aunds of ampliiation in paca se, Tn one fa we ty fo get the lnest. possible oltre ffom ‘he ample. This worthwhile when that tellge i to be amplified in tn, bya ollowing plier tage (atae the nate gen to one of TMhumber of amples wed coneeutiey eonVacuum Tubes 35 co —3, #0500 19909900 so9p00 Imifon to oe 0 woaoe0 POWER RATIO secutive amplifiers ate sl fo bein case) If the gi af the following tbe ie never allowed to "go pose” ‘The fecond kinds called power amplifestion, Here wee intrested in tine av ch ower os pontle fom the abe Ti often ghar ng the gid of the tube pontine, Thue powers {ed up in the gid ict in onder to pace the mast out power inthe plate soul ‘Voltage amplicaon ite rato of @e out put voltage to these tpi) vollge that Produces It. Power smpieatin, sma ie the {atin the power output tothe sgl Gd) ‘ower tat produces i ‘The Decibel Noe that power amplifation i rio of two powers. In communication work yl find that power vaio ‘ften mean muck fe than the etal value ofthe power, A sgl having» power, of power lvl, of one wal wil sound, fers say, twice at Toud when it power sreaed f0 two watt To ike I wn trices Toud' apn we would have to incest the power to four vatls. To make Ht twie a oud aan we ‘would have to icra it Yo eght wale ach Flep inthe loudeess ene rogue mulipting te power by some constant factor = the fact fis example ‘Thee i # mathematica system for chaning thew ratios Into spe ambos fan be aed If wo use It we don't hare (0 throug Lot of moltiplistion to aie an mre of how muuch we ners algal sheng iy creasing power. It handy to make sat a Sach ster one hat stand fox 1 jee otieable Incetwe biga strength, The nt the alld the debt, dbeevated 1 sane Tor ‘nuliping the power by 1.26, symone imately. Hho power fr incented by § decd, fo example, it means that there have been 5 Succes jstotieeble Ineenee in nal strength, ‘Ai axy tlatonship to remember is tht x power ines of 3 deel fslmost exactly the fame as multiplying the orginal power by 2. Fig. 226 ica chat showing the number of decibels ‘onespondiag fo various power nto. "The deel works bow wayt that it sive the tate of decrease in power eel ise ‘eal a ghee the rai ofa incrns. Al you slo's abut instead of ing, Ifyou ct your teanantier power down to. onehall that i vide i by 2 ~ you have ecrnted by 3.4 ‘X’mamber of dca with a mina gf ot {or it means a fos of power of that al tthe Sien poste, of mo spn i shown, su in power le mean. Amplifor Gain ‘The gain of an amplifier, whsthr i has jos, ‘one stage or many, canbe excited sie a & Simple aio of voltage ‘or power, of gen in ecb Usually ‘you wil have oto in Sev what meant Bocuse it cstoracy £0 ‘peak ofa voltage pain of 1000, cr power pin fF 250, or 8 gan of 30 a aung the appre Wate out for gains given in dese, avhen an stp conta ‘ell as power ampli te sometimes sed loosely — and often incr. Fecty to exes voltage gain. Alway roa ‘berth the deel stands Tort power ta ‘Amplifier Clasitictions ‘Wow mentioned that there ats several dife- vent pes of ampliention and i appropriate36 UNDERSTANDING TET J, TRIODE TeTRODE PENTODE a this point 10 sort therm out, Fit, there isthe ind ianed in conection ‘with Fig. 222 is ‘dntingushing fextore Hr fh plate cusene flows “he seal eye tbe ad Is never, oul, den neal beyond te Sito” oine An amplier operated in this way is See See A mptiie Since pte cue Stati Given dow jst at muchas i is ‘ven ‘up by the signal, the aver pte cue en stags jst about the tame wheter or At 2 Sea onthe Now suppont tht the hiss i 2 at culo, ‘ox sgh to thepostve sie of atl! 0 that jst te plate caren flows when theres bo signa. Dutng the nepatie hal of he se fi sys the pte coment says cutoff Dur- Iie the poate aly the pte cent wil be nna in proportion tothe amphi of ‘igal Tia iy fhe average pute current ‘hanget whe the sgl i appli od he Die {he eal voltage the pete the late current This Saled Gass B smpiication* You see appl ‘ations of tin ter chapes. "Thee is third gener pe — the Cl amplifies, Here the Bint i st wel beyond the {Stott polnt wp to twice the ba eequed for ‘Stott, "au. A Tage gid deing voltage Ie ‘Sed So"tinge that making st taper Wout ‘hose any further inereeinplte caren This Is ‘Sed hing the tbe to startin ‘Css C operation ger the ies pate of ficiney that can be abtined 1 uf rr power smplfers that are wed for sode Work, oF Ie to be modulated for phone, It usd every ‘here im asmltets except in one case whete Vinoddeted signal st be apie, Class © Speration destroys the ample edulation on PS apled toe pid. A Clas Avot Class 1b smpliier uit be "used for ampllying module sia Seraen-Grid Tubes 1k would be nice Af we could set very lange sings in plate cheat Without hig 10 dive the ad positives This "would mean Inge power tae the soppresor a (3) inal fulput fom the tube wth no diving power Sern tube design hat gone tong way toward Th goa, ian done with odes, however. It ington having sbotber electro, the sreen il, in the tube “fhe sreen gd — the mame is generally shorted to aceon — is gre Sect placed between the foul it andthe plate ‘The element we have Known sof sinply asthe "aid now cil the cond gid to distin ph i fGom dhe seeen, A pose vllge Is pled othe seen, and hie lens J it fhe of stteting ar aay lecuons as posible ‘fom the veion around the catode ~ but to doit fntagha way that the electrons wl continue on thuough to the plate and not and on the cen {ttl Not all ofthe opel by the seeen, 50 there is crzent inthe yen crest However, It {Small compared wit the pat comet. “Otier tan helping slong the flow of electrons to the platy the screen taker no part in mpl ‘ition in ordinary ‘celts THs sort of ube Strctoe maker pone for lnge pate esrents {ow when the coma gid vallage tao. The frewence of the screen, Wil Is posive chat, fakes i nnecevary for the conte id 10 “0 este fo make the plate urent ge, Ths he Sid not power wl be taken om the sal uct. (ou can get sil more plate corent by Inking the contol gid poste, Jos as In 3 {odes but the point is tat You dont hare to, none to got «linge output) Tetrodes and Pontodes A ube having cathode, conta gi, sereen ‘eid'and pute allen fetroe. (I the cate EMindecty beste, thre wil be a heater sl- tment toy but is counted a pat of the fied) When ascend spaced in tbe he electrons that tet though the sete et Upto quite high spost before buy teach the ltt fac, they Me te plate so ha that they Sten knock electrons loose fom the plate sell ‘These splasheltout electrons tre called eondary lection and ths process by which They ae ‘sone fom the plate alle secondary emis-Vacuum Tubes sion. Once ie, they often ar ata to the ‘ett brcase oft postive char. “The seconde cent og tothe seven” dou help in maining pond tube Saracen. To ot ri of i'n td gal, the Suppressor id, ten introduced, Ths gid ‘ea te pte dod ie ually operated a the sme Potent s the cathode, Isl the pit fro fe iceen, so the. secondary sets don “Tat” the’ pstve carge on the scree. As rel, they all back on the pate for Ie mest Part Tabet ofthis sor at called pene. Nader tetrodr ofthe beam fyps (ae the onrogid and seteeagrid wes se hed op 10 tat tlectons can por rey hugh both) ar designed to be teatively ice om stondary. miso ‘ete They” sally hve hen Forming plates, connected internally Yo te ath for Thee plates at estar tl ths ‘late from the scroen, and Help guide the ele: ton flow fo the pen die pts se Remote Cutoff Tubes In any tube, making the gud as mee noe tie reducer the tnasonvctanc, so tt amp Hestion alo decreser with arr bane In an ‘edly “tobe thetanconductanct decrease, Sinoitaniformiy with the negate. Bs, unt tho platecarrent cao poli reached” Vay tng the rie offers es way coneoling {ie amount of ampliistion, HHoweret, ths Metod aio can cause distr tion and aiocited effects To pe around I many ‘af the mall yentode mate Fr we I ‘ecxher amplifier cits ae gen = reer pe falar characteristic. The tamaeondactane “tis Sit" mare and more asthe bins mace moe ‘gat, ao fakes rato age veptve bio far off te pate unten For example, «samp {utft ube of regular design might resco ‘with 10 vote on ie. other ena Tube with remote cutoff (or varbley mig eau “40 or "SD vale to Sut of te nine tent ‘Th character set wiea fe Is eequired to band Ite salad the bas sated fo contol the pa cathode Bis separate battery or power supa unt provide ete Bis for te contol gi. The Bia can be Stolen fons the pate siply by spe cle feck This ie thown Sn Pig 2-26, Bie obtained this way scaled exthode bias: Thee wl be vellae drop investor RL becae the Hier atode ctvnt hat to Nlow through ks The poly uch tat the cathode "ad ators ound” the aegauve termina of th ste Sippy i “around in thi eit) by & postive Voltage equa othe vetage dep in Rl Note flat inthe upper dung the gud connected. back to ground. though the nal soure, 6. But since the cathode ir mare poate 37 ‘han ground, the voltage rom the silt ethode | mepatine. Thus the gi shen neptve bass it espect to the cathode The Cathode Resistor “The bins can be set the" bis you want’ and ao know the total Cent tht willow tothe cathode st tat bn the value of RL i found’ by dividing the ss Voltage by the cathode cimtent Hf you ned 8 thas ofS volts andthe sxthode cutent wi be 10 hampers at hst bin RL wil be S vote Aided! by 0.0 ampere (10 milage, which 16300 ohms. Note thatthe plate curent mst be omerted Ton’ millampere to amperes 30m ‘ats fective plate vag, ede’ bythe stount {ofthe bis. In mos ives te low of plat vlage [Bot mo consequences iti only few volte out sf rome hundreds Grid Return Circuit ‘The lower drawing in Fig. 226 works ust the sams vaya the upper one, Its used when the Sign! “owe, 6, won" pase det cuseny or ‘hon for some rapon it not sable to have38 It do so, Resor R2 mbites fort, 50 the {2d lat ground potential fords The ids Stated foe de Uy the hocking easton, C2 ‘To eroit puting an undue load ot the signal fourey th estan of R2 mus be lage com> pred th the low resistance that G ean handle, Er"tnony seal, RD wil be at much 5 9 Imegoh os so. The caprtance of C2 inst be Itae enough uo that for th ac sel rue tance vy all compared with he estos GORA, tn af ccalte a few hundsed pF is {neraly enough, but at fw modo equentes It SSmetimes ker 1 miroir or ore cathode Bypass 1 the cathode bypass capacior. Since RI isin the patocathoge Gren, soe of the am Died ital voltage wal be developed In, just, eitevcnge wane happens that is pied Siena voltage RU opposer te ial applied the gids Tht bos the effect of reducing he flonan ced nega fodbaek. 1 Fae ite see, bot i tw not wand we have 10 prevent ny snl voltage ftom beng detloped sr RI. his done by bypaning RI Tot Aerating cents, ‘Tobe’ effete, Cl must, fave Tow retctane compared with de este art Since RU’ rearance uly Ie hy, Stall te capsctane must be le. Values. of Slr pt are catomary ifthe Teweeney being Emnpied rs radio Tlequeny in the 3-30 MIL. fangs, Later values are sod at aul te- Suncies “ierealmltofwads at eas) ut fale oner wa saice at vt Foxed Bias Cathode bias i expcilly_usefal when the avenge pale ment of the tube docs aot hange mich, sa all, when a sal sapped torte pid Ifthe sterage. pate. crrent does ‘hung Srith the stongth of the gpa, the Bs ‘fer not sty. put at one ale bet rhe a the Aigear"otonete inser neat Hee hi it muy be "necetay fo se batty or spec Powersupply for is, othe bi wont change fith the sgl lve. Bis of this sort ala fixed ‘is But for many appcaons, such at the ampliers wed are sod man PLATE] lsubety UNDERSTANDING. those used in lowpowee # and audio sage in tramltes, cathode bi equ stsfoctry Gridh Leak Bias ‘These Is another way of making a tbe fur sist its own ard bin shows in Pg. 227.1 Sou took at thi csaitwihout knowing wit you may wordor how tee could be ny rll bias ata ince no source of bis Swe. The anewer i tat ths method, called (pidlesk tay only works hen the sla source ‘Tes the ed poste wih rot fo the cathode Remener that's caren foes inthe gd: cathode civut whenever the gids potlve wth femest tothe cathode "This eaten chatues the ‘Spncitor Cl, called the pid capacitor or I HMbcking. capacitor When’ the aaa! voltage is Inaking the fil positive tacts ctor. These Cotes on the capacitor plate connected to the ba, ping that de of the capacitor nepative ge TRI ie are, ths charge "leaks off Sow ough aur the ot voltae at the toate Phos the tube ote an terge nes fhe de. bine through yom pifurent fw ‘he actual bas can be foond By alplying the Teatact of Ri by the ect cent own ‘rough ‘Gaskins depends ently on grid exe rents there i no bh Hf he gad nt getting {Sy signal This means thatthe source of seal IRE tor mpply power for Also te sina has to be lag, in order to. dive th gd Into. the poste ropon, However, an advantage Iv that The Uns adjust to the sna level, The ‘ager the ial the great thes. This is ust what ievwanted sich devices sos story sce the bint autcmaticlycontoe te Tube operation to keep it a8 optimum region, Gatti bine abo found sequently in if power ampli seca, Wheee the atomatic Entre a i wef "The reitance of the gid leak, 1, could te miow att few thowind oma in) ube ‘Sheuite handling Tot of power Vals a high $10,000 ohms maybe used in sear cea St vey low pomerThe valve of Cl depends onthe Frequency beng amphied. C1 Bas to have enough Capen a0 that wont Tose mich charge Sng each cycle ofthe signal equeney. Tew fndted pe usualy wil nilfice at radio Te- eens, whore ge iar mos wed. Voltage Amplifier Circuits ‘We have teen saying right along hat the lon for 4 vacuumtube ampier dost have tobe an tual esto In face sway something se tuned seit (which may Ht tm be loaded, ia you have wen earier la this chapter = Speaker with a tasfomor, oF 2 varity oF other fice, Nesey sways. thogh, It "Tooks ike” 3 fester tothe ampere, Tit necsary {Sr geting power fom the Mabe fre i one pe of spice that does use a restore plate seit often has The formAmplifiers Coupled vouageampier sional input sown in Fig. 228, and is called restance coped anplier. Ths type of creat sed Amon excksely for_atdiosrequeny mpi Cation for remont expe laters ot wef A ido eqence,Restance sound mpl tre always vollgs ample, bres te power that maybe developed the toad etgor cnt beaten out ‘Transformer Coupling ‘Transformers can be ated in audic voltage ampli oo, ab In Fle 229. The tnaformer itl often steps up the outpa voltage ty having {secondary winding With pore tne than the Primary. (ie stopp toot sone 10 te Smpiication, Thre i actly ley ower in the Secondary than In the pimary, since tere oe owes in the anor laf) A tenaormer Sona input signa. INPUT voutace Super i IK Stepp is wsed only when the secondary econ Iced fa flloing amplifier ate whowe Bi The amples You find in receivers between te anwana andthe detector sre aso voltage amplifies. Well have more to sy sbou! tee in’ Chapte 3 Bypassing and Decoupling You've steady familiar with the uses of the componente inthe eit of Pig. 228 and 1220" exept for Ch, C3 i pate bypass capac foe It is used to ve the altensting ial fatient i the plate ‘cet good Towne ‘nce path tothe cathode We dont waat ths free to flow throu te B apply we ean ‘Noid expect when several unpifie tage ate a fees ete po s (a) j40 UNDERSTANDING ig. 2-30 states why. Just enough details renin ils gue to how tha It the power ‘ppl sat ltena estane, Rand al power ‘plies do have some Intersi estate), ths restos wll be pat of all te ample late ‘eit For example, tho highly amped cureat fiom amplifr wil flow trough Rand cause a spa voltage to develop serous. Ths voltae, in itre, We isteduced tothe plate cleat of flaps 1 and 2, Such common coun eat lead tote of woul Pie 231 ges the semedy. If the bypass apaion,C, tur a reactance of 81 more than 4 fe obs at the signal Trquencr, the. inal ment in each sage wl be confine to that stage ‘Amuance i made doubly mare by sonectng ‘decoupling rear on the pomersupiy se ofthe “shown: Usually ths resistance st timer. the reatance of the ‘ype capacitor = values in the nipborhoed of 1000" te 3000. ohms ae common 50. any fendeney forthe sia aren to pt off thle some proper puts irate thoroughly discouraged. Power Amplifors When power is wanted, as for runing. « speaker, we dot care pally how much the {281 sna voige sampled Here we hve 19 Provide a lond that repreent he optinsm Tex: tance fr the tube tose aba power amplifies Aono by matching the speaker or other) load tesstance tothe optimum vale trough Was foumer ae dseiod eater ‘A tlc cnt shown in the lower raving of Fig. '229. 1 looks almost he the vologe Shpllfer cca above, but difaent typ ot trinfomer is used. Abo, the tbe operating ondiions ze choven to give the most poWer ‘Shp ater than the mou flag ouput PushPull 1A avert form of cect where lage power ‘outputs at audio Tequoncy ve seeded theAmplifiers SIGNAL inpur pshpllacangement shown in Fig. 232,120 {led becae what one tube doe i says the ‘pposite af wit the other tube ft dong he Secondary wading f the input transfer, Thy [sapped atthe enter andthe outer ends off winding conect to the two ido he upp fd of the winding i poste at some instant, {he lower end i hepatne by exact the sane mount of valle atthe se lst Ts when fe tubes plate cutent b neesig bese the ‘gal voltage on sri golng more poste, the ‘ther tubes plate cuent Is decreasing Ds the olson rd is oing abe nope, ‘This seesaw action opens the wa) to zleing + reat det of tudo power out of spiro relation tothe site ofthe tuber Thereston i that this typeof leu reduces tenon Asotin, by a lage atin, ss compared wth 8 Single tube ecu, Both fier may st dort bot the “dstoions ae alancedo¥ty by. the Psh-pll connection, inthe onpat trsformer, Thin fact, tho tabes can be. bine down Practica t0 the platecurent eto platy 22 Tint each takes plate erent only whe the Ed 1S due by the postive hall of the nal eye being ile daring the negative hal eye Ths trae rectification in tock ube" yet the 100 I ees, one fom each tobe, cob to give composite autpat wih Tow dition. 41 (ens) A puspull ample in which the tes ae tiated near cutoff fa foun of Class B ampli. operates at very good pst elllency""A pit (OF tuber each rated fhe ws alo outa 23s singltube Chass © amplifiers usally cane Yelop 35 to 40" vate of total output wien ‘Wong togeter in push pal Imtrslectrode Capacitances The sirests just diced ae useful at low frequencies those though the audio range. At radlofequences they don't Wor at ll wall. To Understand wy, we have to lake a closer tok at ’A trode ube has thee slments, all metalic and quite close together Esch pat of electrodes ‘tually hs the characte of 3 expator The pecttances re only few pF, but you will emember thatthe sectance of capaior keeps fing down ss the Tequeney goer up. The tex {ances of thee intercede expactances mc 50 igh at audio equi leno. Nt 20, nce we Would ‘need for appreciable voltage ‘bypass the alternating curent around the toad ‘esses. This not ‘nly ins the amplicon ‘ha introduces other very unde fecte thick te Bayend our Present scope our42 Why Tuned Circuits Are Used For the moment, comer just two of the inurclectode capctaner the ane between {he pd and cathode andthe one Betton the late snd ecathods. AU radio frequencies the former ‘Mould tend to shores the np chet i ‘tere sesitance-couple, ad the at the output ‘Seu. We cant eliminate te capatancs rom {he be, beease they are part of te physi structure’ So we fake the oppsite tok and make therm goto work for us. This dene by wns ised pat and output eeu in Tg. 23, Ce represents the pridcathode sapacitance and Cp the plate-cathode capacitance fate tube. You can se that Cesare with C1, the tang capacitor of the Input set Tews, Cos In paral with C2 the toning Capacitor of the output cet (C3, the plate typas capac, 30 large compared with these Tan two that i the sme ae share for the radio aquest.) Thus. the ierlectode fapacitances bacome part of the tuning capac tances and they do" so. pul harm ae ftom stag 3 lower Unit on the ‘ot toning Sapctance that can be used. "Thi not 50 important atthe lower amateur fequncies, bet door reqatecomideration a AE ‘ning tuned cheats aows Ws to ge normal smplifeston, beidespeording te select, that is needed at rio Mequenci, Welt have ‘note to yon the Inter pint ne chapter on Grid Plate Cepacitance We got sound the Input and oxtput capac (ances Of the tube Tail easy by sing toned SSeul But Fig. 233 ignores one vey inportant SSoactanes ihe one’ betveon te and ltt: Radoffeqsency current can a do low brought Im fact if the gr aod pat tuned cfs ae tasted (0 ick nto the gid cats When TMs apps Sort of memyaoround action faker pace The ‘Sopping voor ana che te UNDERSTANDING fodtback enersy ads to that aleady preset in fhe gid crcl. This is amplified to" ge stil ‘more tf energy inthe pate cul, and 50 08 The ovscal veut te that the tube gonertes Faliodrequney power lnsead of Just ampli ete besos nator Pg, 23 en fact ‘lator cult ‘ot an amplifier cea Tt hown a tuned gd, caned pit oclntor Sereen-Grid Amplitins Fortunately, the state capacitance can be ‘edocd to neil size This sone by placing + Shed between the gaki_and plate, forming rere tube Serea gid tubes such aa wed Inthe familie in eeaers usual ls have 2 upprewor get that i they ate poioes. A fetes pli i shown In Pi, 228 ‘The suppeenor aay always ie connected tothe hoe ae shown, although sometimes It eon rected to proud “The sccen gril has to ave positive voltage ‘on Hf th tobe i to Work propel. Genel, Iowover, les voltage needed BY the sreen than ty the late: The sree voltage obtained fom the ple supe tough Ri, the ston dropping {esis Sereen cument owing trough RI fume 3 valle drop seros RI Git subtats ftom the’ patesopply valle, leaving just the ‘rope vllage on the seeen. The righ essance fue can easly be found. If you know Sireat taken “by the serena is operating ollsge. For example, sy the platestpply voltage 1225 the sro require 10 ells, and the Steen utente 10" mA under normal operating om: ‘one (Figures of tis ort ean be ebaied from ‘ube abe dita) Then Ri mast drop" 250, Too = 150 wits: trveitance ts therefore 150 idea by 0.01 sinpere, of 18,000 ois the screen eto shel the plate fom the contol id and thus sliinae e.g pte ‘Sputance, itis e a the sme potent 3s the cathode. The screen bypas capacitor, Ch, auc the by shorting Yo the eae ‘ther bypass expat, it ust have Tow reac fee al the fluency Geng ampli, A capack‘Amplifiers tance of O01 Mie gpl for ef ampiier ‘Seren ampliir ape wed Both fy sect re nd tenuis, Th Cee asta the fae whether te taby ba minature weet {Gpe of ove thal can handle hundreds of watts ‘Tite may be ferences inthe way the pi tas ‘busine of It tho method sed To spy sexs vllge ba thse dtl a wl Yay ‘ven in vec ali, Grounded-Grid Amplifiers ‘The iden of using 2 ri to shield two ele umplitr Grete (he go ll hid the pate fom he ene provided the gd as of vatage oa i Te ust ie a eee ed, te founded fore (ica si be at some ferent fe Voltage an ound, though, juste the Seve si) “Ok couie, the grid grounded the cxthode can’t be. $0 the signa vatage must be applied tetweeh ihe eathode and ground, shown nF 253s. Ths ecu ise Pig 234 except ha the Cathode and have changed places. Te inpat ‘lena voltage atl ereon th ld and cathode But now dhe pd aide the plate utp fom fe eithose ipa) and very lest ery ean {eal rom the output sie othe input ie. hus there nc se tendon fr the abe fino ‘elfosilation. The pounded gid amplifier used {hed pinay af Wa. ‘One ofthe pclae of thie deci, which setting to be ‘other popular in amatew tan filter, i thatthe plate cutet as to lw rowel fhe ipa ct 16 rack the eto Cnnccted ogetier, snd closer study Would how that they operate at though they "were Connected in ie The peo of thi that the Surce of input signal spp part of the outpt power. This gute ilfereat frm the aya Snyper operates Thesis source ‘must be prepared fo supply quite a Lt more power than would fe tequedof It whe the implies eathode is rounded ‘Only Tew types of toes ave boos dein ‘with grounded operation in rand. In 43 our ‘how that have not ben, the gid Is not always ‘i peod shell as we might want. General tubes wi ngeamplcation fats wil be the est this wespet,beeause the openings In the ‘daze amaler in such ‘tubes. Auber of Srcesd ypey fe useful I he cond pd and freon are both grounded for if these, the fhltding ely to be very god. Grounded Plate Amplifiers ‘The plate of tube can be grounded at the signal treeney, oo. The cai a sown ia Fg 2.36, in fequenly sed form. An. ampl See opersted inthis. Woy" i,t called fathode fllower, bean the “hot” se of the ‘utput cout i the te cathode. The pate Sypass apace, 3, grounds the plate for the Sha freuency hemor 8 plate olla Is wed “The output taken fom between the cathode and plate Ri hs the plats oad vests as el ‘the eabode bine restor Clad 12 hae the Same ppose os C2 and 2 Fig 26°09 the outpat coupling capacitor ‘Sine’ the. nput sna voltage 8 apled be tween the grid and ground I has 10 be ger {han the output voltage if it werent, these ton be spat betwee the pd an cthoae ‘The cuthede follower docs't he any voltage44 KE) fre (ay Ea Ie ee] #1@] t- (8) 4 - ‘te ee © Fee smplication; in fact, there i actly «voltage os, However, there power amplicon lr in scsing sthode bling, we mo toned tht the cathode sesotor i Uypased i larder to sold unwanted negative feed, In the cathode fouower we ave lf ef the output tage fed back Int the np ect to oppore the ‘gal voltage, The hae ood ours, Slthough' atthe price of a Le in volage Smpletion One benefit is that he ampere ‘Wil Work over an extremely wie quency ‘ange "witout tuaed caus frm vee tow UNDERSTANDING dio treqences up through sveal megan ‘Another that I doen't require it! fad ‘estince, The crt cn te looked pons the ovilent of 4 tansormer for stepping down fiom avery high impedance to very” Lov Impedance. Suitably designed eahodedolowere- ‘is ean work Int oad sal 100 ons ‘re ee Oscilators ‘You already know that 2 tube cam generate power without hang Is gid eet dive by an ‘vteral source, It ah do tht beat ore power fan be blaned fom Is pate. cheat than ‘needed by ite pid colt to produce the pie Dower. To stat cul oscilatig we ned to feed Power tom the plate back to the gid in sich a ‘tay as to enforce the signal onthe gi. Ts Sale pode fedback, a uitigusned from the hegre Teed tha’ oppose the adsl. ‘Wh enough postive feedback, any smal ree bari inthe pst coment wi sappy aga hat ‘wl startet going atthe aequeney to ‘which the abe ei ted Poste feedback can be developed in so many sway that we can't begin 0 cover lo them hee Weve’ aealy mentioned the tones tant isle cxcllatte (Pi, 233). Two other general {per ofcrats ne 0 commonly seed hat Yo ‘hal be abet recogni them ont One, the Harty deca of Tig. 257A, belongs 10 the Imapnetic or inductive fvdbnck clas Wf ciel Iifereting' pate coment flowing throwgh the tower part of Li induces a voltae Inthe upper Part, hich ix Somncted tothe ia, The stand ental type the Colpts cult of Fig 2378, {ies capactveeedback. Here. the plateccut ‘tegy fe ack by Inducing it across C2, ‘wtih ie part‘ the tuning eapastance of the eat TH coupling sets up a i valge acess the whole cel. The voltage that 4 result, Aeros on Cl aod te stow in Fg. 2-7-1 basal dierent ftom the Hartey, but lta of tppig the cot ses inductive Coupling though eer coll fh coup wo the ned et cos ‘The Tonk Cieuit “The tno ci ote alld the tank crcait ‘ofan oxlator orf power ampli. The reason ‘hei sorer several nest uch energy at Saled‘on to pve up each radiostequensy ele ‘hiss necenay if the omlfor ito aperes with nod sabaty (he subject ety i rested fn'luerchapices i an extremly important ‘elator ehaacter). This high alo af sored sous chergy i sumed up quite siply by Saying that comesponds to cclt of ih 0. ‘thee of the eeuits shown ae ge bing, RT ie the gid ak oF pad relstoe ih ach case C2 ithe rid capacitor In A and C; in inisceSemiconductors Series and Pi The cieits at A and B in Fig. 237 axe known ae pared vite The de per for the Tube i fed fo the plate through a adiote= weney choke, In this ype of ecu the plate hot" with 1f voltae, and Its output would be shortcicted by the power supply Ife choke swore not ed, The choke offers ay high Impedance tof cunent, s6 te oF howe of the ‘rent gts back ito th power spp. stead, flows through C3, whieh connects the pate tthe slating eu C3 I called stocking capacitor ‘esa blocks off the de voltage to won't be ‘resent on the tank tei Paral) feod very” often sed tans anting eeu Tt an excelent salty eae Sie thete sno high de vllge on a of the HM ckeat elements that might be touched i regi operating. Tig, Z37C tea seeefed cli, Hes the de plate current flows trough the kere! part, (OF the rf ell. C3 i plate bypast caption in itis cate. No-if-choke shown ia te plate Feed 45 ‘ate spy Other Orcilator Citeuits 1n busing equipment equ osclatrs, you hve" yout cholce of the and seer her ‘Sout With equal cre indesign ated onarection Sil of tom are capable of giving equally good rene, 20 you may’ wonder why dene dont ‘elon ne and forge boat the hes dae than another to patel aplication, fiten for reaoat of mechanical connection Which you wil appreciate st you become more Tami with etal apparats. Als, there ie the father unefiablemlter of the dedigner's tater {neal after al, blondes, rameter snd [Avs Novice, you mut wie a ctysta-ontoled cucaae in yout teanumitier, Wed defer ting Shout cyaa blatrs anil Chapter Semiconductors ‘The applications of semiconductors in ratio circuits ve sany “saniir othe corer ponding applications of vacuum ts." ae ‘any dlrs in deta aber have their OW ecilrits and 20'do tantor. Thee sie [ic and dterences wi bee man top of this Seaton. However, els if you have vom ides St what goes on lide the dries, 0 wl work {abo that too 5 We go alone. inthe. pe stale hive very Tow fre ebctrons (Ga ondary "po0d ‘conductor hat sare of feta) Tiwy at thevtone nora saber poor fonuetors However, by "doping the material ‘ith sitabe partis Inthe proper anount, Tipotitie to So steer of foliar: rasa Int of fie ehertrows or (2) create a ot of Ile = spots inthe atomic sractoe where an ‘Gaston Ghoul be bol Smt A bey ev ou cat Se, i the oppadte of 4 fee estan With sternal ‘ping from applied ifewnce of potenti an electron can Jump from» fal” tom to's ‘ote in anoter, ering 9 re hole ‘hon i does Thar oe can have frt3f chan easton in which Boles mote though thea ‘ance ont at electrons do, "Themen with ce electrons called raype, and. that ith holes it clled pps Kelther bye ie msch ferent fem on fray conductor. Bul when the Wo 1 Toemed” side by side (during mance) to make pa jneton, hig bela To happen ‘We an represent the justin shown (A, Fig. 2-38 ra bacory voltage apple a Br the skctron in he'm mater ae atte to the poste battery Terminal and the Hols i the material move toward the neprive ermine Sine ther is no movement srough the junction, no current can flow inthe cult. However, the ‘battery "pony ie revered at tn Cy has a) suNcriON Noe (8) ar (c)46 more aezos the Junction toward the negate try terial and cnetrons move aos Tt toward the pose tema Wi this battery Polarity, therfore, cutent Now though the Joni and the et “The smisondactor rectifier or cide i not 2 prefect far when the vale applied In {he rovers polaty. as in Fig 2388, A small, ‘ever caren ca low, when the def back ‘nse. ta the forward detion, Fig, 238C, it Takes ise than a voi to cause vty lige coments {o flow imc less than Kt doe in vac Diode Ratings Aside fiom the sevene caren, whieh js of te Seder ofa thousand tines es than the forward curent under oval endian, the Principal limitation of the semieondstr dade Is te tuned wih revne-vltage o: pekinese voltage ating upto several handed ols, but In ‘ew tuber such ratings maybe inthe tho Sinds of voli. Ako, the semicorductor diode n't sand any overvltage wll sally bres Shown and rain et i the overs rola ost ft’ over the rating Is advange sre all fae, abit to: condet large cant: with Tot altage drop, and (asa rest of Hi) very Hite Power loss I the rete. Point Contact Rectifiers “The Junction inthe dls we tave just been aiscusiag argon of appeciie are. tan fs lng curents Another typeof eter vues, Myint contacto eatwhske” Fig 239. In the total ype the amiconducto Is ype mate tl doting tnnufactare of the dad sry small mount of poype formed under the. point ental ony Sout one pico: ett especialy abe. rn roller for ‘radio fequences, ice very ile ment ahuned around tht scien by the ‘ipactance. This typeof ectiier not und in powersuppy” etal except where ‘ony all arent less thin SO mA ot #0” ate ested. Reverse voltage ratings an fom 300 abot 100, voit UNDERSTANDING “The Diode Symbol ‘The intexpetatonf the erat symbol used for the semeondvetor ioe Ir sometimes £09: Fusing As shown in Fig. 240, the mrowheal the symbol eoresponds to the plate in a ae womeir dle ox! te Ine rscrepons fo cathode. TF yoa apply de voltage to the aide with the porigy indatd im the desing, ape ‘rent wil lost It the polarity i revered, the Sent wil be very small ~ prove, of cours, thatthe diode fm good condition! Thus, ook Ing through the ode from the ps endo the tatters, the ‘ceo in which the arrowhead CORRESPONDS To vr. folate i the disetion ia which you will mensne {he lowest resstanco (highest eure). Koop the ansog)" to the vacuum diode in sind in inteelleg the dade connections yo See inet digas snd You hae a0 trouble ‘The Transistor Terme with ae te of ater a the “meat” amd with the other type as the “bred” The Ibenveen mera, «Thin yer, i eld the toe, The outer once ae call the anitir and allele. Asvin Fig 241 shows, the mater Stangemeat can be_elther “pap of npn, “The ‘eal ybols for the te typ teas tho, ong with the tatery polis that il exuse ‘heat to low n the cit formed by the Be emitter, ant that formed bythe cllecor I'you compare these anangements with the simple’ dode of ig, 2:38 yon ea oe tht i the battery vltage #2 is ler than By the oles tortorhae diode i revere bins and no cient ‘an flow betwoen the collector and se How: er, curent wil flow through the emer Dae ‘lode with the platy shown fr 1. Tn the pap ttunsstr the holes move from the emir tothe {tse though the doe junction and the electors ‘move in te opposite deton, Because the base {egion I ey thin, some of the moving oles go fight though IC to the caletor. This ges the factor more hoes than Te neds and the ext Snes are atacted by the negate vale onthe falltctor. Thus thee sa cutent owing decty {ough the tanssor fom the emiter to the Collector It doou’t show up in the external ase‘Semiconductors 47 A A i Saas _ tL — emITTER BASE COLLECTOR wl ee ~Ter 4 at : Seerh & wall i saan of calcio coment i dvciy rated to fe tm caren f the bse cuenta 90 te elector caveat The leper the base cent the largr the elector eure “The roles ofthe electrons and. les are Intertanged Inthe np trarstor.Otbervise the explaation i the sme Transtors of ete ype Shown in Pip. 241 ae called ipl hole" (positive) and “elecrant (nesting Both ‘Sry the curent thin Hits the colt current dst ropitical to" te bse caren Compas the Si the vacuumtabo, iodo, wire Ge pale ren is dscly ropa plhce with very iow collector voltages ~ of the rer of $020 volte with mou tnsston. nce, Yu may wonder how i po the miter, since they both hae the sme Type ‘of doping Actually you could ll if bath h the stow doping cocenraton, You cud wi ‘woulda be partly “ppod so ifrent loping concentration isso forthe pat that ts ‘would work after a fashion if hooked up back ‘Amplification ‘The fact thatthe colletordoemiter sent ie ner than the Base emiter cureny and wil have sential wareshpe thon the basesmiter armen (he sgn current i alternating, meant tha the anton cn amp ere wre ios begin o show. in onder to make ase of the collector sent che ontpatcurent) we mist have 8 Toad in the cllstoremiter rel, jut ar we mast have 2 nd inthe pate srt of 4 tube amplter We tbo hive tolhave suitable bias felled forwatd im) om the basoemiter dio, jst af we must ave proper bir on fhe gil ofa tube, Bet ere the Bias ir rent rather than vollge, OF ‘oun, when tere is ctrent there must Hsp be ottage to eae it, bot with the tse ine cent variations in the base that conto the fallstr cunt. In Tat the sil voltage ma five highy-dvorted wavespe when the {ent is vying pred, because the sstance of fhe bie diode doestt stay put dig such Variation; 1 decreases very sap when the Tig. 242 i th basic amplifier cel. Com pac it with Fi 221 forthe ode tube. The Sieuit|considemtons are mich the samen the {vo cass, although the cicalt voles may dller Meat det ‘Carving the analogy further, Fig. 243 shows the base current waration with gal whem the signal © sperinpoved on ade bis (apn Lane ‘an spied rom geet tht tment, Abo, Fig. 2-4 ia curve af base ment ‘calito’ curt. which compare wi iid ‘voltage vs. plato curent cure of Fig fine 04k (ott eving in Bae cont (Pig 2443) cates the cllector cut to Sing fom fit more than 2m to more thn 7 mA arent amplieation. of more thun 250. tines. Note that this curve i noticeably straighter than48 42, sina cant supine on e i i gel i Es Ciera al Pest the tube curve in Fig, 223, indcting that the Caller cuent can Be swung down C020 With ‘Temperature and Leakage ‘We cat take up tht subject ingest det tat you need fo know fe facts aut tempers fre ‘effects and leakage. The iter the ets Sent mented ear, and Ic the bipolar Hanan the importa leakage fom colctor {o"buse, It cant carent to flow inthe Tiscemier diode, and ihe te any oer base Sent amplilod to become lage Ia the Caller cocul ‘Unfortunately, lskage and all tanssor pa ramets ithe operating cancers se Sled” are grat allected. by temperature eakage socom muah wore Wh inceaing fepersture Tb caaea 6 ited, Heber eating andthe UNDERSTANDING Ratings ‘The probs of heating bring up the subject of teastor ratings. Like tes, tsstors hare {fo dsapate some of the power supped by the thee and cllrtorcaet sources” At the ae moet microscope they can't dapat app ‘Eats power without 4 conidrale toners She, Thue agpvates the dui peblem, 2 might ie eapected, Smal anions wil safely dsipate & few rivals nthe callctr (where most of the ‘isipaton takes lace) without spell meas for feng dof the eat-gnerted. When more power bas tobe disiate the teas sass ‘dina etl container to‘which the clletor [stheemay connect, and special eat radars se plced om the contaier to hep Keep the Galstor col, ‘The more powerfal transistors fae to, be mounted om age metal ples Cheat sins) for pod cooing "Waster the tanitor type, spec ar mast te ned to prevent it dipition eng from teing exaodel, Faure to-do 0 leads to WOW. fut tandtor, Semleonductors dont ave the {Glerance i this respect that vacuum tubes hae. Tn pasag, I Is worth mentioning hat te peat elfecs age much less sexous with hon {han wih eran Blasing Citcuts ‘We can minimize temperature effect by using 1 baae-laing eel that wl rest the tendency ff crete foie with Increasing tempertue ‘The eeu of Fp 248A ~ probebly the simplest ff ll busing ecole does nothing for Us it ths eapoot IL spy takes the reqled bse bas fument through Tage restance, RL IC ie Included hove peacpally 10 sbow thatthe bis ‘ent can be obtited fom the callector power ‘ply, since the base and colletor both operate ‘when the trees are 30 sal thatthe ansistor selativaly Tow rei at rnspprcclly when Laka eet flows through i But the beat one Big. 2450. Here {he elector caren lows throug us atthe plate ciment flow through the cabo eestor {n'a ‘abe creat (Pig 226). An ines in Sent causes a vollage ae in 3 that bucks the ‘orp bis voll. Thi educes the bis euten, {0 the sing collector ete pals it down to onal Ths Is negative feedback, of couse, nd {ew reduce the gan ofan amp less RS ts ypumed mitaby for the requeny. elas ‘plified Tobe, thera effect, Brust be Inge enough to “los at hast few vells of de Inthe average cas, so th atl valle betveon fovlector snd emit wil be ls han the ppiy olage ‘Th has tobe akon dato account Inthe ‘ral en,Semiconductors w ° “4 ‘Transistor Amplifier Gain A ie eter a ascussing amplicon with ‘iol teats, we pointed owt that arent It requled inthe base-emitter diode, and that Thle'meant thatthe base consumes power, ee hen the sgn very small With te negative fil acum tbe, onthe other han, there no flent and ao power in the gid cult the Saal voltage ds its sul without eaeing 8m) tot of poet "Wil bipolar uansstors, wehave to think of smapiicalion na powergain baie, Wb tube ny afew types of amplifeaton (such a Clas bpestion) damand the same rot of soroath. ‘The dectclbeing a very convenient power gaia tn, ite widely ‘led svat the. ala of tesntoe spies. CCapacitances ‘The wanssor, a8 you can see fom Tig, 2-41, Ie altrode (uce'lement device. And, oa tho cae of the ode Tube, ere me interes ipacttances between all pals of elemerts. They etd tothe same problems in using tnstors 49 What we sa la using trode vacuum tubes. The fasetoenter(inpal) and collector omer (Gatpad capacitances an be abrobed Int tae ‘Seat (St in Fig. 233) when we operate tran Stor at afi Saquanciny sv ey dont cause teh tole exept that, tke all tansor Pte, they ‘are tnative to. mperte ‘iso and thsi not tve of ter = they are Igy sortive to voltage. ‘Bu the capacitance Between the collet and tase n't so easly posed of. There Bt any lube. So ether ways of preventing Teetbck and selfeseilaton have fo be aed Thee ae soer {ch mesns,perups the mst common being the “brute foree™ method of foading the base and cilesior evita so esl that the mown of ‘teay fed back ort reat enough Co sustain ‘laon. The gun sffer when thi done, of ure, because power hur to" be wate In the ‘reloads, Bat the shame does woo, and We cn i aay with i benane a tnahor can produce Sct large power san Circuit Details Mout of what me std about the details of ‘aciumtibe rir nour dacston of fates tower cre () souneea (Sina prinloty nv ompitis.50 es to tramisior, 00. The sane princes iran decoping bypssig, ano on Ta stow conor td usp, they io cen evoperted with any of the he cements So emite, ealoctoe — roundel. The thee oninon gondii arangsments ste Shown in Fre Pas. They have much he se operating SEs thor te conte Ie, ‘sad the tomas aca the tbe Sod apy ther tthe ator Sit Orciotor “The description we gare of vacunsube osc lator can be puapiaid io doce, anor fr simpy 6 sabttutog befor ri, tc fore, and“ for pte The two popolr ses are shown in Fi. 2-47, ihe tly cael st A andthe Cope at ‘Tore one dence: The tani Cee 6 sedi the sume. way a5 aor amplifiers (Gate ett ual hve esta as) ad Selo RI, 2 ane the ame Popo la Pig, 245 and 246 Not’ hat i Figs 247A the basis at rnd potent (rough C2) we In B the Enters pymmded tough CX Any” othe ‘tents ctidbe pala 1 round, Sepending on 1a, 2-47 — Harty 1) ane capt UNDERSTANDING Which happens tbe most doable in » pri rerpct Because, not having cede that hat 1 e"bestad you ever have to wonry ‘out ting the’ beter at andi eoquecie The sometimes 2 nasty problem with tubes ‘The Fild-Effeet Transistor “The Upolartrunsitor weve been dacusng iat the ony type, at You knoe. Another very Ataortant vate isthe eleffect tanto oF TFET. It uses the same materi Dot uses them Aereny. Lets review sie operation Tor ‘The aseangomont in Fig. 2-48 fs 2 Juntin type FET. It has 4 sbstate of type semicon Sacto in which a thin fayer of ype the ‘chiwet" "tas Geen forme, Another payee region, called the gat, Tormed in then en. It's voltage i apie actos the ends of the ‘hinee, scons wil be dawn ‘ut of the fiype shane 1o the pose termina of the Source. This'end'of the chanel i appro Dritely called the drain. Electors. fom the Entry wil enter atthe oder end of the chan els hich heeft eli the sute, Thos ‘ent lows though the chanel nee, Since the change one kit of aera on, {te cureat cam be made fo flow in either die: how thebugh ‘Now ifthe pn jonstion formed by the gate and channel ck bined by voltage which Inket the gue "nop th respect 10. the foore, the eectrons and holes move away fom the janetion jst a thoy di in Tig. 2-308, This Segue to sguoezng then channel otha it tacomes narrower, 0 the chanel restanee te (ruse andthe current omer lett for the Sse drencosoutce. voltage. ‘The gate voltage, then, contol the drain eurent And since theSemiconductors Hage curent at fn any diode, but (6 shall ‘howh so that the galetosouice reidance SS ahi 0 ag te gate eae “The FET, in acy petty much like a trod acum be eperted inthe negative eon Goren i’ ow soos the Janction Hf he gate Soltapr becomes postive with sespect to the ouree jas a pid crrent Hows in tse when the ei ir postve with rerpect to the etd ‘Theat p maton canbe Interchange in te junction FET. This tees that the pte be ‘made poste wit espe to the Sout, apd the Seen i caddy Hoes, With this deren {he two types wou alee. "Th symbols for the two ae gen Inthe Mt “ihe FER iso mc ike he vacusmbe food in ac, that te hardly neces to how fhe iit that te aed with ihe the fae except for different values oeasned BY the differences in vllage and eas, of couse is forthe te te sults given care, Just abate the gat for de ad, the dai forthe piste, and the suc forthe cathode "he aubstate nt shown Inthe syibols in ig 248. tis usually connected to the source Inside the tetsior enclosure and ony thie Ics are bruh oa. ‘The MOSFET Another vaity of the FET, much snr in principe but fering tn important wars fom fhe junction type, i the MOS” (eto semiconductor) FET. In the MOSFET the junc 51 tion between the gate and chanel replaced by vee thi ayer of gastke insulation, a shown {n'Fig. 249. The gate & metal, deposed on the ‘lating layer dutag manutotre ‘ih the MOSFET the pate, inst aye, and tana fem sal cipacton A neat elt ge between ate and Source Induce a vllags in the chanel wih squeezes Inthe junction {ype FET, casig He hanna (o become nar ‘ower and’ -rntane to Moree, The late through the Instr so small (the order of a'tancampere 1/1000 of « microamper) that Ine gatetosoutce resstree Is hudteds of mex tims Farther, «pontine voltage onthe gate wil Sot atu gate cutent to flows i sinply ress the chanel tesstance. No precautions need to be {ken to Keop the gate nepave at all signal Valles, therefore sme MOSFETs the sbstate i iatratly connected 10. the sours, Bat is olhes Its ‘rows ow sopartly to its ow emia. Tt ‘Shown havin» sopartefevmimal inthe cea ‘mba even in Figs 250.4 separate subst Connection i useful ia sounder (anlogeus or'thevacaumtite cht fellowes) "and ‘pounded-ate andogous 10 the tbe roundel fl cea, ance Ht can be rounded indepen {enty ofthe soars: In other pects MOSFET fmpiner chute are the same" st for aber and jntion FETs. These ie ile iference in (elton lets, tough. Tn -orer to et sell ‘gulag bls‘ the gate its mecessary tows 2 fectlr ath gate lei, since ect eorent Snot Mow tough the Inti layer. This Showa in Fig 230, where Cl and Ri do the Sime job a6 the aid capattor and idea resto na tube cal52 Dual-Gate MOSFETS “The MOS construction offers agther advan tage! Moe than ne contol seme eat be used Separate pate lectodes gn the se asl Inger san independently onto! rondicton the channel Thi fine Tor combining sigals {tom two diferent ceeuits whe keeping the gna osted fom each other. Stch combing ‘of gals common in both econ sa ans ining ire The second gate aoa tery convenient means for contaling SNOSFET amplifier without seine ‘rite and prcontrl crit al anled Up “The sonbol for sh rchannal datgate MOS- ET gen in Fig 248, (Other Variations Although publabed ict a pat catalogs feattre chanel MOSFETs almost exclsely, fhe tandatove also ean be made with p chanel ast means that p insert fermed nan n fetus Alb, what weave bees disasng known 3 depeiontype FET. te this type 3 Sbslantal caren ows when the gale Bas it oro. Thre aso ah enbaneement type, it eich the chapel cuseat ero vith Zoo Be Rt So fg he type hast had ey application In corso, and We mention I hee ast 50 you won't be puztled by the ter showll you ‘ecise the insulting layer in tle MOSFET is cxtromely thin als very tal, and wl be UNDERSTANDING. punctured thre i anch vttage on the gate It Epaclay stsceptio to stale charges ist thd'up om dhe gate when theres a9 open feat etween the gate and other leeds. Etre care ha toe used in handling un {Ci afey stalled i eel having esonably Tow (af the order of a couple of meplins OF Tet teste tatiwcen gate and pound nour sitatete, Ths provides adequate ro tection Tor the iting ayer, at the inp (exe to source) resistance ie then determined by the kstape of the diodes. Ths leakage of the ‘re af 20 tines the leskage without the diode. ‘hin, and fr many aplictions the difereace ‘to praca consequence, ‘Thee are many other typos of smiconductors Shoat bev. However, toa! of thor in only ecaonal applesuon in anateur equipment. ‘howe ate iterated lel, too, ut thse are & separate subjet In themes, They ate some tint utd the sop of thik book except fort pombe apiation or two. in equipment dee A this juncture with saying that these awe com Dlete let, including” odes, transfor, and ven estore ‘and capacitors, delged to piform ‘pect jobe — and al put together on chip” ‘oF semiconductor hardly" ager than singe Ttanistor "ICM", af they ate called, ate eat tps and species, ad moneysaves tooChapter 3 How iy the ime youve ested your Lisa you wil have: done 1 good deal of Tseng on the Simateur bands, "You should ‘be prety familar ‘vith your ressvers contol and fare flr es ft how fo operate them. I isa sa fact though, ‘many operator never go the rest hs receiver I capable of ging. Having no eae Kea (of what the Teceler cin do he fas to Bande it to best advantage ‘To pt a Ile perspective on this receiver twsinesy les gt down to the ba dones of Teorving accesses tnd then go on cen thee ‘You can hear, se fl smell of tates eal Sina It hast be Gonveted als someting that Iman Senses cat recogie. The sense of hein fe'wed in most smateor communtaion, so te anal tet somehow be converted into sh appre priate Sun, ‘The Simplest Recsiver Ir you are young enough ~ or old exough — yout probaly paved wih ental seca for ends ampltage modslates or an’) broad: faating, These usually have no more. tha a Iitdszen parts, bat even her thee ae ony five vay ‘eso nes au antenns or length ft wie fo pick up some of te sf encay tm brondeast sa, mineral etl oe detector for converting the Ht eneiy info an eects curent that vanes at aio frequency, and 8 heeptons, Receivers Work ‘The ater simply converts the aofroqoeny ent into sound waves “The detector Is realy a eeier it tkes the nditegwency cvtent and charges Int tizet caren The ineltigence nthe gal ‘serie ‘by the vrai ne signal stenth ot ‘mpl, andthe det current that comes out ta shoe sal (Sct of oe ad Ile) thesetaraons oeeur at an aio Hroqueny rate, a shown in Pig. 32. Onee the ‘aratons ate comertd ito sound by the heat one tesa becomes ine m3 fnus evrything ein ah aoa ecier 4s a spertrctre leading utinately to hs basle rocest of detection Hut tat does ean hat oe ea Strength of the oriin sana. Th ent censor pat trough tha Chet, te cucant lows throne esaowone TeUNDERSTANDING i =a 1a. 33. — A simple rcelving setup tn blocedagam form. The rf amply bul UP te sna 54 the supertuctre fe ynimportant. Far from it ‘Winout the supestivtue tetual emanation ty radio would be pact imposible. For cis the supersrcture that lets you esr 3 vty weak ‘Nenad eventhough the ati filth thoo- ‘ds of others atthe sane tine, many of them Te suonger In otter words the mato the exter there inorder fo ive you high se titty fo weak signals and high cet 0 iet you ea th weak ones whe ining ll {he ones you don't want Even the simple eystal set wally takes 2 tind step in tha dgetion, Ie ofen as teas forede "gst of tuning, or baling up the fespome fo the ado fequency of” dosed Siena whde seducing the respons Uo other fe fren But Ht can go only vey. ied ‘Tetnce in that dreeon, and tore eliborate ‘pease are neces, Amplification “The enemy that produces the ound coming ‘out of the eaiphone of a cry set al mised "bythe sao gaa Hi, Tn eter ‘wordy t etry tat eves fom the fan Inti, station toe tcavingantenoa, If we nd to dopend solely on uansited energy for prodscing the sound wares tat ul imatey come Flom the secsiner the ditanoes cre which we ould communicate would te ery ted ded "The answer Lo chs Is ampifeon. In broad Ace an tmpliier la doc that roe Toe Sspled energy to magaly the sgh ino a bigger feprodaction of ill The pyle be amped nied by ‘ose strange ete ‘outs be ay "eae SIGNAL AND NOISE_AMPLITUDE lier before ot afte detection; inthe Hist case it ‘Sampled ata ral iequeny, i the tor ese studio fequene. Generally 4 combination of ‘oh is weds esa each method has is sat tars ‘The Limit of Amplification 1 encry existed by the receiving sntnna, om psig ado sonal extremely fail, the snauat of ampieaton wed Ine rivers very peat factor of Some milo aly, Vow ough be tempted ttn tat hit Smpiifeston proces could be cated on int tly, so thal even the weakest imaginable signa uid be bros up to seble strength Uno {unatelyitcannot, Te thing the nite he able !mplifestion Irmo. This mabe fom randomly aeping sectsal uments generated Intute (eat) Sad in elcteal cots and device, {tcfg the amps, god he rca sl tous stall frequencies, both radio at au, tnd inescapable, This dost ea that hee are to meta arable to take it hss bothersome, thoege Thre ae such spans and ecelers ake te of ther. One of the big objets n destin od recaver to improve the signboaaie Taio Every efor mae to amply the ipl os ‘uch a posuble whic ampllyng the noe as Bea ponte Sich fox tle deopdown bakaround Iaterr hae been diced In Chapier 3. Now [ots tke tok aan actual receiving rangement Since Noise tetReceiver Principles \ EC BAND CW STBY. SWITCH AM, BANOSET Receiver Controls Fig. 25 te not an attempt to reprint the panel of any” puticlar brand of oceleIC Fenda fo stow the contols you havea Your ‘depoal n'a minimimdesgncommnietion te feher (We say "minimums" becawe {Sher wih fewer fonctions pats than ae Shown inthe ck dagam of Fg. hardly traans the “communication label) ere wil Wevatclons, of coun. Actual eceers or ‘ater ue iy corr only the amater ands invead of offering continuous toning ter te Higireqaney ado specu. Such, et will fave only one tuning land kno. Ant my ‘Scere wil offer features not shown om ‘Spe pe, "A'stwodal” receher as shown tn Fle, 35 sly ets you Hen anyihere Beweessboot to 54 Miia” ‘Thiscoaiaueus coverage vans font you lke to istn to wha ging 08 fetween the amateur bands IF you have such feonver, you know that you have to sete itor general coverage ial rater carly Tish om the bandspend dial” ‘Thete is point {oe fered foot ti. Tune in phone aa tion that sesonably steady that Bot 55 BANDSPREAD fading parity. Tane though it with the tundspead sia Note the dil readings at whch the gnal just appears and jest_dsappedr you tne though Also, note how auch of an {Ne you tuum through withthe tundspread ab fr he salon comes in apd goes out. Now do fhe sme thing withthe generatcoreage dal nd Kb, 1 you were well up i the spect, Sy at lly Yong withthe bands a te probably letter operation. Te ay ot ve bec cui tal wth the Bandsprea Bandspread and Tuning Rate At times, eft! taning i confiued with selctity he two. are not the sane dig ‘You may call the ting sharp on your gene overage dil andro on he budsprend dl, recur He merely uestion of how fast yo “ial One dn i astern hat atl The abit of the fe stations, 40 that oe ean te Trourht in “whe another" excluded, fet siete by these ening lcs rove tis to Youll by eying the same tuning test on sition that fader some Infereence, IF anything, the andspread dl — La foerecron 13+56 Which makes the sat erm Broad becaew you {ne thowgh them tw stay Wl ep Yow gud trent that You ight wot be eo ue ot wih the sharp” handset aI fs, Is Simply eens Oe bandspead loo is easler for you to aur et you rac fhe proper tung ith a minima of rt snd ‘So dont be one of those who confuse tand Slctiviy quite dilfecent tom these sface fifets ‘The quest fr selectivity she thie that fed to the pe of tcler In unhvsal We = the Saperictrodyne of "spect" The sipeel Bone among clvets, offers the sume Kid of ‘Skctty in any part of the ptm. You't find that you ean emiate an fering sina the sume umber of Kher aay fiom the fesed sgnl,no matter wheter thesia 08 Tao kil inthe broadest tant, oF om 20000 ite 'on the eter end of the secu. Match a fr tha tine le thas potly nay mean quite» ference bn how the recat Fao Bat ese nding = Os poste oot «rensre of els. Selectivity you have read the section on toned ceaits in Chaper 2 carefully you'l well thatthe Fendi of o tuned cist elt wider at the ua he might hve a rat wis sandwith of TO ite at 300 kotet for invance. A com ay, od cate ine he icy. Dercemage bandwidth, but te thes the atl Simber ef aiahets inthis example, the Ban ‘wats woud be 10% 10 10 Now it hppens that he baniwidths of the ‘ual reques no tundwith is determined by the {nthe human vote, not by the rio teqoency AL which the sla” goes on, Theefre, we an the exactly the sume set In Elohers, at 14a eat 4 Mia. There wil be tine hen {tl be Jost as rch needed on one fenweney ton the other Adjacont Channel Selocivity We cant get that uniformity of selectivity in ail amatour bands It we ty 10 do 1a te aio reelvng fequeney, cause of te way tuned ‘reults beta. The loge ans, then, 1 t plc some one frequency where ve can get the ind ‘of selectivity we want, then convert the Incoming signal to tha selected frequency. Thi ie Just wha the supdbet does. It tes signal at, fy, 21 Bits whee the iboats” ofthe rule Would be- poor and chang i ilo Slat at poupe 48 Ke. The conte gal UNDERSTANDING ‘ena in all respects, except Freauency, fo the Gigina one. Othe” signal might be in the Site Yand, or the 26s bond in every ese ‘would be changed ito one at 438 Ais Is Principal ampliienton would Take place at at Frequency. Tao slit of 435-tHe cclt rere of sich cals, a actually Would ‘be tied ie a praca veeter — very fear than hat of any ects the rece front ead. (The float end Is the pat that han de the Incoming gal ats reat" feqaeney) So" forall practic purposes the seeetiity of tho weber exactly the se at 28 MIE a at3S'Miir "ora 485 hte Tho soley “here considered is what it ohn abaacentchannel selectivity. Ts mea ted by the rene’ abity to single out one ff group of signals very clos to eachother in frequency Ifthe edge oF the band ocupied by Gena Just touches the edge of the ban Secuped. bY" ante, the two sialsae on SMacent chanel 11s obviously yxy prety fur vantage to have the ably “eopy" ope ‘Sich nal witout iteerence fom the oe, ‘The workings of slectviy ae not always undertoad. You may have bead 2 fellow ha ‘Smack that "so and a'r carer ie broed at 8 are door" usualy about some nearby station With “2 powedl signa The fuet tat an Unmodutted ler hat a0 width at all tt Just one single faguency. How, then, does the lacy ge abvod that an umoduisted” gal can eee Fig 3 shows 1wo slecitvity cures that ano fesonably plea of modern sapere Imeever AU 6 4B, own Groen, the mor Teoponvo ne st a with of SOD Bete (03 ie) "sd the er har width of 5000 het (G ktz) The numbers slong he adr ofthe caver ‘Sow tie tundwidth in Eioherte st te point Ineated; for example, the bandwidth of the ‘hthand cure fe karts 20. down ig 18 thon the tramnited bandits of “sata sia vacoue types. Aca sionals would not be confined ently within the Bands ot, butt the raat sell Sse andReceiver Principles 57 RESPONSE IN veciBeLs propery operated neat al of ls emson shout eine the limit, Pehapy the sages ‘gal at too Kea in th epect However = ‘octet trnaniter should not he shy Eomponens st that 30"'d8_ down in the “other sideband. Sich signal repressed at D by the dished lhe cutting off at “30. There Should be nothing abore thls ise lath tea sited sia Cardboard “Tuning” ‘Tew two figures will give you the buss for sn Insuctve and poly amtang hal hos ‘Trace Fp. 37 om a pece of paper th pat the Trscing cand hn eat Out the pat ae the selectty eunes. Pace your teeing 20 Fp, IEE co tha Hts “60 ani son fop of the 60 a {oF Fp 38. Now sie the acing sews keep Sg the two aves topether. "Av the openins pase ‘ver the "signals" of Fi. 3-8 You can we the KWCYELES OFF BAND CENTER response bull) pat the Earn slides aver the *iga: ‘mam atthe center of the cue, Sreaes as the ling edge of the cue pases fer it Finally I sappens altogether fom the otout nd that sna "tuned ot “This ia representation of what actually hap pent as you tune Dough a sera wih your Feciver. Tuning is simply he proces Of moving the puinhunl the eesiee row onal (ot Sere of igs when more than on presen. IT'you pest tis expriment umber ef tines wh each selectivity euee on each type of na, fd observe caefliy what Is happonieg 10 the Feiponse, You wil oon get «good Idea of wht Select really means. You. wil ee, Yor lance, thatthe unmoduate "cater ah A “sem to have width appears 10 be 10 Kile Wits the stp cane. In other words, what yo Use i ting ars am unmoltl iga t T tien gnats oreniat58 UNDERSTANDING H 3 i See ot the width of the signa isl It width ‘ero, What you totaly stsere Is the sponse ‘Give af yo teciertletve cats Bandwidth and Skirt Solestvity 1m tuning scrss «phone signal you can se that ‘the sharp cue ll not bing tthe eae Saal by any meane You ned rete bandwith for receiving pone. Note, weer tht ale {owgh the i phone Renal i ae) 6 ki frdee i wil acem wer as You tne through i Uecnise you can sil ese (at 5) pat of ven en you're fr from avg It centered fn the wider cane ‘One other thing thi ls expaiment wil do foc you sive you some. appreciation Of the Inportane of the shape of the stint ean, Some cover dtp if eaelyowly om the Moe or hires Youll beat ga oer 2 wider She ofthe fing Hab wth such n cure If i siete op down alwos very the sia cone nity and aes ut uc you tune hough i Try making up afew civer of rious ‘Mut sapes ech wth these Danita 6 fla, and ar for Yours. You'l son eome 10 ‘ala the ve of sit lec. Froquoney Conversion Now back to she superiet ind fequeney commrson, ‘There ir anther advantage othe ftequency-converion process bess the conant ‘sists. An ampier having agen ner of Sines petting ata relate) fo a eaency low 300 KHz, ay ~ can be designed for ontdraby more ain, ith stilt than Sine talent igh frequeness. High select iy and heh gia hand in hand at ow Trequensles, Th the wperiet ber 3 inajor ‘elingprobler iahgh-fequene exption However, equey convertion io igs in some’ ew problems that weren't there before ‘They tre’ inmrmountabe, butte do demand {ire den and constuction. These monly one known mithad of frequency onyerson tha atl weal forthe prose. This [Ste proces Ken as htoodyring oe bea, To get's deuted now frequency » taown une {alias the intrmedite frequency is 2 supedict receiver — it is vecesary to “mls” tied Frequency wit the signal fequeney. The mixing frome (which ‘fers cosseraly from oF inary’ atpification) fade 10a Ineresting fale two new frequncis appear ome equal 1 {he diference ‘between the original evo, ab fe equal tthe sum ofthe orignal wo. These {fo ina tothe two oral ones, which Sho. appent in the output of t miner In the Stperiel weve the one we almost always ‘Mints the dferen frequen Tere is a example Lat us say that our ltermeaat frquencyampiier pets at 435 ite There St sgl on 14150 Rie that we Ivan to convert to 485 fla.‘ 488 ke wil Te'the ference between 14180 KHz anda pe Freqveny that ne have to introduce i order tHfeot + comers, "You can ready oe tat there ag so fe quences 713695 Ril and 14508 3t2 hat At met the speietion Either on 458 KH From #50 le, The formeris4ss Ae ler ant th Ttter 435 Kz hper in reueney- Ween we Ahichorer we choote of these tv loa enllalor Frequencies (They are ile Ioetoseliator f= (qc caus they regenerated by an os {Mor in the rceber tl and do not come from ‘uti he inal des) Image Frequencies ‘The fact tht woh choice elas Is one source of toubls inn sperbe. Far elher of to frequencies wll produces dsed output or Ertinermediatefequene) signal 4 ao tre that enc Toeoslator frequen a generate the sme difference from two Tequeace, Oe Move and one below it Far example, if ve ‘howta choos 14608 Its for te leat aelaor suena nthe cave mentioned above, sigal ton 5.000 Ris ako would be 48S Ke from the {cel ovellator.‘Thur we have a new source of Inteorenesocalsd nage sg, oF ms nthe ether se of the locaoscatr (tueng As you can se from the example, those ave gat ate always speed from the dsted Sita by easel fie the ntermedlate Croquen- Gruso 14150 910s. which bs twice ase,Receiver Principles So the superte sakes the problem of wifrm selectty a ll requncer atthe conto fat: ‘Sing © ew poole in skeetv ht te we hive (0 face some hard fue, Thee Image signals te alvays the. mime number of ‘fest from the deaed goa repels of the sna frequenoy ln percentage image gets closer to the deed sn swe go nthe spectrum. Unfortunatly, here m0 way to ject tho Image signal except 9 ig nought sect at the desea quent. Ui'iigh seem that ee right Back sere We Started from when we went 10. the mperet franment. And Indced We te except fo One thing the image terrence ie lvays dint, in frequency, from the dese sgn by ce the infermedlatsequency. Ie tena on that frequency onl that an interfere And we ean hve considerable contol over thelr ection Obvious tho farther the images fom te ested gpl he tess response her tuned ‘cult wil fave to iy sno the respons drone fff as You move. away from the tsomt Te fqeney. So we can pot the image fequeny far ay at "posi by ‘sing an Intermediate Fhequency Hat tay hich Front-End Image Respon: Fig 3.10 shows slate responte of typlest irutto signa 900 ile and 3000 loft he resonant equeney Of 14,150 88s, The two ay \ r ¥ af a8) MEGACYCLES FROM RESONANCE tie fasbate ty mi et uty beste te ‘cbt 59 Ms, of coune, would be 450 kil snd 1500 ite. “Tnere I 4108 improvement in image Feestion atthe higher intermediate frequency [ist ecru of the Way tuned cei responds fo offtequency sna ‘Actualy, at eat IWo such cei in cacade woul be sed to ge adeuate me etn Whig reqeenin, even wth te 500K intermediate requeny. Ii for thi seo, mon thers, that tecies of any pretensions al Shesyt have on 1 ampli sage preseding the Inset, There wil ese such tuned ott ‘Srotnted with ach of thet sages, Double Conversion ut agin we've ied at a happy answer ont at the pace of new dicate Tntetmel Serrequency ampli a 1500 Ee ant highs int be butt have the same select amd sn per sage a at frequencies below 500 KHz NT est not when conventional tuned eae tye wed. 80 We gener ind that stil another frequeney convention it needed fom a fst Ienmediate Tequencythat it eda It results in good nage’ sporesion, to 4 scond Invermediats hequeney that ere the closed cor adacentshanna slectviy” we want, Tht Ehown is the doublesuper or dovble-conersion (Of cout, sill another loa oxcilator ine essary, epeating of the ght equeney 10 Eve the appropitediference Taking agin te We seed et Tocca fe vency of 13,180°* 1500" = 13,650 kit Out St the mixee comes 1500 ke and sow we ‘ant fo convert this fo 438 te Toe a0 we ‘eed a oc cello at ether 1500 455° 1955 Ee or at 1500 ~ 435 = 1045 tie. Usally the higher requeney would be sed, becase of te sex crop af troubles that th pert rings ‘wit i spurious responses. ‘The image sgn we talked about above is prime’ example of urous response ~ ale bruset not wanted, even though it gute Tenant” generated Unfortunately there are MM other pes. Each of the Toe! oscars feseates harmonies slong With the fsquens Ste want fom ite thre te sich ov Tats there ae eles posites fr harmonic combinations tht wil ix to ge diference frequeney equ fot 1, or perhaps to ret Spariour sgn at the actual fsqueny to Walch the reser i ted. These birder ca how up ‘n-any toring range, and usaly 80. "They” can ‘be kept to 2 lanai the am bande Oy 4 Jodcous celce of the it inermedat. fe cy. Bat the more culistors there te folng Simatacously athe ressver the more bide there ate and It io jut 9 simple pro60 UNDERSTANDING ), Sloe sigrm of te baie double supunettrodyne. Although te of amaliiar stage may Altogetier, the pert receiver woul sem to bela hin af Pandora's box, wth ll ors of Undewrate things popping ot of Neverthe, {ha advaaipas fn aeetiy ad pine err ry woe ‘tuning range do outeph Oe se fects Tipovidal care tied design and coor: ot 10 iaimize the spurious repomtr af rae lous sou A good recave wil duce thom 10 the pola whee they ar rarely slceable We hveemphadeed them hereto fice you appre inte the fet tat thoy do exit, at ae veer ie nol fre from them. A lite Krowedge on this point my save you the embarasinent of Inning to eat your words ater complaining ‘Sorotsy abot some salt tele ott te fqency or lading ham band when the Sina staly"was a *pinton"™ cnjred up by ‘he receiver Hs! denttication There ae ways of recopnining bidet and Jnages Tor what they are, although sometimes It takes a good deal of expen. Suro sna eerste by the resier itt wil be wna Sted (or nenly so — sometimes there maybe {tie hom on a bide) and Wil be thee al the tine They wil not aul te afened by ‘he anteon, 50 iF you take ff the antenna and ‘he sig stl tere as bg 2s eer, You ‘ame ton the reer Tages, of cours are signals coming fom ‘outs, and will dsippear ‘slong withthe “he ‘imate Spas when’ you ‘dseoanect the a ow0 soy une rier a ean enna, However, you ean often spot them. If the isge na Aspens tbe clove enoueh i Ihequeney to 28 ets sgl to sake Sn atible tat tone oe heterodyne, there fran ny tent. Vary the vester tuning back and Toth shy 1 the ‘et tone change one ofthe gal tan he If {he tone does no? change, oth algal ae “le Biate” OF couse, the carcter of the sgl fan’ bea clue, toe; we dont expect to Ci femme of boasting stations Working Sands that ate excusiely amateur wond-wide But in other pars of the word Some sections of the amateur bands are shared with commercial fc goverment user 40 "nls you Know you Fheqdeny siennents prety well ad can mens re frequency prety curt, you cas vay ‘depend on te nate of the Sigua lf ttl you whether sel or spun A Closer Look at Circuits By now you shuld have fab good ies of the overall operation superbe reser ‘There are Tote of deta In roveer lc de sion tut make for better ception or more Convenient operation, It fav’ win the sope ff this book to ty to cover thee all 0 Wel ontine urses to Touching on fextares that eo Ni ind in paca ny vos desert youll ook back at the Mock digram In Fig. 36, you'll sce that thee azo four di ‘iomin th nin ine — conerter HF amplify,

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