FPC Notes

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL
UNIT-I HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS Introduction to fluid power system - Hydraulic fluids - functions, types, properties, selection and application. Construction, operation, characteristics and graphical symbols of hydraulic components - pumps, actuators/motors, valves, switches, filters, seals, fittings and other accessories _____________________________________________________________________________
What is fluid power?

Fluid power is energy transmitted and controlled by means of a pressurized fluid, either liquid or gas. The term fluid power applies to both hydraulics and pneumatics. Hydraulics uses pressurized liquid, for example, oil or water; pneumatics uses compressed air or other neutral gases. Fluid power can be effectively combined with other technologies through the use of sensors, transducers and microprocessors. How fluid power works Pascal's Law expresses the central concept of fluid power: "Pressure exerted by a confined fluid acts undiminished equally in all directions."
An input force of 10 pounds (44.8 N) on a 1-square-inch (6.45 cm2) piston develops a pressure of 10 pounds per square inch (psi) (68.95 kN/m2 or 68.95 KPa) throughout the container. This pressure will allow a 10-square-inch piston to support a 100-pound (444.8 N) weight. The forces are proportional to the piston areas.
The advantages of fluid power

Fluid power systems provide many benefits to users including:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________ PREPARED BY: S.DINESH KUMAR M.E., (Ph.D), ASST.PROF (SR.GRADE), S.R.M. UNIVERSITY,VADAPALANI CAMPUS
Multiplication and variation of force-Linear or rotary force can be multiplied from a fraction of an ounce to several hundred tons of output. Easy, accurate control-You can start, stop, accelerate, decelerate, reverse or position large forces with great accuracy. Analog (infinitely variable) and digital (on/off) control are possible. Instantly reversible motion-within less than half a revolution-can be achieved. Multi-function control-A single hydraulic pump or air compressor can provide power and control for numerous machines or machine functions when combined with fluid power manifolds and valves. High horsepower, low weight ratio-Pneumatic components are compact and lightweight. You can hold a five horsepower hydraulic motor in the palm of your hand. Low speed torque-Unlike electric motors, air or hydraulic motors can produce large amounts of torque (twisting force) while operating at low speeds. Some hydraulic and air motors can even maintain torque at zero speed without overheating. Constant force or torque-This is a unique fluid power attribute. Safety in hazardous environments-Fluid power can be used in mines, chemical plants, near explosives and in paint applications because it is inherently spark-free and can tolerate high temperatures. Established standards and engineering-The fluid power industry has established design and performance standards for hydraulic and pneumatic products through NFPA, the National Fluid Power Association and ISO, the International Organization for Standardization.
Fluid power applications Mobile: Here fluid power is used to transport, excavate and lift materials as well as control or power mobile equipment. End use industries include construction, agriculture, marine and the military. Applications include backhoes, graders, tractors, truck brakes and suspensions, spreaders and highway maintenance vehicles. Industrial: Here fluid power is used to provide power transmission and motion control for the machines of industry. End use industries range from plastics working to paper production. Applications include metalworking equipment, controllers, automated manipulators, material handling and assembly equipment. Aerospace: Fluid power is used for both commercial and military aircraft, spacecraft and related support equipment. Applications include landing gear, brakes, flight controls, motor controls and cargo loading equipment. Fluid power products Fluid power products are sold as individual components or as systems for the original equipment manufacturing, maintenance, repair and replacement markets. A typical fluid power system includes the following components:
cal power.
devices, which help contain the fluid.
are used to help monitor the performance of a fluid power system.
FLUID POWER SYMBOLS.
BASICS OF HYDRAULICS
"What is hydraulics ?" Hydraulics is the transmission and control of forces and motions through the medium of fluids. Hydraulic Systems are used in industrial applications such as stamping presses, steel mills, and general manufacturing, agricultural machines, mining industry, aviation, space technology, deepsea exploration, transportation, marine technology, and offshore gas and petroleum exploration.
The basic concept of a hydraulic system

Hydraulic power transmission systems are concerned with the generation, modulation, and control of pressure and flow, and in general such systems include: Pumps which convert available power from the prime mover to hydraulic power at the actuator. Valves which control the direction of pump-flow, the level of power produced, and the amount of fluid-flow to the actuators. The power level is determined by controlling both the flow and pressure level. Actuators which convert hydraulic power to usable mechanical power output at the point required.
The medium, which is a liquid, provides rigid transmission and control as well as lubrication of components, sealing in valves, and cooling of the system. Connectors which link the various system components provide power conductors for the fluid under pressure, and .fluid flow return to tank (reservoir). Fluid storage and conditioning equipment which ensure sufficient quality and quantity as well as cooling of the fluid.
Basic hydraulic system
Advantages and limitations

Advantages 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. High force and power density Low installation space requirements Simple closed-loop controllability Excellent dynamic response, low mass moment of inertia Simple power storage, branching and limitation High ruggedness, even in exacting conditions
Limitations 1. High initial costs 2. Maintenance- and repair-friendliness 3. Leakage problems

Hydraulic fluids
Important concept in hydrodynamics is how fluids flow based on certain critical flow speeds or as the result of meeting restrictions to flow such as bends in the pipe or system components.
One goal in the initial design of hydraulic power transmission systems is to encourage laminar flow as much as possible since an increase in turbulence will increase flow resistance and hydraulic losses as well. The diagram below illustrates the concept of turbulent flow.
Although turbulent flow is wasteful in most hydraulic applications, it is desirable to have turbulence in the oil flow as it travels through the heat exchanger for cooling purposes. If turbulence exists as the oil flows through the heat exchanger, more of the oil molecules come into contact with the heat exchanger cooling tubes and more efficient cooling is the result.
Reynolds number
The Reynolds Number is a non dimensional parameter defined by the ratio of dynamic pressure ( u2) and shearing stress ( u / L) and can be expressed as Re = ( u2) / ( u / L) =uL/ =uL/ where , Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional) = density (kg/m3) u = velocity (m/s) = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2) L = characteristic length (m) = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Purposes of the Fluid

The hydraulic fluid has four primary purposes: to transmit power, to lubricate moving parts, to seal clearances between parts, and to cool or dissipate heat. 1. Power Transmission As a power transmitting medium, a fluid must flow easily through lines and component passages. The fluid also must be as incompressible as possible. 2. Lubrication In most hydraulic components, internal lubrication is provided by the fluid. Pump elements and other wearing parts slide against each other on a film of fluid. For long component life the oil must contain the necessary additives to ensure high anti wear characteristics. Not all hydraulic oils contain these additives. 3. Sealing In many instances, the fluid is the only seal against pressure inside a hydraulic component. There is no seal ring between the valve spool and body to minimize leakage from the high- pressure passage to the low-pressure passages. The close mechanical fit and oil viscosity determines leakage rate. 4. Cooling Circulation of the oil through lines and round the walls of the reservoir gives up heat that is generated in the system. 5. Quality Requirements In addition to these primary functions, the hydraulic fluid may have a number of other quality requirements. Some of these are: Prevent rust Prevent formation of sludge, gum and varnish Depress foaming Maintain its own stability and thereby reduce fluid replacement cost Maintain relatively stable body over a wide temperature range Prevent corrosion and pitting Separate out water Compatibility with seals and gaskets These quality requirements often are the result of special compounding and may not be present in every fluid.
Fluid Properties
Let us now consider the properties of hydraulic fluids which enable it to carry out its primary functions and fulfill some or all of its quality requirements.
1. Viscosity Viscosity is the measure of the fluid's resistance to flow; or an inverse measure of fluidity. If a fluid flows easily, its viscosity is low. You also can say that the fluid is thin or has a low body. A fluid that flows with difficulty has a high viscosity. It is thick or high in body. Viscosity a Compromise: For any hydraulic machine, the actual fluid viscosity must be a compromise. A high viscosity is desirable for maintaining sealing between mating surfaces. However, too high a viscosity increases friction, resulting in: High resistance to flow Increased power consumption due to frictional loss High temperature caused by friction Increased pressure drop because of the resistance Possibility of sluggish or slow operation Difficulty in separating air from oil in reservoir and should the viscosity be too low. Internal leakage increases. Excessive wear or even seizure under heavy load may occur due to breakdown of the oil film between moving parts. Pump efficiency may decrease, causing slower operation of the actuator. Increased temperatures result from leakage losses. 2. Pour Point Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a fluid will flow. It is a very important specification if the hydraulic system will be exposed to extremely low temperature. For a thumb rule, the pour point should be 20 degrees F below the lowest temperature to be encountered. 3. Lubricating Ability It is desirable for hydraulic system moving parts to have enough clearance to run together on a substantial film of fluid. This condition is called full-film lubrication. So long as the fluid has adequate viscosity the minute imperfections in the surfaces of the parts do not touch. However in certain high performance equipment, increased speeds and pressure, coupled with lower clearances, because the film of fluid to be squeezed very thin and a condition called boundary lubrication occurs. Here, there may be metal-to-metal contact between the tips of the two mating part surfaces and some chemical lubricating ability is needed. 4. Oxidation Resistance Oxidation or chemical union with oxygen is a serious reducer of the service life of a fluid. Petroleum oils are particularly susceptible with oxidation, since oxygen readily combines with both carbon and hydrogen in the oils makeup. Most of the oxidation products are soluble in the oil, and additional reactions take place in the products to form gum, sludge and varnish. The first stage products which stay in the oil are acid in nature and can cause corrosion throughout the system, in addition to increasing the viscosity of the oil. The insoluble gums, sludge and varnish plug orifices, increase wear and cause valves to stick.
5. Catalysts There are always a number of oxidation catalysts or helpers in a hydraulic system. Heat, pressure contaminants water, metal surfaces and agitation all accelerate oxidation once it starts. Temperature is particularly important. Tests have shown that below 135 F, oil oxidizes very slowly. But the rate of oxidation (or any other chemical reaction) approximately doubles for every 18 F increase in temperature. Oil refiners incorporate additives in hydraulic oils to resist oxidation, since many systems operate at considerably higher temperature. Their additives are either: Stop oxidation from continuing immediately after it starts (chain breaker type) Reduce the effect of oxidation catalysts (metal deactivator type). 6. Rust and Corrosion Prevention Rust is the chemical union of iron (or steel) with oxygen. Corrosion is a chemical reaction between a metal and a chemical usually an acid. Acids result from the chemical union of water with certain elements. Since it is usually not possible to keep air and atmosphere-borne moisture out of the hydraulic system there will always be opportunities for rust and corrosion to occur. During corrosion, particles of metal are dissolved and washed away. Both rust and corrosion contaminate the system and promote wear. They also allow excessive leakage past the affected parts and may cause components to seize. Rust and corrosion can be inhibited by incorporating additives that plate on the metal surfaces to prevent their being attacked chemically. 7. Demulsibility Small quantities of water can be tolerated in most systems. In fact, some anti-rust compounds promote a degree of emulsification or mixture with any water that gets into the system. This prevents the water from settling and breaking through the anti-rust film. However, very much water in the oil will promote the collection of contaminants and can cause sticky valves and accelerated wear. With proper refining hydraulic oil can have a high degree of demulsibility or ability to separate out water. 8. Additives Since most of the desirable properties of a fluid are atleast partly traceable to additives, commercial additives can be incorporated in any oil to make it more suitable for hydraulic system.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM & COMPONENTS Hydraulic pumps:

A hydraulic pump takes oil from a tank and delivers it to the rest of the hydraulic circuit. In doing so it raises oil pressure to the required level. The operation of such a pump is illustrated below. On hydraulic circuit diagrams a pump is represented by the symbol with the arrowhead showing the direction of flow.
WHAT IS A PUMP?
Device for converting mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. Heart of the hydraulic system as it generates the force necessary to move the load. Main purpose is to create the flow of oil through the system which in turn assists transfer of power & motion. Does not develop pressure. Generally driven at constant speed by 3 phase AC induction motor. Mechanical action creates partial vacuum at pump inlet. Atmospheric pressure forces the fluid through the inlet line into the pump. Pump pushes the fluid into the hydraulic system.
PUMPING THEORY
PUMP CLASSIFICATION
POSITIVE or HYDROSTATIC PUMPS:

Pumping volume changes from maximum to minimum during each pumping cycle Used where pressure is the primary consideration Separation between high & low pressure areas or zones Pumping action is caused by varying the physical size of the sealed pumping chamber Ejects a fixed amount of fluid per rev. of pump shaft rotation Flow enters & leaves the unit at same velocity Capable of overcoming the pressure resulting from the mechanical loads as well as the resistance to flow due to friction Examples include Gear, vane, piston screw pumps
Advantages -High pressure capability -Small, compact size -High volumetric efficiency -Small change of efficiency throughout the pressure range -Greater flexibility of performance -Widely used in hydraulic system Variations in design -Fixed displacement (constant pump flow output) -Variable displacement (change in pump flow due to change in displacement output keeping speed constant) -Variable displacement, pressure compensation capability (less flow as the system pressure builds up, no need of pressure relief valve) NONPOSITIVE or HYDRODYNAMIC PUMPS Fluids are displaced & transferred using the inertia of fluid in motion Uses Newtons 1stlaw of motion to move the fluid against the system resistance. Used for low pressure (up to 40 bar), high volume flow applications. Little use in fluid power field Primarily used for transporting fluids from one location to another Examples include centrifugal (rotational inertia) & axial flow propeller pumps (transnational inertia) Advantages -Fewer moving parts-Low initial cost -Minimum maintenance cost-Quieter operation -Capable of handling any type of fluid -Simplicity of operation -High reliability
EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP

The simplest and most robust positive displacement pump, having just two moving parts, is the gear pump. Its parts are non-reciprocating, move at constant speed and experience a uniform force. CONSTRUCTION Internal construction, shown in Figure, consists of just two close meshing gear wheels which rotate as shown. The direction of rotation of the gears should be carefully noted; it is the opposite of that intuitively expected by most people. One of the gear is connected to drive shaft which in turn is coupled with prime mover. Second gear gets driven because of meshing (spur gears)
Suction side teeth unmeshed; Discharge side teeth mesh Vacuum generation due to evacuation of teeth Line contact of the gear teeth over one another prevents flow through the mesh & the close fitting of the housing prevents flow back around the periphery WORKING As the teeth come out of mesh at the centre, a partial vacuum is formed which draws fluid into the inlet chamber. Fluid is trapped between the outer teeth and the pump housing, causing a continual transfer of fluid from inlet chamber to outlet chamber where it is discharged to the system. Pump displacement is determined by volume of fluid between each pair of teeth; number of teeth; and speed of rotation. Note the pump merely delivers a fixed volume of fluid from inlet port to outlet port for each rotation; outlet port pressure is determined solely by design of the rest of the system.
PERFORMANCE CHARECTERISTICS: Performance of any pump is limited by leakage and the ability of the pump to withstand the pressure differential between inlet and outlet ports. The gear pump obviously requires closely meshing gears, minimum clearance between teeth and housing, and also between the gear face and side plates. Often the side plates of a pump are designed as deliberately replaceable wear plates. Wear in a gear pump is primarily caused by dirt particles in the hydraulic fluid, so cleanliness and filtration are particularly important.
The pressure differential causes large side loads to be applied to the gear shafts at 45~ to the centre line as shown. Typically, gear pumps are used at pressures up to about 150 bar and capacities of around 150 gpm (6751 min-1). Volumetric efficiency of gear pumps at 90% is lowest of the three pump types.
INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

Consists of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent shaped seal & an external housing Power is applied to either gear Crescent seal acts as a seal between the suction & discharge ports Motion of the gear draws fluid from the reservoir & forces it around both sides of crescent seal Operates at lower capacities & pressures (up to 70 bar)
GEROTOR PUMP
GEROTOR GENERATED ROTOR Inner gear rotor (Gerotor element) is power driven which draws outer gear rotor Centers of the gears are offset by approximately one-half the tooth depth Inner gear has one tooth less than the outer one Formation of inlet & discharge pumping chambers between the rotor blades Sealing the pumping chamber because of meshing teeth More compact than the external gear pump Gears must be made to high precision Ratings: -Continuous pressure 125 bar -Max. speed 2000 to 3600 rpm -Max. delivery 200 liters/min
LOBE PUMP
Operates in a fashion similar to that of external gear pump Both blades are driven externally (one directly by the source of power & other through timing gears) Physically blades doesnt come in contact with each other Quieter than other types of gear pumps Greater amount of pulsation in pump output Used for pumping gas, air, liquid with low pressures with higher flow rate
VANE PUMP
The major source of leakage in a gear pump arises from the small gaps between teeth, and also between teeth and pump housing. The vane pump reduces this leakage by using spring (or hydraulic) loaded vanes slotted into a driven rotor. The rotor is offset within the housing, and the vanes constrained by a cam ring as they cross inlet and outlet ports. Because the vane tips are held against the housing there is little leakage and the vanes compensate to a large degree for wear at vane tips or in the housing itself. There is still, however, leakage between rotor faces and body sides. Pump capacity is determined by vane throw, vane cross sectional area and speed of rotation.
VANE PUMP OPERATION
UNBALANCED VANE PUMP

Axis of the rotor (splined to drive shaft) positioned eccentric to the circular cam ring. Rotor (rotates inside the cam ring) has radial slots containing spring loaded vanes. Vane mates with the surface of the cam ring due to centrifugal force exerted by rotor. 1sthalf revolution of rotor increase in volume between rotor & cam ring, drop in pressure resulting in suction process. 2ndhalf revolution cam ring pushes vanes back into the slots resulting in discharge. The discharge & suction side of the pump are sealed from each other at any time by at least one vane (track between two ports is slightly wider than the space between two vanes).
Pump experiences two different pressures (working pressure at outlet & pressure at pump inlet). One half of the pumping mechanism is less than atmospheric pressure while the other half is subjected to the full system pressure. Undesirable side loading on the rotor shaft. Unbalanced forces reduces pump life cycle considerably.
Seldom used.
BALANCED VANE PUMP

Circular rotor with vane slots concentrically positioned with the axis of an elliptical cam ring.
Vanes reciprocates twice during one revolution of rotor giving two pumping actions per rotor revolution Two inlet & two outlet ports are diametrically opposite to each other (pressure ports are opposite leading to zero net force). Forces acting on shafts are fully balanced In actual design both inlet & outlet ports are connected together Intra-vane principle (pressure oil is fed to the underside of the vane in such a manner that maximum force occurs on the vane) Fixed displacement type pump which operates up to 175 bar pressure Relatively quite & of simple construction Cannot be designed as variable displacement unit.
VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT VANE PUMP

In hydraulic system the flow rate of the pump needs to be variable which can be achieved by varying the rpm of the electric motor (economically not feasible & hence is not practical) Varying the pump displacement can be easily effected Displacement of the vane inside the pump & therefore its delivery is proportional to the eccentricity between rotor axis and cam ring When eccentricity (e) is positive, flow (Q) is maximum.
When e is zero, Q is zero When e is negative, the direction of the flow gets reversed
PRESSURE COMPENSATED VANE PUMP

In certain hydraulic systems design, it is desired that when the predetermined system pressure is reached, the pump should stop pumping further oil to the system Pressure compensated vane pump consists of an additional spring which is adjusted to offset the cam ring. As the pressure acting on the inner contour of the ring is more than the pressure exerted by the spring, the cam ring becomes concentric to the rotor and pumping action stops. In some pumps spring is replaced by a piston & pressure control valve. When system pressure reaches the setting of the control valve, it is applied to the piston centralizing the ring and the rotor, reducing pump displacement to zero.
PERFORMANCE CHARECTERISTICS OF VANE PUMP: Capacity and pressure ratings of a vane pump are generally lower than gear pumps, but reduced leakage gives an improved volumetric efficiency of around 95%. In an ideal world, the capacity of a pump should be matched exactly to load requirements. A pump with too large a
capacity wastes energy (leading to a rise in fluid temperature) as excess fluid passes through the pressure relief valve. Pumps are generally sold with certain fixed capacities and the user has to choose the next largest size. Figure shows a vane pump with adjustable capacity, set by the positional relationship between rotor and inner casing, with the inner casing position set by an external screw.
CHARACTERISTIC OF VANE PUMP AT CONSTANT SPEED
PISTON PUMP
A piston pump is superficially similar to a motor car engine, and a simple single cylinder arrangement was shown in Figure. Such a simple pump, however, delivering a single pulse of fluid per revolution, generates unacceptably large pressure pulses into the system. Practical piston pumps therefore employ multiple cylinder and pistons to smooth out fluid delivery, and much ingenuity goes into designing multi-cylinder pumps which are surprisingly compact.
OPERATION OF PISTON PUMP
Consist of finely machined & finished cylinder barrel, plunger (piston) which moves inside the housing Shaft of plunger is connected to prime mover (electric motor) Inlet & outlet ports are controlled by ball valves Outward motion of plunger entry of oil Inward motion of plunger discharge of oil Continuous cycling of piston results in supply of oil in pulses Pulsation creates undesirable effects
In order to eliminate & minimize the effect of oil pulsation, to increase the flow rate capacity in piston pumps a number of cylinders and pistons are used in parallel.
DELIVERY PATTERN
AXIAL PISTON PUMP-IN LINE

Pistons are arranged axially parallel to each other around the circumferential periphery of the cylinder block Pistons are driven to & fro inside number of bores of cylinder Either a cylinder barrel or a plate (swash plate) is rotated which makes pistons to have to & fro motion Controlled by ball valves, the oil is sucked in or pumped out
Exploded View
PRESSURE COMPENSATED PISTON PUMP

Swash plate is connected mechanically to a piston which senses the system pressure. Piston is called as compensator piston & is biased against a spring. Return spring positions (when compensator piston is extremely right aligned or condition of least system pressure) yoke to full delivery. As the system pressure increases, the compensator valve spring of the piston moves to allow the fluid to act against the yoke actuating piston. The system pressure is dependent on the setting of the compensator spool spring & adjustment. When the pressure is high enough to overcome the valve spring, spool gets displaced and oil enters the yoke piston. The piston is forced by oil under pressure to decrease or stop the pump displacement resulting no flow. If the pressure falls off, the spool moves back, oil is discharged from the piston to the inside of the pump core, and the spring returns to the yoke to a greater angle.
BENT AXIS PISTON PUMP

Stroking of the pistons is achieved because of the angle between drive shaft & the rotating cylinder block Rotating group consists basically of a cylinder block, pistons, universal link (keys block to the drive shaft), shaft bearing & drive shaft Cylinder block is supported by the cylinder bearing sub-assembly which is free to rotate on the bearing As the drive shaft rotates it causes rotation of the cylinder block resulting reciprocation of the pistons Pump capacity can be adjusted by altering the drive shaft angle
RADIAL PISTON PUMP

ROTATING CYLINDER BLOCK
Design consists of a pintle to direct the fluid in & out of the cylinder, a cylinder barrel with pistons, and a rotor containing a reaction ring Piston remains in constant contact with reaction ring due to the centrifugal force For pumping action reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the pintle or shaft axis As cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outwards which draws fluid as each piston crosses suction port of the pintle
When piston passes through point of maximum eccentricity, it is in turn forced inwards by the reaction ring which forces the fluid to enter the discharge port Displacement can be varied by moving the reaction ring to change the piston stroke
STATIONARY CYLINDER BLOCK
Reciprocating motion is imparted to the pistons by a rotating cam.
PUMP COMPARISION
PUMP PERFORMANCE COMPARISION FACTORS:
PUMP PERFORMANCE COMPARISION FACTORS

GEAR PUMPS Least expensive Lowest level of performance Efficiency is rapidly reduced by wear High maintenance cost Simple in design Widely used in fluid power industry VANE PUMPS Efficiency & cost fall between Gear and Piston pumps Have good efficiencies Last for longer time Leakage losses across the faces of rotor & between the bronze wear plates and pressure ring PISTON PUMPS Most expensive Provides highest level of overall performance Can be driven at high speeds (up to 5000 rpm) Produces non pulsating flow Operates at the highest pressure levels Highest efficiency Longer pump life
Normally cannot be repaired in the field because of their complex design.
PUMP SELECTION PARAMETERS

1. Maximum operating pressure Determined by -Power requirements of the circuit -particular application -Availability of components -type of fluid Higher the operating pressure -higher component cost -lower choice of components -reduction in fluid flow rates for a given system power -smaller pumps, smaller bore pipes & smaller components
2. Maximum delivery Pump must be capable of delivering maximum flow rate demanded by the circuit Constant demand -Fixed displacement pump Demand at a series of fixed levels -Multi-pump system Varying demand within narrow band -Variable displacement 3. Type of control -Manual servo control -Pressure compensated control -Constant flow control -Constant power control 4. Pump drive speed Fluid delivery rate is proportional to speed of rotation Higher the pump drive speed, shorter will be its life 5. Type of fluid Pumps are designed to operate within a particular range of fluid viscosity Mineral oils works satisfactorily with most of the pumps Operating with synthetic or water based fluids reduces the working life of the pump
Hydraulic actuators
A hydraulic or pneumatic system is generally concerned with moving, gripping or applying force to an object. Devices which actually achieve this objective are called actuators. Actuators are classified into three basic types. the hydraulic and pneumatic equivalent of an electric motor. The third type of actuator is used to operate flow control valves for process control of gases, liquids or steam. These actuators are generally pneumatically operated Linear actuators, as the name implies, are used to move an object or apply a force in a straight line. Rotary actuators are
Linear actuators
Hydraulic linear actuators are used to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical force or motion. Although the actuator itself produces linear motion, a variety of mechanical linkages and devices may be attached to it to produce a final output which is rotary, semi-rotary, or a combination of linear and rotary. Levers and linkages may also be attached to achieve force multiplication or force reduction, as well as an increase or reduction of motion speed as shown in the figure below.
Linear Actuators
Construction of linear actuator: The main parts of a hydraulic linear actuator are shown in Figure.
Parts of a hydraulic linear actuator
There are five basic parts in a cylinder; two end caps (a base cap and a bearing cap) with port connections, a cylinder barrel, a piston and the rod itself. This basic construction allows fairly
simple manufacture as end caps and pistons are common to cylinders of the same diameter, and only (relatively) cheap barrels and rods need to be changed to give different length cylinders. End caps can be secured to the barrel by welding, tie rods or by threaded connection. The inner surface of the barrel needs to be very smooth to prevent wear and leakage. Generally a seamless drawn steel tube is used which is machined (honed) to an accurate finish. In applications where the cylinder is used infrequently or may come into contact with corrosive materials, stainless steel, aluminum or brass tube may be used. Pistons are usually made of cast iron or steel. The piston not only transmits force to the rod, but must also act as a sliding beating in the barrel (possibly with side forces if the rod is subject to a lateral force) and provide a seal between high and low pressure sides. Piston seals are generally used between piston and barrel. Occasionally small leakage can be tolerated and seals are not used. A beating surface (such as bronze) is deposited on to the piston surface then honed to a finish similar to that of the barrel. The surface of the cylinder rod is exposed to the atmosphere when extended, and hence liable to suffer from the effects of dirt, moisture and corrosion. When retracted, these antisocial materials may be drawn back inside the barrel to cause problems inside the cylinder. Heat treated chromium alloy steel is generally used for strength and to reduce effects of corrosion. A wiper or scraper seal is fitted to the end cap where the rod enters the cylinder to remove dust particles. In very dusty atmospheres external rubber bellows may also be used to exclude dust but these are vulnerable to puncture and splitting and need regular inspection. The beating surface, usually bronze, is fitted behind the wiper seal. An internal sealing ring is fitted behind the beating to prevent high pressure fluid leaking out along the rod. The wiper seal, bearing and sealing ring are sometimes combined as a cartridge assembly to simplify maintenance. The rod is generally attached to the piston via a threaded end Leakage can occur around the rod, so seals are again needed. These can be cap seals which combine the roles of piston and rod seal, or a static O ring around the rod. End caps are generally cast (from iron or aluminum) and incorporate threaded entries for ports. End caps have to withstand shock loads at extremes of piston travel. These loads arise not only from fluid pressure, but also from kinetic energy of the moving parts of the cylinder and load. These ends of travel shock loads can be reduced with cushion valves built into the end caps. TYPES OF LINEAR ACTUATORS 1. Single-acting actuators Single-acting actuators permit the application of hydraulic force in one direction only. These actuators are normally mounted in vertical direction, thus permitting the load to return the
piston to its initial position. Where the actuator must be mounted horizontally, an inbuilt spring is used to cause retraction 2. Double-acting actuators Double-acting actuators permit the application of hydraulic force in both directions. However, the retraction stroke develops a smaller force than the extension stroke, since the pressurized fluid acts on a smaller area, known as the annulus area. Double-ended actuators with rods on both actuator ends are used where the developed force must be equal for both directions (extension and retraction). Since the voids to be filled with hydraulic fluid are equal for extension and retraction, the resulting piston speeds are also equal for both strokes. (Piston speed equals actuator volume divided by the flow rate of the pump.) 3. Telescopic actuators Telescopic actuators may be double or single acting. Their collapsed length is only little more than their longest segment. The developed pressure varies with the load and the effective piston area. Thus, the piston segment with the largest piston area extends first. The required pressure increases with each extended segment, since the piston area decreases while the load remains constant. When retracting the sequence is reversed, i.e. the smallest piston retracts first. The stroke of a simple cylinder must be less than barrel length, giving at best an extended/retracted ratio of 2:1. Where space is restricted, a telescopic cylinder can be used.
To extend, fluid is applied to port A. Fluid is applied to both sides of piston 1 via ports X and Y, but the difference in areas between sides of piston 1 causes the piston to move to the right. To retract, fluid is applied to port B. A flexible connection is required for this port. When piston 2 is driven fully to the left, port Y is now connected to port B, applying pressure to the fight-hand side of piston 1 which then retracts. The construction of telescopic cylinders requires many seals which makes maintenance complex. They also have smaller force for a given diameter and pressure, and can only tolerate small side loads.
4. Impact cylinder Pneumatic cylinders are used for metal forming, an operation requiting large forces. Pressures in pneumatic systems are lower than in hydraulic systems, but large impact loads can be obtained by accelerating a hammer to a high velocity then allowing it to strike the target. Such devices are called impact cylinders and operate on the principle illustrated in Figure.
Fig An impact cylinder
Pressure is initially applied to port B to retract the cylinder. Pressure is then applied to both ports A and B, but the cylinder remains in a retracted state because area X is less than area Y. Port B is then vented rapidly. Immediately, the full piston area experiences port A pressure. With a large volume of gas stored behind the piston, it accelerates rapidly to a high velocity (typically 10m s-l). End-position cushioning Cushioning, or end-position cushioning, refers to braking and deceleration of the final stroke portion until standstill occurs. Cushioning becomes essential above a certain stroke speed. The kinetic energy released on impact at the stroke end must be absorbed by the stroke limit-stops, which are built into the end caps. Their capacity to absorb this energy depends on the elasticity of their material. An hydraulic braking function (end-position cushioning) must therefore be applied where piston speeds (v) exceed 0.1 m/sec. Figure shows a cross-section of the end-position cushioning mechanism of the end cap. The cushioning of the rod end cap is similar. The piston is fitted with a tapered cushioning bush. When this bush enters into the bore of the end cap during the final part of the stroke the main fluid exit begins to shut until it finally closes off completely. This first stage of exit-flow throttling causes an initial speed deceleration. The remaining fluid must now exhaust through the cushioning valve. The degree of cushioning and second stage speed control can be regulated at the cushioning valve (flow control valve). A check valve is fitted to achieve fast and full force break-away from the end position. A bleed screw may also be built into the check valve. Some manufacturers have separate bleed screws available as an option. The bleed screw must always be mounted uppermost.
Rotary actuators
Rotary actuators are the hydraulic or pneumatic equivalents of electric motors. For a given torque, or power, a rotary actuator is more compact than an equivalent motor, cannot be damaged by an indefinite stall and can safely be used in an explosive atmosphere. For variable speed applications, the complexity and maintenance requirements of a rotary actuator are similar to a thyristor-con-trolled DC drive, but for fixed speed applications, the AC induction motor (which can, for practical purposes, be fitted and forgotten) is simpler to install and maintain. A rotary actuator (or, for that matter, an electric motor) can be defined in terms of the torque it produces and its running speed, usually given in revs per minute (rpm).
Hydraulic motors convert hydraulic energy into torque and consequently into power. Motors very closely resemble hydraulic pumps in their construction. In-fact, many pumps can also be used as motors Instead of pushing fluid into the system as pumps do motors are being pushed by the fluid through which they develop torque and continuous rotary motion. They are also called as LSHT motors.
Low-speed/high-torque (LSHT) motors are one of the more cost-effective and dependable parts of a hydraulic system. They offer a designer many advantages over a system comprised of a high-speed motor and a gearbox speed reducer. Foremost is the fact that LSHT motors transmit a large amount of power from a comparatively small drive envelope. Low noise and vibration and high energy efficiency can be additional benefits. Rapid reversal of direction may be achieved simply by reversing the direction of hydraulic fluid flow. LSHT motors also exhibit smooth starting torque. Maximum shaft speed for LSHT motors can range up to 1,000 rpm, and some motors operate smoothly at speeds as low as 0.1 rpm with suitable closed-loop electronic control. These motors generally exhibit good starting efficiencies and fairly constant torque over their entire speed range. LSHT motors come in such a wide variety of designs that direct comparison of performance between two types is virtually impossible. Instead, here are some important points about various types of LSHT motor.
Vane motors
These motors resemble traditional hydraulic vane motors, in which pressure (assisted by springs) pushes against a series of vanes. These vanes ride a ring cam and slide in and out of rotor slots. The vanes form sealed chambers, which carry fluid from an inlet to an outlet. LSHT vane motors run most efficiently at lower pressures and are radially balanced, which extends their operating life. Because of a fairly large number of leakage paths, they tend to have lower volumetric efficiency at slow speeds. Displacements of up to 650 in3/rev are available.
Piston motors
There are several different designs that fall under this category. Generally, radial-piston motors have a large displacement range. Leakage-resistant characteristics - and hence, good volumetric efficiency through the entire speed range - characterize eccentric drum radial piston motors. This style of motor has a high starting torque and is very efficient in the medium- to highdisplacement range. Motors known as cam-type radial-piston motors are slightly less efficient because of their concentric configuration. On both of these types, the manufacturers speed recommendations must be followed closely. Low speed may bring about torque ripple or speed
flutter. These motors use pistons in several cylinders to push down on an off-center throw of a crankshaft drum. At the same time, other cylinders allow oil to escape through their valves to the tank drain port. The cylinders work slightly out of phase so that no dead spots are created at top dead center.
Gear motors
Gear motors are very economical, but often have lower volumetric efficiencies due to higher leakage rates. These motors are best suited for low-pressure applications. External-gear motors consist of one gear connected to an output shaft, and a matched idling gear. Fluid entering the housing forces the gears to rotate, and exits through the opposite side of the motor.
Application
The operational speed of an actuator is determined by the fluid flow rate and the actuator area (for a cylinder) or the displacement (for a motor). The physical dimensions are generally fixed for an actuator, so speed is controlled by adjusting the fluid flow to (or restricting flow from) the actuator. Rotary actuator speed can also be controlled by altering swash plate angle. The compressibility of air, normally advantageous where smooth operation is concerned, makes flow control more difficult for pneumatic than hydraulic systems. Although techniques described below can be applied in pneumatics, precise slow-speed control of a pneumatic actuator is achieved with external devices described later. There are essentially four ways in which fluid flow can be controlled. The first is shown in Figure, where a pump delivers a fluid volume V per minute. Because the pump is a fixed displacement device this volume of fluid must go either back to the
tank or to the actuator. When the control valve moves from its centre position, the actuator moves with a velocity:
where A is the piston area. If pump delivery volume V can be adjusted (by altering swash plate angle, say,) and the pump feeds no other device, no further speed control is needed.
Hydraulic valves
One of the most important functions in any fluid power system is control. If control components are not properly selected, the entire system will fail to deliver the required output. Elements for the control of energy and other control in fluid power system are generally called Valves. It is important to know the primary function and operation of the various types of control components. This type of knowledge is not only required for a good functioning system, but it also leads to the discovery of innovative ways to improve a fluid power system for a given application. The selection of these control components not only involves the type, but also the size, the actuating method and remote control capability. There are 3 basic types of valves. 1. Directional control valves 2. Pressure control valves 3. Flow control valves. Directional control valves are essentially used for distribution of energy in a fluid power system. They establish the path through which a fluid traverses a given circuit. For example they control the direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder or motor. These valves are used to control the start, stop and change in direction of flow of pressurized fluid. Pressure may gradually buildup due to decrease in fluid demand or due to sudden surge as valves opens or closes. Pressure control valves protect the system against such over pressure. Pressure relief valve, pressure reducing, sequence, unloading and counterbalance valve are different types of pressure control valves. In addition, fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit. For example, the control of actuator speeds depends on flow rates. This type of control is accomplished through the use of flow control valves.
Directional control valves As the name implies directional control valves are used to control the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit. They are used to extend, retract, position or reciprocate hydraulic cylinder and other components for linear motion. Valves contains ports that are external openings for fluid to enter and leave via connecting pipelines, the number of ports on a directional control valve (DCV) is usually identified by the term way. For example, a valve with four ports is named as four-way valve. Directional control valves can be classified in a number of ways: 1. According to type of construction: Poppet valves Spool valves 2. According to number of working ports: Two- way valves Three way valves Four- way valves. 3. According to number of switching positions: Two position Three - position 4. According to actuating mechanism: Manual actuation Mechanical actuation Solenoid (Electrical) actuation Hydraulic (Pilot) actuation Pneumatic actuation Indirect actuation The designation of the directional control valve refers to the number of working ports and the number of switching positions. Thus a valve with 2 service ports and 2 switching positions is designated as 2 / 2 way valve.
A valve with 3 service ports and 2 positions is designated as 2 / 3 way valve.
A valve with 4 service ports and 2 positions is designated as 2 / 4 valve.
A valve with 4 Service ports and 3 switching positions is designated as 3 / 4 way valve. Figure below shows an example of open centered position.
Spool positions as well as their corresponding actuating elements are labeled with numbers 1, 2 as shown in figure below. A valve with 2 spool position is shown and also a valve with 3 spool positions. In directional control valves with 3 spool position, the central position is the neutral position (or mid position or zero or null position). The neutral position is the position in which the moving parts are assumed to be inactive, but affected by a force (e.g. spring) The ports are designated as follows: P = Pressure Port (Pump Port) T = Tank Port A, B = User Ports
Observe that the graphical symbol shows only one tank port T even though the physical design may have two since it is only concerned with the function of a component and not its internal design. The tank port is the port of the valve that is piped back to the hydraulic oil tank. Therefore, each tank port provides the same function. The spool valve working ports are inlet from the pump, outlets to the cylinder, and exhaust to tank.
POPPET VALVES
Directional poppet valves consists of a housing bore in which one or more suitably formed seating elements ( moveable ) in the form of balls, cones are situated. When the operating pressure increases the valve becomes more tightly seated in this design. In a poppet valve, simple discs, cones or balls are used in conjunction with simple valve seats to control flow which allows fluid to flow from port P to port A. When the button is released, spring and fluid pressure force the ball up again closing the valve. Fig shows the construction and symbol of a disc seal 3/2 poppet. With the pushbutton released ports A and R is linked via the hollow pushbutton stem. If the pushbutton is pressed, port R is first sealed, then the valve disc pushed down to open the valve and connect ports P and A. As before, spring and fluid pressure from port P closes the valve. The valve construction and symbol shown in Fig is a poppet changeover 4/2 valve using two stems and disc valves. With the pushbutton released, ports A and R are linked via the hollow left-hand stem and ports P and B linked via the normally-open right hand disc valve. When the pushbutton is pressed, the link between ports A and R is first closed, then the link between P and B closed. The link between A and P is next opened, and finally the link between B and R opened. When the pushbutton is released, air and spring pressure puts the valve back to its original state. Poppet valves are simple, cheap and robust, but it is generally simpler to manufacture valves more complicated than those shown in Figure by using spool valves. Further, a major disadvantage of poppet valves is the force needed to operate them. Large capacity valves need large valve areas, leading to large operating force. The high pressure in hydraulic systems thus tends to prevent use of simple poppet valves and they are, therefore, mainly found in low pressure pneumatic systems.
2/2 Direction Control Valve
The main advantages of poppet valves are: No Leakage as it provides absolute sealing. Long useful life, as there are no leakages of oil flows. May be used with even the highest pressures, as no hydraulic sticking (pressure dependent deformation) and leakages occurs in the valve. The disadvantages of these valves are: - Large pressure losses due to short strokes - Pressure collapse during switching phase due to negative overlap (connection of pump, actuator and tank at the same time).
Spool valves
The spool valve consists of a spool which is a cylindrical member that has large- diameter lands machined to slide in a very close- fitting bore of the valve body. The spool valves are sealed along the clearance between the moving spool and the housing. The degree of sealing depends on the size of the gap, the viscosity of the fluid and especially on the level of pressure. Especially at high pressures (up to 350 bar) leakage occurs to such a extent that it must be taken into account when determining the system efficiency. The amount of leakage is primarily dependent on the gap between spool and housing. Hence as the operating pressure increases the gap must be reduced or the length of overlap increased. The radial clearance is usually less than 20 . The grooves between the lands provide the flow passage between ports. Two-way valve (2/ 2 DCV) The simplest type of directional control valve is a check valve which is a two way valve because it contains two ports. These valves are also called as on-off valves because they allow the fluid flow in only in one direction and the valve is normally closed. Two way valves is usually the spool or poppet design with the poppet design more common and are available as normally opened or normally closed valves. They are usually actuated by pilot (Hydraulic actuation) but manual, mechanical, solenoid actuated design are also available. Figure shows Spool type 2 / 2 DCV manually actuated. In Figure shown, the port P is blocked by the action of spring as the valve is un-actuated (absence of hand force). Hence the flow from port P to A is blocked. When actuated (Presence of hand force) the valve is opened, thereby connecting port P to A.
Two way valve
Three way valve (2/ 3 DCV) A directional control valve primary function is alternatively to pressurize and exhaust one working port is called three-way valve. Generally, these valves are used to operate single- acting
cylinders. Three-way directional valves are available for manual, mechanical, pilot, solenoid actuation. These valves may be two-position, or three -position. Most commonly they have only two positions, but in some cases a neutral position may be needed. These valves are normally closed valves (i.e. the pump port is blocked when the valve is not operating). The three-way valve ports are inlet from the pump, working ports, and exhaust to tank. These ports are generally identified as follows: P= pressure (Pump) port; A or B = working port T = tank port. Figure (a) and (b) shows the two positions of the three way valve actuated manually by a push button. Spool position 1: When the valve is actuated, the spool moves towards left. In this position flow from pump enters the valve port P and flows out through the port A as shown by the straightthrough line and arrow In this position, port T is blocked by the spool. Spool position 0: when the valve is un-actuated by the absence of hand force, the valve assumes this position by the action of spring in this position, port P is blocked by the spool. Flow from the actuator can go to the tank from A to T as shown by straight through line and arrow.
Position of a 3 way valve
Symbol
Four - way DCV:

These valves are generally used to operate cylinders and fluid motors in both directions hydraulically. The four ways are Port P that is connected to pump, tank port T, and two working ports A and B connected to the actuator. The primary function of a four way valve is to alternately pressurize and exhaust two working ports A & B. These valves are available with a choice of actuation, manual, mechanical, solenoid, pilot & pneumatic. Four-way valve comes with two or three position. One should note that the graphical symbol of the valve shows only one tank port even though the physical design may have two as it is only concerned with the function. Three positions, four way valve: This type of DCV consists of three switching position. Most three- position valves have a variety of possible flow path configurations, but has identical flow path configuration in the actuated position (position 1 and position 2) and different spring centered flow paths. When left end of the valve is actuated, the valve will assume 1 position. In this position the port P to connected to working port A and working port B is connected to T (in some design P is connected to B, and A to T when left end is actuated ). Similarly when the right end is actuated, the valve will assume 2 positions. In this position port P is connected to B and working port A to T. When the valve is un-actuated, the valve will assume its center position due to the balancing opposing spring forces. It should be noted that a three- position valve is used whenever it is necessary to stop or hold a actuator at some intermediate position within its stroke range, or when multiple circuit or functions must be accomplished from one hydraulic power source. Three- position, four- way DCV have different variety of center configurations. The common varieties are the open center, closed center, tandem center, floating center, & regenerative center with open, closed and tandem are the three basic types. A variety of center configurations provides greater flexibility for circuit design. Open center 3 / 4 DCV: In open- center circuit, all ports are open to each other in the center position. When the valve is in open center position, the pump flow is directed to the tank at atmospheric pressure. At the same time the actuator can be moved freely by applying an external force. Open center valve help to prevent heat buildup and no work can be done by any part of the system, as long as the valve remains in the center position, since the fluid always follows the path of least resistance. This means that other auxiliary devices in the system using pressure energy cannot function. In Figure a, shows the valve is mid position i.e. when the valve is de-actuated. In Figure b, since the left end of the valve is actuated, the valve assumes 1 position. Here port P is connected to A and B is connected to T.
In Figure c, since the right end of the valve is actuated, the valve assumes 2 positions. Here port P is connected to B and A is connected to T.
Direction Control valve
Open centered DCV Symbol
Closed centered 3 /4 DCV: Figure below shows a closed center 3- position, 4 Way DCV in its center position. The working of the valve is similar to open center DCV and in actuated position the port connection is identical. In closed center DCV all ports are closed to each other. Hence the actuator connected to ports A and B is hydraulically locked and cannot be moved by an external force. In this position the pump flow must go over the relief valve when flow is not being used for any other parts of the circuit. This forces the pump to produce flow at the high pressure setting of the pressure relief valve. This not only waste pump design
power but promotes wear and shortens pump life. Also the temperature of oil is raised due to heat buildup in the system. This promotes oil oxidation, viscosity drop, which further raises the wear of parts and increased leakage. With this type of center in DCV, when the valve actuates to switching position 1 or 2, two things may happen. If pressure port (P to working port A or B) opens first pressure in the system raises which is not desirable, and if tank port open first pressure drops. Closed center versions are used only when multiple circuit or functions must be accomplished in the system from one power source.
Direction Control valve Closed center DCV
Closed centered DCV Symbol
Tandem centered 3 /4 DCV: Figure below shows a tandem center 3-position, 4-way DCV. In the center configuration, the working ports A and B are blocked, and the pump port P is connected to tank port T. The tandem center also results in a locked actuator. However, it also unloads the pump at atmospheric pressure. The application of this design may be to hold a cylinder or fluid motor under load or to permit the pump flow to be connected to a series of valves for multiple circuitries
Pressure control valves

Pressure control valves are used in hydraulic systems to control actuator force (force = pressure x area), and to determine and (pre) select pressure levels at which certain machine operations must occur. Pressure controls are in the main used to perform the following system functions: To limit maximum system pressure in a hydraulic circuit or sub-circuit, and thus provide overload protection. To provide re-direction of pump flow to tank, while system pressure must be maintained (system unloading). To provide re-direction of pump flow to tank while system pressure is not maintained (system offloading). To offer resistance to fluid flow at selectable pressure levels (counterbalance force). To provide an alternative flow path for the fluid at selected pressure levels (pressure sequencing). To reduce (or step down) pressure levels from the main circuit to a lower pressure in a subcircuit. Pressure control valves are often difficult to identify, mainly because of the many descriptive names applied to them. The function of the valve in the circuit usually becomes the basis for its name. The valves used to accomplish the abovementioned system functions are therefore given the following names, respectively: Relief valves (direct-acting or compound). Unloading relief valve (accumulator, charging valve). Offloading valve. Counterbalance valve and brake valve. Pressure-sequence valves. Pressure-reducing valves. Direct-acting relief valve The load which has to be moved by the hydraulic actuator creates a certain resistance to the fluid flow from the hydraulic pump; as this resistance increases, the system pressure increases proportionally. If the actuator reaches a stalling point, then the system pressure will rise almost instantly to such a hazardous level, that damage to the hydraulic system is inevitable. For this very reason, most hydraulic systems are protected by a pressure-relief valve, which limits the maximum permissible system pressure, and diverts some or all of the pump's flow to tank when the pressure setting of the relief valve is reached. Valve operation A direct-acting relief valve as shown in Figure may consist of a ball or poppet held firmly onto the valve seat by the spring. The system pressure acts against the pressure-exposed area of the
poppet. When the force of the fluid becomes greater (pressure x valve-seat area) than the opposing force of the spring, the poppet is forced off its seat; the relief valve opens, and fluid is released to tank at low pressure. The pressure at which the valve starts to divert flow to tank is called "cracking pressure". As flow to tank increases, the poppet is forced off its seat even more, causing a further compression of the spring. Thus, when the valve diverts all the pump-flow, the measured system pressure - which is called "full flow pressure" - may be considerably higher than the "cracking pressure". The difference between "full flow pressure" and the "cracking pressure" is called "pressure override".
ROTARY VALVES Rotary valves consist of a rotating spool which aligns with holes in the valve casing to give the required operation. Fig shows the construction and symbol of a typical valve with centre off action. Rotary valves are compact, simple and have low operating forces. They are, however, low pressure devices and are consequently mainly used for hand operation in pneumatic systems.
PILOT-OPERATED VALVES With large capacity pneumatic valves (particularly poppet valves) and most hydraulic valves, the operating force required to move the valve can be large. If the required force is too large for a solenoid or manual operation, a two-stage process called pilot operation is used. The principle is shown in Figure Valve 1 is the main operating valve used to move a ram. The operating force required to move the valve, however, is too large for direct operation by a solenoid, so a second smaller valve 2, known as the pilot valve, has been added to allow the main valve to be operated by system pressure. Pilot pressure lines are normally shown dotted in circuit diagrams, and pilot ports on main valves are denoted Z, Y, X and so on. In Fig pilot port Z is depressurized with the solenoid deenergised, and the ram is retracted. When the solenoid is energized valve 2 changes over,
pressurizing Z; causing valve 1 to energize and the ram to extend. Although pilot operation can be achieved with separate valves it is more usual to use a pilot/main valve assembly manufactured as a complete readymade unit. Figure shows the peration of a pilot-operated 3/2 pneumatic valve. The solenoid operates the small pilot valve directly. Because this valve has a small area, a low operating force is required. The pilot valve applies line pressure to the top of the control valve causing it to move down, closing the exhaust port. When it contacts the main valve disc there are two forces acting on the valve stem. The pilot valve applies a downwards force of P x D, where P is the line pressure and D is the area of the control valve. Line pressure also applies an upwards force P x E to the stem, where E is the area of the main valve. The area of the control valve, D, is greater than area of the main valve E, so the downwards force is the larger and the valve opens. When the solenoid de-energizes, the space above the control valve is vented. Line and spring pressure on the main valve causes the valve stem to rise again, venting port A. A hydraulic 4/2 pilot-operated spool valve is shown in Fig. The ends of the pilot spool in most hydraulic pilot-operated valves are visible from outside the valve. This is useful from a maintenance viewpoint as it allows the operation of a valve to be checked. In extreme cases the valve can be checked by pushing the pilot spool directly with a suitably sized rod (welding rod is ideal !). Care must be taken to check solenoid states on dual solenoid valves before attempting manual operation. Overriding an energized AC solenoid creates a large current which may damage the coil, (or blow the fuse if the solenoid has correctly installed protection).
CHECK VALVES Check valves only allow flow in one direction and, as such, are similar in operation to electronic diodes. The simplest construction is the ball and seat arrangement of the valve in Fig, commonly used in pneumatic systems. The right angle construction in Fig is better suited to the higher pressures of a hydraulic system. Free flow direction is normally marked with an arrow on the valve casing. A check valve is represented by the graphic symbols in Fig. The symbol in Fig is rather complex and the simpler symbol in Fig is more commonly used.
Fig shows a combination pump, used where an application requires large volume and low pressure, or low volume and high pressure. A typical case is a clamp required to engage
quickly (high volume and low pressure) then grip (minimal volume but high pressure). Pump 1 is the high volume and low pressure pump, and pump 2 the high pressure pump. In high volume mode both pumps deliver to the system, pump 1 delivering through the check valve V 3. When high pressure is required, line pressure at X rises operating unloading valve V 1 via pilot port Z taking pump 1 off load. Pump 2 delivers the required pressure set by relief valve V 2, with the check valve preventing fluid leaking back to pump 1 and V1.Fig shows a hydraulic circuit with a pressure storage device called an accumulator (described in a later chapter). Here a check valve allows the pump to unload via the pressure regulating valve, while still maintaining system pressure from the accumulator. A spring-operated check valve requires a small pressure to open (called the cracking pressure) and acts to some extent like a low pressure relief valve. This characteristic can be used to advantage. In Fig pilot pressure is derived before a check valve, and in Fig a check valve is used to protect a blocked filter by diverting flow around the filter when pressure rises. A check valve is also included in the tank return to prevent fluid being sucked out of the tank when the pump is turned off. PILOT-OPERATED CHECK VALVES The cylinder in the system in Fig should, theoretically, hold position when the control valve is in its centre, off, position. In practice, the cylinder will tend to creep because of leakage in the control valve. Check valves have excellent sealage in the closed position, but a simple check valve cannot be used in the system in Fig because flow is required in both directions. A pilotoperated check is similar to a basic check valve but can be held open permanently by application of an external pilot pressure signal. There are two basic forms of pilot-operated check valves, shown in Fig They operate in a similar manner to basic check valves, but with pilot pressure directly opening the valves. In the 4C valve shown in Fig inlet pressure assists the pilot. The symbol of a pilot-operated check valve is shown in Fig. The cylinder application is redrawn with pilot operated check valves in Fig The pilot lines are connected to the pressure line feeding the other side of the cylinder. For any cylinder movement, one check valve is held open by flow (operating as a normal check valve) and the other is held open by pilot pressure. For no required movement, both check valves are closed and the cylinder is locked in position.
SHUTTLE AND FAST EXHAUST VALVES A shuttle valve, also known as a double check valve, allows pressure in a line to be obtained from alternative sources. It is primarily a pneumatic device and is rarely found in hydraulic circuits. Construction is very simple and consists of a ball inside a cylinder, as shown in Figure. If pressure is applied to port X, the ball is blown to the fight blocking port Y and linking ports X and A. Similarly, pressure to port Y alone connects ports Y and A and blocks port X. A typical application is given in Fig where a spring return cylinder is operated from either of two manual stations. Isolation between the two stations is provided by the shuttle valve. Note a simple T-connection cannot be used as each valve has its A port vented to the exhaust port. A fast exhaust valve is used to vent cylinders quickly. It is primarily used with spring return (single-acting) pneumatic cylinders. The device shown in Figure consists of a movable disc which allows port A to be connected to pressure port P or large exhaust port R. It acts like, and has the same symbol as, a shuttle valve. A typical application is shown in Fig Fast exhaust valves are
usually mounted local to, or directly onto, cylinders and speed up response by avoiding any delay from return pipes and control valves. They also permit simpler control valves to be used.
Fig Pneumatic shuttle valve
SEQUENCE VALVES The sequence valve is a close relative of the pressure relief valve and is used where a set of operations are to be controlled in a pressure related sequence. Figure shows a typical example where a workpiece is pushed into position by cylinder 1 and clamped by cylinder 2. Sequence valve V 2 is connected to the extend line of cylinder 1. When this cylinder is moving the workpiece, the line pressure is low, but rises once the workpiece hits the end stop. The sequence valve opens once its inlet pressure rises above a preset level. Cylinder 2 then operates to clamp the workpiece. A check valve across V 2 allows both cylinders to retract together.
TIME DELAY VALVES Pneumatic time delay valves are used to delay operations where time-based sequences are required. Fig shows construction of a typical valve. This is similar in construction to a 3/2 way pilot-operated valve, but the space above the main valve is comparatively large and pilot air is only allowed in via a flow reducing needle valve. There is thus a time delay between application of pilot pressure to port Z and the valve operation, as shown by the timing diagram in Figure. The time delay is adjusted by the needle valve setting. The built-in check valve causes the reservoir space above the valve to vent quickly when pressure at Z is removed to give no delay off. The valve shown in Fig is a normally-closed delay-on valve. Many other time delay valves (delay-off, delay on/off, normally- open) can be obtained. All use the basic principle of the air reservoir and needle valve. The symbol of a normally-dosed time delay valve is in Fig
Accumulators
Hydraulic systems it is sometimes desirable to store hydraulic fluid under pressure for release during peak demand. Unlike gases, such liquids cannot be compressed sufficiently to result in self-propelling release. The hydraulic accumulator solves this problem by storing the noncompressible fluid under external pressure. Various means are applied to pressurize and drive the fluid from the accumulator into the hydraulic system and finally to the actuators. Weight loaded accumulators make use of gravitation, spring loaded accumulators use the elasticity of steel springs and gas charged accumulators use the compressibility of nitrogen gas to exert a force onto the hydraulic fluid. Gas charged accumulators are more commonly used than spring or weight loaded accumulators, but the weight loaded accumulator has the advantage that the force exerted onto the fluid is always constant, no matter how full the fluid chamber is. Many current hydraulic systems are equipped with one or more accumulators. In hydraulic systems, the storage of hydraulic fluid under pressure serves a number of purposes. The more common of these are: Supplement pump delivery Maintain system pressure Emergency power source Shock absorption, noise elimination Absorption of thermal expansion
Gas charged accumulators

Bladder type accumulators are pre-charged with dry nitrogen gas. The pre-charge pressure will cause the bladder (bag) to fill the inside of the steel shell completely, and close the pressure fluid valve. As soon as the rising pressure within the hydraulic system reaches the gas pre- charge pressure p1 of the bladder, the fluid valve will open and the rising system pressure starts to force fluid into the accumulator. Further increases in system pressure will cause the bladder to be further compressed and even more hydraulic fluid is being forced into the steel shell. Remember, that the bladder is filled with gas which is compressible, while the hydraulic fluid is not compressible. As the gas is compressed, the gas pressure will increase, equaling the system pressure. Thus, flow of fluid into the accumulator takes place only when the system pressure exceeds the gas pressure. Conversely, flow of fluid out of the accumulator takes place only when the system pressure sinks below the gas pressure. When the system flow demand is low or static the accumulator will be charged or filled. When the system demand is high or dynamic, the accumulator will release stored fluid to help the pump meet system flow demand.
UNIT-II PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS Introduction, comparison with hydraulic systems and electrical systems. Construction, operation, characteristics and symbols of pneumatic components. Air treatment - principles and components. Sensors - types, characteristics and applications. Introduction to fluidics and MPL. _______________________________________________________________________________
Introduction to pneumatics
Most industrial processes require objects or substances to be moved from one location to another or a force to be applied to hold, shape or compress a product. Such activities are performed by Prime Movers; the workhorses of manufacturing industries. In many locations all prime movers are electrical. Rotary motions can be provided by simple motors, and linear motion can be obtained from rotary motion by devices such as screw jacks or rack and pinions. Where a pure force or a short linear stroke is required a solenoid may be used (although there are limits to the force that can be obtained by this means). Electrical devices are not; however, the only means of providing prime movers. Enclosed fluids (both liquids and gases) can also be used to convey energy from one location to another and, consequently, to produce rotary or linear motion or apply a force. Gas-based systems are called Pneumatic systems (from the Greek pneumn for wind or breath). The most common gas is simply compressed air. Although nitrogen is occasionally used.
Advantages and distinguishing characteristics of compressed air:

Availability - Air is available practically everywhere in unlimited quantities. Transport - Air can be easily transported in pipelines, even over large distances Storage - Compressed air can be stored in a reservoir and removed as required. In addition, the reservoir can be transportable. Temperature - Compressed air is relatively insensitive to temperature fluctuations. This ensures reliable operation, even under extreme conditions. Explosion proof - Compressed air offers no risk of explosion or fire. Cleanliness- Un-lubricated exhaust air is clean. Any un-lubricated air which escapes through leaking pipes or components does not cause contamination.
Components -The operating components are of simple construction and therefore relatively inexpensive. Speed - Compressed air is a very fast working medium. This enables high working speeds to be attained. Overload safe - Pneumatic tools and operating components can be loaded to the point of stopping and are therefore overload safe.
Comparison of Pneumatic systems with Hydraulic systems and Electrical systems:
Components of Pneumatic systems:

The vast majority of pneumatic systems use compressed atmospheric air as the operating medium (a small number of systems use nitrogen obtained commercially from liquid gas suppliers). Unlike hydraulic systems, a pneumatic system is 'open'; the fluid is obtained free, used and then vented back to atmosphere. Pneumatic systems use a compressible gas; hydraulic systems an incompressible liquid, and this leads to some significant differences. The pressure of a liquid may be raised to a high level almost instantaneously, whereas pressure rise in a gas can be distinctly leisurely. Pressure in a hydraulic system can be quickly and easily controlled by devices such as unloading and pressure regulating valves. Fluid is thus stored at atmospheric pressure and compressed to the required pressure as needed. The slow response of an air compressor, however, precludes such an approach in a pneumatic system and necessitates storage of compressed air at the required pressure in a receiver vessel. The volume of this vessel is chosen so there are minimal deviations in pressure arising from flow changes in loads and the compressor is then employed to replace the air used, averaged over an extended period of time (e.g. a few minutes). Deviations in air pressure are smaller, and compressor control is easier if a large receiver feeds many loads. A large number of loads statistically results in a more even flow of air from the receiver, also helping to maintain a steady pressure. On many sites, therefore, compressed air is produced as a central service which is distributed around the site in a similar manner to electricity, gas and water.
Compressor types:
Like hydraulic pumps, air compressors can be split into positive displacement devices (where a fixed volume of air is delivered on each rotation of the compressor shaft) and dynamic devices such as centrifugal or axial blowers. The vast majority of air compressors are of the positive displacement type. A compressor is selected by the pressure it is required to work at and the volume of gas it is required to deliver. Pressure in the receiver is generally higher than that required at the operating
position, with local pressure regulation being used. Pressure at the compressor outlet (which for practical purposes will be the same as that in the receiver) is called the working pressure and is used to specify the compressor. Pressure at the operating point is called, not surprisingly, the operating pressure and is used to specify valves, actuators and other operating devices.
Piston compressors:
Piston compressors are by far the most common type of compressor, and a basic single cylinder form is shown in Figure. As the piston descends during the inlet stroke, the inlet valve opens and air is drawn into the cylinder. As the piston passes the bottom of the stroke, the inlet valve closes and the exhaust valve opens allowing air to be expelled as the piston rises. The valves are similar to valves in an internal combustion engine. In practice, springloaded valves are used, which open and close under the action of air pressure across them. One common type uses a 'feather' of spring steel which moves above the inlet or output port, as shown in Figure. A single cylinder compressor gives significant pressure pulses at the outlet port. This can be overcome to some extent by the use of a large receiver, but more often a multi-cylinder compressor is used. These are usually classified as vertical or horizontal in-line arrangements and the more compact V, Y or W constructions.
Schematic of a piston compressor (single acting) A compressor which produces one pulse of air per piston stoke is called a single acting compressor. A more even air supply can be obtained by the double acting action of the compressor which uses two sets of valves and a crosshead to keep the piston rod square at all times. Piston compressors described so far go direct from atmospheric to required pressure in a single operation. This is known as a single stage compressor. The general gas law PV = nRT showed compression of a gas to be accompanied by a significant rise in gas temperature. If the exit pressure is above about 5 bar in a single-acting compressor, the compressed air temperature can rise to over 200oC and the motor power needed to drive the compressor rises accordingly.
Piston compressor (Double acting) For pressures over a few bar it is far more economical to use a multistage compressor with cooling between stages. As cooling (undertaken by a device called an intercooler) reduces the volume of the gas to be compressed at the second stage there is a large energy saving. Normally two stages are used for pneumatic pressures of 10 to 15 bar, but multistage compressors are available for pressures up to around 50 bar.
Multistage compressor with intercooler
Multistage compressors can be manufactured with multi-cylinders or, more compactly, with a single cylinder and a double diameter piston as shown in Figure below
Multistage compressor (Compact model)
There is contact between pistons and air, in standard piston compressors, which may introduce small amounts of lubrication oil from the piston walls into the air. This very small contamination may be undesirable in food and chemical industries. Figure below shows a common way of giving a totally clean supply by incorporating a flexible diaphragm between piston and air.
Flexible diaphragm compressor
Screw compressors
Piston compressors are used where high pressures (> 20 bar) and relatively low volumes (< 10,000 m3 hr-1) are needed, but are mechanically relatively complex with many moving parts. Many applications require only medium pressure (< 10 bar) and medium flows (around 10,000 m3 hr-1). For these applications, rotary compressors have the advantage of simplicity, with fewer moving parts rotating at a constant speed, and a steady delivery of air without pressure pulses.
One rotary compressor, known as the dry rotary screw compressor, is shown in Figure and consists of two intermeshing rotating screws with minimal (around 0.05 mm) clearance. As the
screws rotate, air is drawn into the housing, trapped between the screws and carried along to the discharge port, where it is delivered in a constant pulse-free stream. Screws in this compressor can be synchronized by external timing gears. Alternatively one screw can be driven, the second screw rotated by contact with the drive screw. This approach requires oil lubrication to be sprayed into the inlet air to reduce friction between screws, and is consequently known as a wet rotary screw compressor. Wet screw construction though, obviously introduces oil contamination into the air which has to be removed by later oil separation units.
Screw compressor
Rotary compressors
The vane compressor, shown in Figure operates on similar principles to the hydraulic vane pump described in the chapter on hydraulics, although air compressors tend to be physically larger than hydraulic pumps. An unbalanced design is shown; balanced versions can also be constructed. Vanes can be forced out by springs or, more commonly, by centrifugal force. A single stage vane compressor can deliver air at up to 3 bar, a much lower pressure than that available with a screw or piston compressor. A two-stage vane compressor with large low pressure and smaller high pressure sections linked by an intercooler allows pressures up to 10 bar to be obtained.
Vane compressor
The lobe compressor shown in figure (often called a Roots blower) is often used when a positive displacement compressor is needed with high delivery volume but low pressure
(typically -2 bar). Operating pressure is mainly limited by leakage between rotors and housing. To operate efficiently, clearances must be very small, and wear leads to a rapid fall in efficiency.
Air receivers and compressor control

An air receiver is used to store high pressure air from the compressor. Its volume reduces pressure fluctuations arising from changes in load and from compressor switching. Air coming from the compressor will be warm (if not actually hot!) and the large surface area of the receiver dissipates this heat to the surrounding atmosphere. Any moisture left in the air from the compressor will condense out in the receiver, so outgoing air should be taken from the receiver top. Figure below shows essential features of a receiver. They are usually of cylindrical construction for strength, and have a safety relief valve to guard against high pressures arising from failure of the pressure control scheme. Pressure indication and, usually, temperature indication are provided, with pressure switches for control of pressure and high temperature switches for remote alarms.
A drain cock allows removal of condensed water, and access via a manhole allows cleaning. Obviously, removal of a manhole cover is hazardous with a pressurized receiver, and safety routines must be defined and followed to prevent accidents. Control of the compressor is necessary to maintain pressure in the receiver. The simplest method of achieving this is to start
the compressor when receiver pressure falls to some minimum pressure, and stop the compressor when pressure rises to a satisfactory level again, as illustrated in Figure. In theory two pressure switches are required (with the motor start pressure lower than the motor stop pressure) but, in practice, internal hysteresis in a typical switch allows one pressure switch to be used. The pressure in the receiver cycles between the start and stop pressure settings.

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Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

What is fluid power?

The advantages of fluid power

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

devices, which help contain the fluid.

are used to help monitor the performance of a fluid power system.

FLUID POWER SYMBOLS.

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

The basic concept of a hydraulic system

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Basic hydraulic system

Advantages and limitations

Limitations 1. High initial costs 2. Maintenance- and repair-friendliness 3. Leakage problems

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Purposes of the Fluid

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

HYDRAULIC SYSTEM & COMPONENTS Hydraulic pumps:

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

POSITIVE or HYDROSTATIC PUMPS:

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

VANE PUMP OPERATION

UNBALANCED VANE PUMP

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BALANCED VANE PUMP

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VARIABLE DISPLACEMENT VANE PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

PRESSURE COMPENSATED VANE PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

CHARACTERISTIC OF VANE PUMP AT CONSTANT SPEED

OPERATION OF PISTON PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

AXIAL PISTON PUMP-IN LINE

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

PRESSURE COMPENSATED PISTON PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

BENT AXIS PISTON PUMP

RADIAL PISTON PUMP

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

STATIONARY CYLINDER BLOCK

Reciprocating motion is imparted to the pistons by a rotating cam.

PUMP PERFORMANCE COMPARISION FACTORS:

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

PUMP PERFORMANCE COMPARISION FACTORS

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Normally cannot be repaired in the field because of their complex design.

PUMP SELECTION PARAMETERS

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Parts of a hydraulic linear actuator

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL

Lecture Notes on FLUID POWER CONTROL