I

Statics
1 2 Force-System Resultants and Equilibrium Russell C. Hibbeler Force-System Resultants Equilibrium Centroids and Distributed Forces Walter D. Pilkey and L. Kitis Centroid of a Plane Area Centroid of a Volume Surface Forces Line Forces Calculation of Surface Area and Volume of a Body with Rotational Symmetry Determination of Centroids Moments of Inertia J. L. Meriam Area Moments of Inertia Mass Moments of Inertia 3

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1
Force-System Resultants and Equilibrium
1.1 1.2 Force-System Resultants
Concurrent Force Systems Moment of a Force Couple Resultants of a Force and Couple System Distributed Loadings

Equilibrium
Equations of Equilibrium Free-Body Diagram Support Reactions Friction Constraints Internal Loadings Numerical Applications

Russell C. Hibbeler
University of Louisiana at Lafayette

Statics is a branch of mechanics that deals with the equilibrium of bodies, that is, those that are either at rest or move with constant velocity. In order to apply the laws of statics, it is rst necessary to understand how to simplify force systems and compute the moment of a force. In this chapter these topics will be discussed, and some examples will be presented to show how the laws of statics are applied.

1.1 Force-System Resultants

Concurrent Force Systems
Force is a vector quantity that is characterized by its magnitude, direction, and point of application. When two forces F1 and F2 are concurrent they can be added together to form a resultant FR = F1 + F2 using the parallelogram law, Figure 1.1. Here F1 and F2 are referred to as components of FR. Successive applications of the parallelogram law can also be applied when several concurrent forces are to be added; however, it is generally simpler to rst determine the two components of each force along the axes of a coordinate system and then add the respective components. For example, the x, y, z (or Cartesian) components of F are shown in Figure 1.2. Here, i, j, k are unit vectors used to dene the direction of the positive x, y, z axes, and Fx, Fy, Fz are the magnitudes of each component. By vector addition, F = Fx i + Fy j + Fzk. When each force in a concurrent system of forces is expressed by its Cartesian components, the resultant force is therefore

FR =

F i + F j+ F k
x y z

(1.1)

where SFx, SFy , SFz represent the scalar additions of the x, y, z components, respectively.

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Fz k F

F2 FR

force line of action

Fy j

y
Fx i

F1

FIGURE 1.1 Addition of forces by parallelogram law.

FIGURE 1.2 Resolution of a vector into its x, y, z components.

Moment of a Force
When a force F acts on a body, it will cause both external and internal effects on the body. These effects depend upon where the force is located. For example, if F acts at point A on the body in Figure 1.3, it will cause a specic translation and rotation of the body. However, if F is applied to some other point, B, which lies along the line of action of F, then the external effects regarding the motion of the body remain unchanged, although the bodys internal effects will be different. This effect of sliding a force along its line of action is called the principle of transmissibility. If the force acts at point C, which is not along the line of action AB, then both the external and internal effects on the body will change. The difference in external effects notably the difference in the rotation of the body occurs because of the distance d that separates the lines of action of the two positions of the force. This tendency for the body to rotate about a specied point O or axis as caused by a force is a vector quantity called a moment. By denition, the magnitude of the moment is MO = Fd (1.2)

where d is the moment arm or perpendicular distance from the point to the line of action of the force, as in Figure 1.4. The direction of the moment is dened by the right-hand rule, whereby the curl of the right-hand ngers follows the tendency for rotation caused by the force, and the thumb species the directional sense of the moment. In this case, MO is directed out of the page, since F produces counterclockwise rotation about O. It should be noted that the force can act at any point along its line of action and still produce the same moment about O.
F

A d B C

O MO

F F

FIGURE 1.3

FIGURE 1.4 Moment of a force.

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y
F Fy

Fx

d O
MO x

MO

FIGURE 1.5
z

FIGURE 1.6

Fz F Fy

Fx MO r

z y

O y x

FIGURE 1.7

Sometimes the moment arm d is geometrically hard to determine. To make the calculation easier, the force is rst resolved into its Cartesian components and then the moment about point O is determined using the principle of moments, which states that the moment of the force about O is equal to the sum of the moments of the forces components about O. Thus, as shown in Figure 1.5, we have MO = Fd = Fxy + Fyx. The moment about point O can also be expressed as a vector cross product of the position vector r, directed from O to any point on the line of action of the force and the force F, as shown in Figure 1.6. Here, MO = r F (1.3)

If r and F are expressed in terms of their Cartesian components, then as in Figure 1.7 the Cartesian components for the moment about O are Mo = r F = (xi + yj + zk) (Fx i + Fy j + Fz k) = ( yFz - zFy )i + (zFx - xFz )j + (xFy - yFx )k i = x Fx j y Fy k z Fz (1.4)

Couple
A couple is dened as two parallel forces that have the same magnitude and opposite directions and are separated by a perpendicular distance d, as in Figure 1.8. The moment of a couple about the arbitrary point O is
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r F

d
r1 r2

FIGURE 1.8

MC = r1 F + r2 (- F) = (r1 r2 ) F = rF

(1.5)

Here the couple moment MC is independent of the location of the moment point O. Instead, it depends only on the distance between the forces; that is, r in the above equation is directed from any point on the line of action of one of the forces (-F) to any point on the line of action of the other force F. The external effect of a couple causes rotation of the body with no translation, since the resultant force of a couple is zero.

Resultants of a Force and Couple System

A general force and couple-moment system can always be replaced by a single resultant force and couple moment acting at any point O. As shown in Figure 1.9(a) and Figure 1.9(b), these resultants are FR = M RO =

F M
O

(1.6)

(1.7)

where SF = F1 + F2 + F3 is the vector addition of all the forces in the system, and SMO = (r1 F1) + (r2 F2) + (r3 F3) + M1 + M2 is the vector sum of the moments of all the forces about point O plus the sum of all the couple moments. This system may be further simplied by rst resolving the couple moment M RO into two components one parallel and the other perpendicular to the force FR, as in Figure
FR F1 M2 MRO r1 O r2 = r3 F3 M M = FR M

O d

F2 M1 (a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1.9

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1.9(b). By moving the line of action of FR in the plane perpendicular to M^ a distance d = M^/FR, so that FR creates the moment M^ about O, the system can then be represented by a wrench, that is, a single force FR and collinear moment M||, Figure 1.9(c). Note that in the special case of q = 90, Figure 1.9(b), M|| = 0 and the system then reduces to a single resultant force FR having a specied line of action. This will always be the case if the force system is either concurrent, parallel, or coplanar.

Distributed Loadings
When a body contacts another body, the loads produced are always distributed over the surface area of each body. If the area on one of the bodies is small compared to the entire surface area of the body, the loading can be represented by a single concentrated force acting at a point on the body. However, if the loading occurs over a large surface area such as that caused by wind or a uid the distribution of load must be taken into account. The intensity of this surface loading at each point is represented as a pressure and its variation is dened by a load-intensity diagram. On a at surface, the load intensity diagram is described by the loading function p = p(x, y), which consists of an innite number of parallel forces, as in Figure 1.10. Applying Equation (1.6) and Equation (1.7), the resultant of this loading and its point of application ( x, y ) can be determined from FR =

p(x, y)dA
y=

(1.8)

x=

x p(x, y)dA p(x, y)dA

y p(x, y)dA p(x, y)dA

(1.9)

Geometrically, FR is equivalent to the volume under the loading diagram, and its location passes through the centroid or geometric center of this volume. Often in engineering practice, the surface loading is symmetric about an axis, in which case the loading is a function of only one coordinate, w = w(x). Here the resultant is geometrically equivalent to the area under the loading curve, and the line of action of the resultant passes through the centroid of this area. Besides surface forces as discussed above, loadings can also be transmitted to another body without direct physical contact. These body forces are distributed throughout the volume of the body. A common
P

FR

p = p (x, y )
x

FIGURE 1.10

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example is the force of gravity. The resultant of this force is termed the weight; it acts through the bodys center of gravity and is directed towards the center of the earth.

1.2 Equilibrium
Equations of Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium when it either is at rest or moves with constant velocity. For purposes of analysis, it is assumed that the body is perfectly rigid, meaning that the particles composing the body remain at xed distances from one another both before and after applying the load. Most engineering materials deform only slightly under load, so that moment arms and the orientation of the loading remain essentially constant. For these cases, therefore, the rigid-body model is appropriate for analysis. The necessary and sufcient conditions to maintain equilibrium of a rigid body require the resultant external force and moment acting on the body to be equal to zero. From Equation (1.6) and Equation (1.7), this can be expressed mathematically as

F = 0 M
O

(1.10)

=0

(1.11)

If the forces acting on the body are resolved into their x, y, z components, these equations can be written in the form of six scalar equations, namely,

F F F

x y z

=0 =0 =0

M M M

Ox Oy Oz

=0 =0 =0 (1.12)

Actually, any set of three nonorthogonal, nonparallel axes will be suitable references for either of these force or moment summations. If the forces on the body can be represented by a system of coplanar forces, then only three equations of equilibrium must be satised, namely,

F F M
Free-Body Diagram

=0 =0 =0 (1.13)

Here the x and y axes lie in the plane of the forces and point O can be located either on or off the body.

Application of the equations of equilibrium requires accountability for all the forces that act on the body. The best way to do this is to draw the bodys free-body diagram. This diagram is a sketch showing an outlined shape of the body and so represents it as being isolated or free from its surroundings. On this sketch it is necessary to show all the forces and couples that act on the body. Those generally encountered are due to applied loadings, reactions that occur at the supports and at points of contact with other bodies, and the weight of the body. Also one should indicate the dimensions of the body necessary for
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TABLE 1.1 Force Systems

Connection Reaction Connection Reaction

cable

F smooth surface Fz

Fy Fy roller ball and socket Fx Fz

Mz Fx My single pin Fx Fz Fy

Fy pin

Fy Fx Fx M fixed support fixed support Mx Fz Mz

Fy My

computing the moments of forces. Once the free-body diagram has been drawn and the coordinate axes established, application of the equations of equilibrium becomes a straightforward procedure.

Support Reactions
Various types of supports can be used to prevent a body from moving. Table 1.1 shows some of the most common types, along with the reactions each exerts on the body at the connection. As a general rule, if a support prevents translation in a given direction, then a force is developed on the body in that direction, whereas if rotation is prevented, a couple moment is exerted on the body.

Friction
When a body is in contact with a rough surface, a force of resistance called friction is exerted on the body by the surface in order to prevent or retard slipping of the body. This force always acts tangent to the surface at points of contact with the surface and is directed so as to oppose the possible or existing motion of the body. If the surface is dry, the frictional force acting on the body must satisfy the equation F < msN
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(1.14)

TABLE 1.2 Typical Values for Coefcients of Static Friction

Materials Metal on ice Wood on wood Leather on wood Leather on metal Aluminum on aluminum ms 0.03 to 0.05 0.30 to 0.70 0.20 to 0.50 0.30 to 0.60 1.10 to 1.70

The equality F = ms N applies only when motion between the contacting surfaces is impending. Here N is the resultant normal force on the body at the surface of contact, and ms is the coefcient of static friction, a dimensionless number that depends on the characteristics of the contacting surfaces. Typical values of ms are shown in Table 1.2. If the body is sliding, then F = mk N, where mk is the coefcient of kinetic friction, a number that is approximately 25% smaller than those listed in Table 1.2.

Constraints
Equilibrium of a body is ensured not only by satisfying the equations of equilibrium, but also by its being properly held or constrained at its supports. If a body has more supports than are needed for equilibrium, it is referred to as statically indeterminate, since there will be more unknowns than equations of equilibrium. For example, the free-body diagram of the beam in Figure 1.11 shows four unknown support reactions, Ax, Ay, MA, and By, but only three equations of equilibrium are available for solution [Equation (1.13)]. The additional equation needed requires knowledge of the physical properties of the body and deals with the mechanics of deformation, which is discussed in subjects such as mechanics of materials. A body may be improperly constrained by its supports. When this occurs, the body becomes unstable and equilibrium cannot be maintained. Either of two conditions may cause this to occur when the reactive forces are all parallel (Figure 1.12) or when they are concurrent (Figure 1.13). In summary, then, if the number of reactive forces that restrain the body is a minimum and these forces are not parallel or concurrent the problem is statically determinate, and the equations of equilibrium are sufcient to determine all the reactive forces.

Internal Loadings
The equations of equilibrium can also be used to determine the internal resultant loadings in a member, provided the external loads are known. The calculation is performed using the method of sections, which
F F

F Ay Ax MA By Ay By

Cy

Fx 0

FIGURE 1.11

FIGURE 1.12

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F1 F3

F2

F4 (a)

B
F Ay

F1

Mz Vz

Ax

F2 Mx

Vx

Ny Ty

NB

(b)

FIGURE 1.13

FIGURE 1.14
F2 F3

states that if a body is in equilibrium, then so is any segment of the body. For example, if an imaginary section is passed through the body in Figure 1.14(a), separating it into two parts, the free-body diagram of the left part is shown in Figure 1.14(b). Here the six internal resultant components are exposed and can be determined from the six equations of equilibrium given by Equation (1.12). These six components are referred to as the normal force, Ny , the shear-force components, Vx and Vz, the torque or twisting moment, Ty , and the bending-moment components, Mx and Mz. If only coplanar loads act on the body [Figure 1.15(a)], then only three internal resultant loads occur [Figure 1.15(b)], namely, the normal force, N, the shear force, V, and the bending moment, M. Each of these loadings can be determined from Equation (1.13). Once these internal resultants have been computed, the actual load distribution over the sectioned surface, called stress, involves application of the theory related to mechanics of materials.

F1 (a)

F4

F2

y
M N V F1 (b)

Numerical Applications

The following examples illustrate application of most of the FIGURE 1.15 principles discussed above. Solution of any problem generally requires rst establishing a coordinate system, then representing the data on a diagram, and nally applying the necessary equations for solution.
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z
FR

O
rC y 300 N rA x rB

400 N 200 N

C B
2m 0.5 m y

A x
1.5 m 1m

FIGURE 1.16

Example 1.1 Simplify the system of three parallel forces acting on the plate in Figure 1.16 to a single resultant force and specify where the force acts on the plate. Solution First, Equation (1.6) and Equation (1.7) are applied in order to replace the force system by a single resultant force and couple moment at point O. FR = M RO =

F
O

FR = -300k - 400k - 200k = {-900k} N M RO = rA (-300k) + rB (-400k) + rC (-200k) = (2i + 1.5 j) (-300 j) + (2.5 j) (-400k) +(-0.5i + 2.5 j) (-200k) = {-1950i + 500 j}N m

Ans.

Since the forces are parallel, note that as expected FR is perpendicular to M RO. The two components of M RO can be eliminated by moving FR along the respective y and x axes an amount: x = M Oy / FR = 500 N m / 900 N = 0.556 m y = M Ox / FR = 1950 N m / 900 N = 2.17 m Ans. Ans.

Both coordinates are positive since FR, acting at r = {0.556i + 2.17j} m, will produce the required moment M RO = r FR. Example 1.2 Determine the reactions at the supports for the beam shown in Figure 1.17(a). Solution Using Table 1.1, the free-body diagram for the beam is shown in Figure 1.17(b). The problem is statically determinate. The reaction NB can be found by using the principle of moments and

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B
500 kN 5 3 4

2m
60

A
2m

2m (a)

x
2m
500 kN 5 3 4 60 NB 60

Ax 2m Ay

2m (b)

FIGURE 1.17

summing moments about point A to eliminate Ax and Ay . Applying Equation (1.13) with reference to the coordinate system shown gives

=0

-500 N(3 / 5)(2 m) + N B cos 60(4 m + 2 cos 60 m) + N B cos 60(2 sin 60 m) = 0 N B = 150 N Ans.

=0

Ax - 500 N(4 / 5) - 150 sin 60 N = 0 Ax = 530 N

Ans.

=0

Ay - 500 N(3 / 5) + 150 cos 60 N = 0 Ay = 225 N

Ans.

Since the answers are all positive, the assumed sense of direction of the reactive forces is shown correctly on the free-body diagram. Example 1.3 The compound beam shown in Figure 1.18(a) consists of two segments, AB and BC, which are pinned together at B. Determine the reactions on the beam at the supports. Solution The free-body diagrams of both segments of the beam are shown in Figure 1.18(b). Notice how the principle of action equal but opposite reaction, Newtons third law applies to the two force

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400 N/m

A
4m

B
3m

C y

x
(a) 1600 N Bx Bx MA 2m 2m 1m By (b) By Cy 2m

Ay Ax

600 N

FIGURE 1.18

components at B. Also, the distributed loading has been simplied to resultant forces, determined from the area under each loading diagram and passing through the centroid or geometric center of each area. The six unknowns are determined by applying Equation (1.13) to each segment. For segment BC:

F M
B

=0

Bx = 0

Ans.

=0

-600 N(1 m) + C y (3 m) = 0 C y = 200 N

Ans.

F
For segment AB:

=0

By - 600 N + 200 N = 0 By = 400 N

Ans.

F F M
A y

=0

Ax = 0

Ans.

=0

Ay - 1600 N - 400 N = 0 Ay = 2000 N M A = 1600 N(2 m) - 400 N(4 m) = 0 M A - 4800 N m

Ans.

=0

Ans.

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500 N P 30 2m

3m (a)

3m

y
500 N P 30 2m

0.3 NA 3m

B
3m NB (b) 0.3 NB

NA

FIGURE 1.19

Example 1.4 The table in Figure 1.19(a) rests on a rough surface for which ms = 0.3. If it supports a load of 500 N, determine the largest magnitude of force P that can be applied before it begins to move. Solution The free-body diagram is shown in Figure 1.19(b). Since the maximum force P is to be determined, slipping must impend at both A and B. Therefore, the friction equation F = ms N applies at these points. There are three unknowns. Applying the equations of equilibrium yields

M = 0 F = 0 F = 0
B x y

- N A (6 m) + 500 N(3 m) + P cos30(2 m) = 0 0.3N A + 0.3N B - P cos30 = 0 N A + N B - 500 N - P sin30 = 0

Solving, P = 209 N N A = 310 N N B = 294 N Since NA and NB are both positive, the forces of the oor push up on the table as shown on the freebody diagram, and the table remains in contact with the oor. Ans.

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Dening Terms
Concurrent forces Forces that act through the same point. Couple Two forces that have the same magnitude and opposite directions and do not have the same line of action. A couple produces rotation with no translation. Free-body diagram A diagram that shows the body free from its surroundings. All possible loads and relevant dimensions are labeled on it. Friction A force of resistance caused by one surface on another. Method of sections This method states that if a body is in equilibrium, any sectioned part of it is also in equilibrium. It is used for drawing the free-body diagram to determine the internal loadings in any region of a body. Parallelogram law The method of vector addition whereby two vectors, called components, are joined at their tails; parallel lines are then drawn from the head of each vector so that they intersect at a common point forming the adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The resultant vector is the diagonal that extends from the tails of the component vectors to the intersection of the lines. Principle of moments This concept states that the moment of the force about a point is equal to the sum of the moments of the forces components about the point. Principle of transmissibility A property of a force that allows the force to act at any point along its line of action and produce the same external effects on a body. Weight The gravitational attraction of the earth on the mass of a body, usually measured at sea level and 45 latitude. Wrench A force and collinear moment. The effect is to produce both a push and simultaneous twist.

Reference
Hibbeler, R. C. 2004. Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 10th ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Further Information
Many textbooks are available for the study of statics; they can be found in any engineering library.

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