THE ULTIMATE LIT HUM STUDY GUIDE COMPILED BY RYAN MANDELBAUM

The Iliad By Homer (Books I XII) Plot Summary The Iliad picks up at the end of the Trojan War a ten year lon! "ar fou!ht #et"een the $chaeans (%reek) and the Trojans& 'hryses( the priest of $pollo( pleads "ith the $chaeans to return to him his dau!hter "ho they captured in #attle& When the $chaean)s refuse( $pollo pla!ue)s the $chaean)s& $!amemnon( leader of the $chaean)s( finally !i*es up the dau!hter in order to end the pla!ue( #ut only after he is fairly compensated #y takin! the !irl pre*iously !i*en to $chilles& $chilles( the !reatest $chaean "arrior( is dishonored and insulted #y the unfair e+chan!e( and resorts to "ithdra"in! from the "ar in order to punish the $chaeans& To further hinder the $chaeans in #attle( $chilles also attempts to seek out help from ,eus( #y askin! his o"n mother( the !oddess named Thetis( to persuade him& Without support from $chilles or ,eus( the $chaeans face difficult challen!es a!ainst the po"erful Trojan army& The $chaean)s meet the Trojans and a duel #et"een -enelaus and Paris ensues to try and settle the "ar for !ood& The !ods inter*ene and the duel is left unresol*ed& .i!htin! continues #ack and forth #et"een the t"o sides& Both sides a!ree to ha*e a day of peace to #ury their dead( and stren!then their defenses& $fter"ards( the fi!htin! continues for a fe" days( and the Trojans( "ith the help of the !ods( #e!in to take the lead in the "ar& The $chaean)s unite and recall that Troy is destined to fall& $!amemnon( fearin! the Trojan)s *ictory( offers $chilles !reat "ealth if he rejoins the "ar( #ut $chilles refuses& The $chaean)s send spies across the Trojan #order( "ho encounter one of their enemies& They threaten him to !ain information a#out the Trojans( "hich they use to launch se*eral successful attacks& The ne+t day the Trojans attack the $chaean)s camp( #reakin! throu!h the "alls of the camp and forcin! the troops all the "ay #ack to their ships& -ajor Themes Honor $chilles is so dishonored "hen $!amemnon takes Briseis from him( that he "ithdra"s from the "ar (Book I)& /ater( "hen $!amemnon attempts to "in $chilles #ack #y offerin! him !ifts( $chilles denies( claimin! that 0There "as no !ratitude !i*en for fi!htin! incessantly fore*er a!ainst your enemies& .ate is the same for the man "ho holds #ack( the same if he fi!hts hard1 (Book IX2 345)& This sho"s $chilles de !lorifyin! "ar #ecause he chooses to stay home and li*e a lon! and happy life( rather than return to the #attlefield and die 0honora#ly&6 $s Paris and -enelaus !et ready to fi!ht( Paris #e!ins to sho" si!ns of fear and co"ardice& His #rother Hector mocks him( and Paris is mo*ed to fi!ht( #ut he soon escapes from the field& Paris is looked do"n upon( in contrast "ith his #rother( "ho is a !reat Trojan "arrior and a "ell respected leader& 7estor upholds honor in "ar #y !i*in! upliftin! speeches to the $chaeans& In #ook 8II he preaches a#out the !lory of *ictory to his troops( con*incin! them to step for"ard( and fi!ht Hector& $!ain( in Book IX( "hile $!amemnon has lost hope and is ready to head #ack home( 7estor #rin!s reassurance to the troops throu!h a sense of !lory( and the troops spirits are a!ain raised& The Shield The shield "hich Hephaestus "elds to!ether for $chilles is descri#ed in !reat detail in Book 49 (you may "ant to look this chapter o*er)& The ela#orate desi!ns on shield depict not only the "ar( #ut also life outside of the "ar (ie dancin!( children( and har*est)& The shield emphasi:es #oth peacetime and "artime to sho" that life e+ists outside of "ar( and that "ar is not all "hich matters& Burial Homer !i*es !reat importance to #urial rituals2 #oth armies en!a!e in a day of peace to #ury their dead (Book 8II) "hen Patroclus dies( $chilles refuses to eat to morn his death( and he is !i*en proper #urial (Book XIX and XXIII) "hen Hector dies( Priam !oes to the $chaean camp to claim his #ody and !rant him proper #urial (Book XXI8) Structure The Iliad is di*ided into three 9 #ook units and each unit #e!in "ith a decision made #y $chilles( and end "ith one made #y ,eus& Book I mimics e*ents "hich occur in Book XXI8( Book II mimics Book XXIII( and Book III mimics Book XXII( etc( etc& The Iliad is intended to #e an enormously lon! poem( in order to reflect the ma!nitude of its !reatness& Plot Summary Book 13 With ,eus #ackin! the Trojans( the $chaeans ha*e no" #een forced as far #ack as their ships& ,eus no" takes his attention a"ay from the #attle and Poseidon takes ad*anta!e of this& In the form of 'alchas( he rekindles the $chaeans) spirit& 'onse;uently( the $chaeans dri*e Hector #ack #ut Hector "ounds Poseidon)s !randson and so Poseidon im#ues Idomeneus "ith super stren!th& Hector continues the assault( #ut ha*in! lost some of their soldiers( the Trojans lose confidence& Polydamas persuades Hector to fall #ack and re!roup& Hector tries to do so( #ut most of his front line is dead& %reat $ja+ then insults Hector and he has an ea!le flyin! on his ri!ht( a !ood omen for the $chaeans& Book 14 The $chaeans analy:e their situation and a!ain $!amemnon su!!ests retreatin!& <dysseus calls him a co"ard and =iomedes rallies the troops to!ether& -ean"hile( a"ay from the #attlefield( Hera tricks $phrodite to !i*e her a #reast #and "ith the po"er of lo*e and lon!in! and then #y promisin! Sleep one of her dau!hters( she tricks ,eus& When ,eus sees Hera "earin! the #and he is immediately seduced and has se+ "ith her& Sleep then makes ,eus fall asleep and allo"s Hera to tell Poseidon to help the $chaeans "hile ,eus is asleep& The $chaeans( "ith ne" help( char!e the Trojans& %reat $ja+ knocks o*er and injures Hector "ith a #oulder forcin! him #ack to the city& Without Hector the Trojans are forced #ack easily into the city&

Book 15 ,eus "akes up and sees the turmoil& Hera tries to direct the #lame on Poseidon #ut ,eus promises that he "ill continue to help Trojans #ut has no personal interest in the "ar& He also kno"s that Troy is still fated to fall& ,eus then has Iris stop Poseidon from helpin! $chaeans and orders $pollo to help Trojans& Hector a!ain char!es and a!ain pro!resses all the "ay to $chaean ships& Teucer "ho had killed many Trojans that day #reaks his #o" (#ecause of ,eus) and is stopped from killin! further& Book 16 Patroclus #e!s $chilles to fi!ht or at least let him "ear his armor& $chilles still refuses to fi!ht #ut a!rees to let him "ear armor& With Patroclus "earin! $chilles) armor( the #attle turns a!ain in fa*or of $chaeans& Patroclus !oes on a killin! spree and e*en kills ,eus) son Sarpedon& ,eus decides to kill Patroclus after he has slain the Trojans more& ,eus im#ues Hector "ith co"ardice and he leads the Trojan retreat& Patroclus chases the $chaeans up to the Trojan !ates& $pollo finally persuades Hector to stand up to Patroclus #ut Patroclus spears Hector)s charioteer thou!h and in the fren:y to !et the charioteer)s armor( $pollo "ounds Patroclus #efore Hector finishes him off& Book 17 $ fi!ht #reaks out o*er Patroclus) #ody in order to take the armor& In the end it is Hector "ho !ets it& ,eus continues to support the Trojans( #ut not "hole heartedly& He allo"s the $chaeans to take a"ay Patroclus) #ody& Book 18 News of Patroclus death makes Achilles decide to rejoin war. He is convinced by Iris to make an appearance on the battlefield. His mere appearance makes the Trojans retreat in fear. That ni ht! Hector decides foolhardily to continue with the assault! despite advice from Polydamus. The other soldiers all a ree with Hector because Athena has robbed them of their wits. Hephaestus also makes Achilles a new armor. Ni ht falls for first time since book "# markin Achilles entry into the war. Book 19 $chilles upon !ettin! ne" armor rejoins the #attle& He reconciles "ith $!amemnon( "ho returns Briseis& $chilles "ants to "aste no time and "ishes to join the fi!ht immediately #ut he is persuaded to let the army eat& He( ho"e*er( *o"s to not eat until Hector is slain& ,eus pities him and has $thena fill his stomach "ith food& $chilles then #lames the horses for lea*in! Patroclus) #ody #ehind( #ut horses respond #y tellin! him that there "as di*inity at "ork& Book 20 ,eus fearin! that Troy "ill fall #efore its fated time( allo"s the !ods to inter*ene& $t first the !ods hurry do"n( #ut e*entually they decide to let the soldiers fi!ht for themsel*es& $pollo encoura!es $eneas to fi!ht $chilles& They #e!in duelin! and as $chilles is a#out to kill $eneas( Poseidon sa*es him& Hector then also "ants a piece of $chilles #ut is told to "ait #y $pollo until $chilles comes to him& Ho"e*er( Hector is too an+ious and challen!es $chilles& He fi!hts poorly and $pollo sa*es him from defeat& Book 21 $chilles continues to slau!hter the Trojans and each time he kills someone( he tosses the #ody into the ri*er Xanthus& The ri*er !od protests #ecause the #odies are clo!!in! up the ri*er so $chilles a!rees to stop thro"in! them into the ri*er #ut he does not slo" up on the killin!& The >i*er !od( "itnessin! the onslau!ht( pities the Trojans and asks $pollo to help them& $chilles hears the plea and attacks the !od& The >i*er %od takes him do"nstream and almost kills him #ut from Hephaestus sa*es him #y settin! fire to a near#y floodplain and #oilin! the ri*er& The !ods no" #e!in to ar!ue& $thena defeats $res and $phrodite( "hile Poseidon challen!es $pollo& $pollo refuses to fi!ht o*er mere mortals and "hen $rtemis tries to encoura!e $pollo to fi!ht( Hera o*erhears her and pounces on her& Book 22 Priam sees the carna!e and opens the city !ates so soldiers can come in& Hector remains only soldier left outside& =espite Priam)s pleadin! Hector refuses to come inside as he feels ashamed of !i*in! the order to char!e the $chaeans& $s a result( Hector and $chilles finally meet& Hector flees at first& ,eus considers sa*in! him #ut Hera persuades him not to& She claims Hector)s time has come& $thena appears in front of Hector as one of his allies and con*inces him to fi!ht $chilles& They e+chan!e spear thro"s #ut #oth miss& When Hector turns to his ally( his ally has disappeared and he reali:es he has #een tricked& In a final( desperate #id for !lory he char!es $chilles& Hector is "earin! $chilles) old armor and $chilles kno"in! it)s "eak points( times a spear thro" that !oes throu!h Hector)s neck& While dyin!( Hector pleads to #e returned to the Trojans #ut $chilles lets him !et ra*a!ed #y do!s and #irds& Book 23 $chilles holds Patroclus) funeral the ne+t day and then holds some ceremonious !ames in his honor& Ho"e*er( a chariot race "hich =iomedes "ins "ith the help of $thena( spurs trou#le& $chilles "ants to !i*e $ntilochus) ? nd place pri:e to the last place finisher #ecause $thena has ro##ed him& The men !et into a hu!e ar!ument #ut they e*entually reconcile& Book 24 $chilles continues to a#use Hector)s #ody( thou!h $pollo pre*ents it from #ein! dama!ed and sta*es of do!s and #irds from feedin! off it& $pollo persuades ,eus that $chilles must let Hector)s #ody #e ransomed& Priam !oes into the $chaean camp and #e!s for Hector)s #ody& $chilles finally a!rees and takes the treasures offered #y Priam in e+chan!e& Priam lea*es "ith Hector)s #ody and a funeral is held& $chilles finally reali:es that he is soon to die and that his father "ill soon suffer the pain #ein! suffered #y Priam& This finally melts his ra!e& Character Analysis Achaeans Achilles Hero of $chaean army( #ut to modern reader he is not so heroic& His refusal to fi!ht is initially "arranted #ut after $!amemmnon)s plea( his refusal is childish and stu##orn& In a certain "ay he is the *illain #ecause many $chaeans die due to his refusal to fi!ht& His supremacy as a "arrior is unchallen!ed( despite his stron! di*ine #ackin!& $n!er and Pride are his "eaknesses& He prays $chaeans lose #ecause of insult deli*ered #y $!amemnon& =espite these ? fla"s( he is other"ise a !reat !entleman as sho"n #y the "ay he treats his friends "hen they come to persuade him to rejoin the "ar& Agamemnon /eader( also short tempered like $chilles& He insults $chilles and orders him to !i*e up Briseis& He takes the least risks in #attle #ut e+pects the !reatest share of the loot& He is cunnin! and untrustin! as sho"n "hen he tests his army)s loyalty in Book ?& $fter reconcilin! "ith $chilles( he does not admit to his o"n fault #ut #lames it on fate and the !ods& His ra!e is #ased on selfishness and thus the reader does not feel sympathy for him in the same "ay they do for $chilles& He lacks certain kin!ly ;ualities& He panics "hen faced "ith confusion and t"ice he su!!ests fleein!& <dysseus( 7estor and =iomedes !uide him and rally his troops "hen he is in despair& His despair is #rou!ht a#out #y his concern for the li*es of his troops thou!h& Odysseus $ crafty( resourceful( darin!( and merciless man& While not the smartest( he makes the most of his ;ualities& He is the opposite of $chilles in that he does not let his passions cloud his jud!ment& $chilles( Hector( and $!amemnon are fla"ed !eniuses& <dysseus is an unfla"ed re!ular !uy dri*en #y his desire to !o home and see #rin! order to his household& He is not the no#lest nor stateliest #ut he is the only one that sur*i*es to !o home&

Aias %reatest "arrior after $chilles& $l"ays fi!hts unaided #y !ods& Best soldier especially "hen on defense& Diomedes The youn!est of the $chaean commanders( =iomedes is #old and sometimes pro*es impetuous& $fter $chilles "ithdra"s from com#at( $thena inspires =iomedes "ith such coura!e that he actually "ounds t"o !ods( $phrodite and $res& Grea A!a" $n $chaean commander( %reat $ja+ is the second mi!htiest $chaean "arrior after $chilles& His e+traordinary si:e and stren!th help him to "ound Hector t"ice #y hittin! him "ith #oulders& He often fi!hts alon!side /ittle $ja+( and the pair is fre;uently referred to as the 1$eantes&1 #es or @in! of Pylos and the oldest $chaean commander& $lthou!h a!e has taken much of 7estorAs physical stren!th( he still has left a !reat deal of "isdom& He often acts as an ad*isor to the military commanders( especially $!amemnon& 7estor and <dysseus are the $chaeansA most deft and persuasi*e orators& $enelaus King

of Sparta and the younger brother of Agamemnon. While it is the abduction of his wife, Helen that sparks the War, Menelaus proves uieter, less imposing, and less arrogant than Agamemnon. !hough he has a brave heart, Menelaus is not among the mightiest Achaean warriors.
Trojans %ec or /eader of the army& He is o*errated as a "arrior #ut still !reatly feared& He kills many $chaeans #ut only one si!nificant "arrior( Patroclus #ut this is "hen Patroclus is already do"n& He is !i*en di*ine support from $pollo and ,eus& He)s a #i! family man "ho lo*es his "ife( children( and #rother (Paris)& He remem#ers his duty to the army is foremost and in the end he chooses to die in #attle than li*e "ith his family& The tra!edy is he is killed fi!htin! a needless "ar and fi!hts only #ecause of his sense of duty&

King of !roy and husband to Hecuba, "riam is the father of fifty !ro#an warriors, including Hector and "aris. Although too old to fight, he has earned the respect of both the !ro#ans and the Achaeans by virtue of his levelheaded, wise, and benevolent rule. He treats Helen kindly, even though he laments the war that her beauty has sparked.
&riam

A son of "riam and Hecuba and brother of Hector. "aris$s abduction of the beautiful Helen, wife of Menelaus, sparked the !ro#an War. "aris is self%centered and often unmanly. He fights effectively with a bow and arrow but lacks the spirit for battle. He prefers to be at home making love to Helen while others fight for him. !his earns him a great deal of disrespect.
&aris Apollo A

son of &eus and twin brother of the goddess Artemis, Apollo is god of the arts and archery. He supports the !ro#ans and often intervenes in the war on their behalf.
'lose (eading 'ook ( a Homeric simile. This passa!e descri#es full scale "ar for the first time in the Iliad& The passa!e compares the t"o armies to fast flo"in! ri*ers( headin! to"ards each other& When the t"o armies meet( the clash of their armor and the "ar cries are so loud that they can #e heard far a"ay( just as the shepherd can hear the crashin! ri*ers& The ri*ers are carryin! so much ener!y that they ha*e forced a ne" course and discarded the ori!inal route& The stream#ed is descri#ed as hollo" (B&BCB) "ith only the "hite "ater !enerated from the collisions fallin! #ack into the ori!inal ri*er)s course& The ima!e of t"o armies tra*elin! to"ards each other( erodin! a"ay the #attlefield( just as the ri*er has done( is for!ed into the reader)s mind& The "hite "ater could sym#oli:e the recoil of the t"o armies collidin! or e*en slain soldiers #ein! tossed up and aside& In addition( the "hite "ater !enerated #y the t"o ri*ers cannot #e traced #ack to either ri*er& Homer is makin! the statement that e*en thou!h there are t"o armies( once a soldier dies and his armor is stripped( there is no distinction #et"een a %reek and a Trojan #ody& The shepherd is a some"hat am#i!uous character& In the Iliad the main focus is on the leaders and !ods& There are *ery fe" references to those "ho li*e in and around Troy "ho are not in*ol*ed "ith the "ar& The shepherd may represent these common people& The use of the "ord 0thunder6 (B&BCC) su!!ests that the shepherd does not kno" "hat the noise is nor "here it is comin! from& The reader also !ets the impression that the shepherd doesn)t really care much a#out the noise either #ecause there is no mention of him later on& This is perhaps a rare insi!ht into ci*ilian life around Troy and that people are !enerally indifferent to the conflict

'omparisons to other Te+ts <dysseus can #e compared to himself in the <dyssey& In #oth he is sho"n to #e *ery smart and a !ood speaker( #ut in the <dyssey his arro!ance is e+posed in the land of the 'yclopes and he is constantly #ein! aided #y most of the !ods& $!amemnon can #e compared to himself in <restia& $chilles can #e compared to -edea in that they share the same reaction "hen their pride is "ounded& They are #oth o*ercome #y an uncontrolla#le ra!e and neither are "illin! to make compromises until they ha*e e+acted some form of re*en!e& Hector and -edea make similar choices& Hector chooses to die "ith honor on the #attlefield and lose his family& -edea chooses to lose her family in order to e+act re*en!e and !et her pride #ack&

The <dyssey #y Homer Plot Summary The <dyssey takes place a decade after the citadel of Troy is sacked& It focuses on the journey of <dysseus from Troy to his island of Ithaca& While a"ay( his "ife Penelope is #ein! courted #y a cro"d of unruly suitors "ho are literally eatin! the family 0out of house and home&6 She "ards them off #y ha*in! them "ait for her to finish "ea*in! a #lanket for <dysseus) father( #ut she unra*els it e*ery ni!ht& Telemachus( <dysseus) only son "ho he has not seen since he left for the "ar( is the only one left to !uard the fort& Doun! and ine+perienced( he is really no challen!e to the suitors& The story actually #e!ins "ith the Telemachia (story of Telemachus)& =eeply #othered #y the disrespect of the cro"d in his house( and commanded #y $thena( Telemachus sets off to find "ord a#out his father)s "herea#outs and health& Penelope is kept in the dark of the "hole #ut the suitors learn of his journey and conspire to kill him on his "ay #ack home so that they may marry his mother and take his household& With $thena)s protection the entire time( Telemachus tra*els to the homes of 7estor and -enelaus& The former does not ha*e much information to offer( #ut the latter tells "hat he has learned from the <ld -an of the Sea a#out <dysseus and then lets Telemachus return home& Book fi*e introduces <dysseus "hen Hermes is sent to release <dysseus from 'alypso)s island& <dysseus #uilds a raft and tra*els to the land of the Phaiakians& En route( his ship is smashed #y Poseidon( "ho is an!ry "ith him for hurtin! Polyphemos& He arri*es at the island and is taken in #y 7ausikaa( "ho is under the influence of $thena& He enters the city and ends up at the knees of @in! $lkinoos& They feast and play !ames in "hich <dysseus e+cels and are later sun! to #y a sin!er& The son!s are a#out <dysseus and the War and they cause him to "eep& E*entually( he re*eals his identity and tells the story of his lon! journey from Troy to their island& In order( he tells them of the @ikonians( lotus eaters( 'yclops( $iolos( /aistry!ones( 'irce( Hades( Sirens (after a return to 'irce)( Skylla and 'hary#dis( island of Helios( and then @alypso& They then offer him a hi!h place in the city( and the hand of 7ausikaa( #ut instead he asks for safe passa!e #ack to Ithaca& They drop him off on the island "ith his !ifts as he sleeps& <n their "ay #ack( Poseidon turns the Phaiakian ship to stone( for he is an!ered at the safe return of <dysseus& $thena shrouds <dysseus in cloud so that he "ill not #e #othered "hile he sleeps& She dis!uises herself as a youn! #oy and e*entually re*eals to him the truth a#out "here he is and the situation in Ithaca& She dis!uises him as an old #e!!ar and tells him to stay "ith his s"ineherd for a "hile& There( <dysseus tests the s"ineherd)s loyalty and is #riefed of the situation in Ithaca& Telemachus arri*es and "hen they are alone to!ether( <dysseus re*eals himself to his son& The t"o #e!in plottin! an attack on the suitors and <dysseus returns to his home still dis!uised as a #e!!ar& He spends time amon!st the suitors( testin! the loyalty of his "ife and his ser*ants& $fter Penelope arran!es for marria!e !ames to take place( the suitors return home and in their a#sence( <dysseus and his son hide all the "eapons& Before the !ames( <dysseus ser*ant Eurikleia reco!ni:es him #y his scar& <n the day of the !ames( none of the suitors can strin! the #o" and <dysseus is !ranted a try& $fter strin!in! it and shootin! an arro" throu!h the a+ loops( he #e!ins to attack the suitors "ith his son& With the help of $thena( they kill each suitor and then <dysseus cleans the house #efore he allo"s Penelope to enter& She initially does not #elie*e it is he( #ut after he speaks of the #edroom he #uilt( she is con*inced of his identity& <dysseus *isits /aertes( his father "here he is "elcomed "armly& While there( the relati*es of the suitors attack <dysseus) family #ut after a #attle "ith /aertes( <dysseus( and Telemachus( $thena tells them all not to fi!ht& $a!or charac ers Odysseus is the prota!onist of the <dyssey& He is kno"n across the "orld for his "isdom and intelli!ence& He holds fa*or in the heat of $thena( #ut is hated #y Poseidon& Thou!h he is "ise and cle*er( he is *ery fla"ed and he allo"s his pride and hasty jud!ment to make him do un"ise thin!s( such as taunt Polyphemos& He #e!ins his journey from Troy "ith a ship full of men #ut ends up alone #y the end& He is a "ar hero #ut he also has a place in peace& He is responsi#le for #uildin! his #edroom( particularly structured around a lar!e tree& &enelo)e is the "ife of <dysseus& She is kno"n repeatedly as 0circumspect(6 hintin! that her character complements that of her hus#and ;uite "ell& She remains in tears and in retreat for a !ood part of the te+t( #ut she also demonstrates a cle*er side and stren!th of con*iction in "ardin! off the suitors& She remains faithful to <dysseus& *elemachus is <dysseus) only son& He is an adult( #ut has no #attle e+perience and is not capa#le of resistin! the many suitors alone& There are times "hen he !ets #old and makes !reat threats( insults( and speeches( and others "hen he feels a #it scared& $thena helps him as "ell( so that the final plan may #e accomplished& A hena is the most acti*e !oddess in this tale& She supports <dysseus and his family the entire time& She transforms people and !i*es stren!th( protection and ad*ice& An inous and he sui ors are li*in! off of <dysseus) riches and preyin! on Penelope& They are completely *iolatin! all the rules of hospitality esta#lished else"here in the te+t& $ntinous is the most hostile and #old of the suitors and <dysseus kills him first& +urycleia "as nurse to #oth <dysseus and Telemachus and she is faithful to the family "hen other ser*ants are not& Her reco!nition of <dysseus) scar sheds li!ht on the life of the youn! <dysseus& +umaios is <dysseus) loyal s"ineherd( "hile Philoetius is the loyal co"herd& They rejoice at the return of their master and help secure his *ictory& -elanthius( ho"e*er( is the !oatherd "ho chooses sides "ith the suitors and is therefore #rutally mutilated& ,aer es is <dysseus) a!ed father "ho li*es on a farm in Ithaca& He is in se*ere decline until the return of his son& -slands .order o/ /a0ula1

*he 2ikonians inha#it the first island that <dysseus reaches after Ilion& He sacks their city and takes their possessions( #ut his men !et drunk and feast( "hile the sur*i*in! @ikonians "ent to recruit others and attack them& The $chaians had to retreat& *he ,o us +a ers offer <dysseus) men some lotus to eat( "hich causes them to lose si!ht of their 0nostos6 (homecomin!)( and makes them "ish to stay "ith the lotus eaters& *he 'yclo)s3 land is plentiful in resources& Here <dysseus intrudes upon the home of Polyphemos e+pectin! !ifts( only to #e trapped and ha*e some of his cre"mem#ers eaten& To escape( <dysseus creates a plan to poke out the eye of the 'yclops& $fter this is accomplished( he tells the 'yclops that his name is 7o#ody( so "hen Polyphemos cries out to the other inha#itants of the island( he "ill tell them that 7o#ody has hurt him& The men escape under some sheep& $fter they are in the "ater( an o*erly proud <dysseus taunts Polyphemos and re*eals his true identity& .or this( Polyphemos curses him and asks his father( Poseidon( to a*en!e him& *he Aiolian island is kind to the tra*elers( and !i*es <dysseus a skin filled "ith the "inds& While sailin!( his men !et jealous of him and open his #a! "hile he is sleepin!& $fter unleashin! all the "inds( they "ind up #ack at the island( #ut are refused further help& *he ,ais rygones is a land of !iants& <dysseus sends men in the city to see "hat type of people they are& While in the palace( one man is eaten "hile the other t"o run #ack to the ship& The entire to"n chases after them and kills many of his men& In 'irce3s island( <dysseus first sends men in to see "ho in ha#its the place& When they arri*e at 'irce)s home( they are all turned into s"ine "ho escapes to tell the story& Hermes tells <dysseus ho" to transform his men #ack into humans& He "ins o*er 'irce and #ecomes her lo*er and the "itch turns his men #ack to humans and sho"s them hospitality& She tells the men that in order to !et home they must first tra*el to the city of the @immerian people( or the land of the dead& $t he land o/ he dead( <dysseus encounters the spirit of Elpenor( one of his cre" "ho fell of a roof at 'irce)s island& They con*erse and then( in front of a pool of #lood( he "aits for Teiresias( the #lind prophet( to tell him ho" to !et #ack home& Teiresias tells him "hat he must do and then he talks to his mother( "ho died "aitin! for his return& She tells him a#out "hat is happenin! in Ithaca& He then sees the dau!hters and "i*es of many men( $!amemnon)s( $chilleus( $ja+ and the heroes in torment( such as Tantalos( Sisyphos( and Hercules& The island of he 4irens is one from "hich no man has returned& $nyone "ho hears their son! is enchanted to their land and dies there& .or this reason( <dysseus has his men jam their ears "ith #ees"a+& He( ho"e*erFproud man that he isFdesires to hear the son! himself& Therefore he has his men tie him to a pole and "hen he asks to #e released( they only ti!hten the ropes& 4kylla is a monster "ith multiple heads& 7o ship passes "ithout losin! some of its men& She li*es hi!h up in a ca*e and eats si+ of the men& $t the island of *hrinakia( the men are told that if they do not eat the cattle( they "ill ha*e a safe passa!e& <dysseus falls asleep and the men #e!in to feast& This deeply an!ers Hyperion "ho smashes the ship and dro"ns them all& 'hary0dis s"allo"s and spits the ocean up& <dysseus escapes #y holdin! onto a tree #ranch& 2aly)so is a #eautiful !oddess "ho li*es on <!y!ia& She is more #eautiful than Penelope( #ut <dysseus still chooses his "ife and home o*er immortality as @alypso)s lo*er& She takes care of him and sleeps "ith him e*ery ni!ht for nine years until Hermes arri*es to tell her that <dysseus must #e set free& *he &haiakians are closer to the !ods than humans and are the #est sailors in the kno"n "orld& They are some"hat inhuman #ecause they ha*e ne*er kno"n "ar& They listen to "ar stories "ith a some"hat *oyeuristic approach #ut do not truly understand the nature of human failin!s& $a!or *hemes 4& Gud!in! The <dyssey is an epic a#out interpretation as "ell as action& <dysseus jud!es each place differently& Each time he lands on an island he must fi!ure out "hat kind of people li*e there& The reader must also jud!e& <dysseus thinks that he is tra*elin! around to see "ho is a !ood host "hen in fact he is #ein! jud!ed as a !ood !uest and in many cases is found lackin! <dysseus jud!es places #y his o"n standards in an almost Herodotus "ay& The 'yclops are unci*ili:ed #ecause they are unlike him and the !iants are #eastly #ecause they do not "elcome him& $s his journey pro!resses he has to learn to jud!e more carefully( if for no other reason #ut his o"n safety& ?& SujetH.a#ula The order "e e+perience <dysseus) journey home is *ery different from the order in "hich it takes place for <dysseus& The sujet starts "ith @alypso #ecause this is the point "hen he chooses mortality and makes the ultimate decision to return home& It also #e!ins "hen he is alone (after he has lost all of his men)& So "e #e!in the story at its most difficult point (the temptation of @alypso)& The flash#ack #e!ins "ith the Phaiakians #ecause storytellin! must occur "ith humans& 3& Peacetime The <dyssey re*eals the social climate of peacetime as "ell as "hat is possi#le in times of peace& Hospitality is possi#le in a time of peace #ecause you can in*ite stran!ers into your home and they are e+pected to #e !ood& While "artime is #ased on compensation( peacetime is #ased on reciprocity and hospitality is the fundamental e+pression of the rules of reciprocity& The suitors in <dysseus) home do not follo" the rules of hospitality& <dysseus cries "hen he hears the son! of the Iliad& The cryin! and emotion repressed in "ar can #e e+pressed in peacetime& $fter the "ar( "arriors need to hear their story a!ain so that they may e+perience it emotionally& In peacetime( you can cry&

 In peace you can #e clean and #e concerned "ith #athin!( #eddin!( !ames and also craftsmanship& <dysseus) #ed is a representation of the !lorious thin!s people can make durin! peacetime& <dysseus is not just the 0sacker of cities6 #ut also the 0maker of #eds6 B& Storytellin! This is the most essential human interaction and it must occur #et"een humans& .or this reason( <dysseus) story does not #e!in until he is "ith the Phaiakians& Storytellin! is e+pected of all !uests& It is the e+chan!e for hospitality& Storytellin! is also a mark of ci*ili:ation as "ell as intimacy and "hen <dysseus returns home he and Penelope tell each other stories "hen they make lo*e& Storytellin! is also a "ay in "hich The <dyssey is intentionally framed and mediated& <dysseus) storytellin! is filtered and it is important to remem#er that e*erythin! in his account is in ;uotation marks& This #ecomes *ery important durin! his account of the 'yclops "hen <dysseus is re*ealed as an unrelia#le storyteller& He is inconsistent a#out the nature of the 'yclops and their "ays of life& He says the 'yclops are "ithout community( help from !ods or ci*ili:ation "hen in fact the 'yclops li*e "ithin communities and are descended from the !ods and take !reat cares "ith such domesticities as cheese makin! and !oat herdin!& Stories should #e of thin!s you kno"& In the case of the Phaiakians( they do not cry durin! the stories of the "ar #ecause they do not kno" "ar& 'lose >eadin! (C&CC 5CI 94 BI J? B) This is the introduction of <dysseus and also the settin! in "hich <dysseus must make his most important decision& By this point in the <dysseus) story he has li*ed and slept "ith @alypso for nine years& The reader sees the scene as it unfolds #efore Hermes& @alypso)s ca*e is surrounded #y a seducti*e nature& The ca*e in lines C&CK C&5C is descri#ed as pleasin!( s"eet( "arm and satisfyin! on all sensory le*els& @alypso attempts to seduce him into stayin! not only #y makin! her ca*e pleasin! #ut also #y creatin! the domesticity <dysseus so misses& There is fire( sin!in! and e*en "ea*in! #ut the domesticity of @alypso)s ca*e is too !ood to #e true& In this passa!e( <dysseus is sittin! alone on the #each cryin!& Lltimately( <dysseus tells @alypso he "ould prefer the less pretty and mortal Penelope to a life of immortality "ith the perfect !oddess& <dysseus reco!ni:es somethin! tri*ial in the ne*er endin! e+istence he is offered& <dysseus is !i*en the choice of immortality #ut he denies it #ecause he "ants to complete his story and #ecause he "ants a human endin!& 'omparisons to other te+tsM Homecomin! (nostos) It is *ery important in The Odyssey to ha*e an appropriate homecomin!& <dysseus is faced "ith many alternati*e fates& He could return home and #e denied his nostos like $!amemnon "ho( upon returnin!( "as killed #y his "ife& He could die #efore he !ets home and #e denied his nostos <r he could li*e "ith @alypso fore*er and ne*er complete his journey 'hoice of $chilles *s& choice of <dysseus $chilles has to choose #et"een lo*e at home or honor in the #attlefield "hile <dysseus must choose #et"een immortality "ith @alypso or honor at home "hen he returns& Both men choose honor& Wea*in! in The Iliad *s& The Odyssey Helen represents the plot "ith her "ea*in! #ut Penelope changes the plot "ith her "ea*in! and un"ea*in!& 'hronolo!y The Iliad is told almost entirely in order and in The Odyssey( e*erythin! is told out of order& Gud!in! #y in*ersion <n the island of the 'yclops( <dysseus) jud!es #y in*ersion just as Herodotus often does in The Histories& Hymn to Demeter

&lo 4ummary5 The story unfolds "ith Persephone playin! in a #eautiful lush !arden& Soon thereafter( Hades a#ducts Persephone and #rin!s her into the under"orld& While Persephone does release a scream "hen she is initially kidnapped( no !od or human hears her e+cept for Hekate and Helios& =emeter senses that somethin! has happened to her dau!hter and frantically searches for Persephone for nine days( durin! "hich time she refuses to eat or drink& <n the tenth day of her search( =emeter disco*ers ,eus !a*e Persephone to Hades to take as his #ride& In her an!er "ith ,eus( =emeter "ithdra"s from <lympus and retreats to a mortal household "here she functions as nurse to a ne"#orn male #a#y& She dis!uises herself as an old "oman named =os "ho "as a#ducted #y men and escaped durin! a feast( "hich she refused to partake in& While performin! a ceremony to make the ne"#orn #a#y immortal and to thus #rin! him e*erlastin! honor( the mother of the child releases a "ail that interrupts the ritual and an!ers =emeter( "ho then retreats from makin! him immortal& In her an!uish for the loss of her dau!hter( =emeter #rin!s infertility to the fields for one "hole year( and thus depri*es all of the !ods "ith sacrifice and honor& ,eus sees this( and tires to persuade =emeter to #rin! #ounty #ack upon the earth( offerin! her !ifts and honor& =emeter refuses& .inally( ,eus persuades Hades to allo" Persephone to resurface and see her mother& Hades( ho"e*er( !i*es Persephone a pome!ranate "hich she eats #efore lea*in!& Because Persephone ate of the Pome!ranate( ,eus ordains that she must spend one part of the year "ith Hades and the other t"o parts "ith =emeter on earth& Thus =emeter restores #ounty upon the earth( and each time Persephone resurfaces from the under"orld( prosperity is la*ished onto the "orld&

$a!or 'harac ers5

&erse)hone5 The dau!hter of =emeter( she is associated "ith #eauty( se+ual allure( and lushness& She is often compared to a #lossomin! flo"er( and indeed Hades kidnaps her from a !arden full of flo"ers& Persephone is the o#ject of desire in the te+t& Both =emeter and Hades desire Persephone and the plot of the story is #ased on this conflict& Persephone)s character is full of am#i!uities& It is not certain( for e+ample( if Persephone "as forced to eat the pome!ranate offered #y Hades as she tells her mother or if she did so "illin!ly and indul!ently as the te+t also alludes to& <ther am#i!uities and dualities are reflected in e*en the nature of Persephone herself& Persephone( #ecause of her !reat #eauty( is a se+ual lure or trap( #ut #ecause she enjoys #eauty so much( Persephone is the trap& She is #oth the trap and falls for the trap& Such dualities and am#i!uities in Persephone)s character reflect the complicated nature of se+ual a"akenin!& Both !ood and #ad thin!s happen( and the o#jecti*e( am#i!uous( and un#iased description of Persephone lends to this concept& Deme er5 The mother of Persephone( e+tremely po"erful in the te+t& =emeter "ields her po"er "ith inaction( or "ithholdin! action& Because she "as an!ered "ith ,eus for allo"in! Hades to take her dau!hter( she "ithdra"s from <lympus and refuses to eat( drink( and #rin! #ounty to the har*est& 'onse;uently( she #rin!s hurt to #oth mortals and immortals alike( displayin! the fast #readth of her po"er& =emeter Ns po"er is further e+emplified in the fact that ,eus( the most po"erful entity that e+ists( cannot force her to do somethin! she does not "ish to do& He tries #ri#in! =emeter so she "ill rescind the famine on earth& She refuses& It is only #y makin! concessions to =emeter)s desires that ,eus can finally persuade her& %ades5 The %od of the under"orld( Hades rules all of the dead& He is a !od of action( as he e+erts his po"er in either actions or in "ays that re;uires actions of others& He a#ducts Persephone( an action& When Persephone is !oin! #ack to her mother( he !i*es her a Pome!ranate to eat( an action that "ould trap part of Persephone in Hades& Hades is *ery stron! and po"erful( and has much to offer Persephone in terms of po"er and honor& He offers Persephone the status of #ein! the most honored !od( as "ell as #ein! a#le to ha*e anythin! she "ants "hene*er she "ants it (35C 35J)&

$a!or *hemes5 4&) +a ing5 Eatin!( in the te+t( is an e+tremely important action& Eatin! is a "ay of takin! somethin! in and #ecomin! part of a community& Eatin! occurs in the follo"in! places in the te+t2 &erse)hone ea s he )omegrana e o//ered o her 0y %ades6 Therefore( she #ecomes a part of the community of the under"orld& It is uncertain "hether or not Persephone chose to eat and thus contain some $lle!iance to Hades or she "as forced& Indeed( Hades po"er and honor is allurin!& Ho"e*er( Persephone descri#es the eatin! of the Pome!ranate as somethin! forced "hen she recounts the tale to her mother& Either "ay( #ecause she has en!a!ed in this action of eatin!( Persephone must spend one part of the season in the under"orld "ith Hades& E;ually as important as eatin! in the te+t is the refusal to eat( "hich is the manner in "hich =emeter e+erts her po"er& Whereas eatin! dra"s one in( not eatin! puts up #arriers and creates #oundaries( as is apparent in the instances in "hich they occur "ithin the te+t2 Deme er re/uses o ea immedia ely /ollo7ing her daugh er3s a0duc ion ( and thus puts up #oundaries #et"een her and the rest of the !ods and mortals& Because =emeter #rin!s #ounty of har*est to mortals( her in*ol*ement in mortal affairs is imperati*e to their sur*i*al& Similarly( #ecause humans make offerin!s to the !ods "ith such su#stances( the !ods too are dependent on =emeter for their o"n !lorification& By puttin! up #oundaries #et"een mortals and immortals( =emeter "ields po"er and e*entually !ets "hat she "ants& Dos re/uses o ea he meal )re)ared 0y her ca) ors .12916 By tellin! the fictional story of the a#duction of =os( =emeter is statin! "hat she hopes to #e the actions of Persephone& Because =os did not eat and drink "ith her captors (and thus did not #ecome part of their community) she "as a#le to escape& /ike"ise( =emeter hopes that Persephone doesn)t eat "ith Hades so she in turn can hopefully escape& Am0igui y5 In numerous points( the te+t displays am#i!uity that captures certain elements of the te+t& Some spots are2 Am0iguous 7he her Deme er 7as /orced o ea he &omegrana e or i/ she choose o ea he )omegrana e6 This ties in to the concept of force *s& persuasion& Am0igui y o/ adolescence5 The te+t portrays #oth appealin! and unappealin! aspects of #ein! "ith Hades( #oth !ood and #ad thin!s occurrin!& 8i hholding The act of "ithholdin! is e+tremely important "ithin the te+t& =emeter e+erts her po"er #y concealin! or "ithholdin! seed so humans are not a#le to har*est any food and then cannot !i*e offerin!s to the !ods& Persephone is tryin! to "ithhold se+ "ith Hades& Both =emeter and Persephone are tryin! to "ithhold !eneration as means of po"er&

?&)

361

'lose (eading5 In lines 3OC 343( =emeter)s po"er is displayed& =emeter conceals the seeds in the !round so that farmers are not a#le to reap any crop& Because seeds are associated "ith !eneration( and yield the #asic sustenance for #oth humans and !ods alike( =emeter)s po"er is e+erted throu!h "ithholdin!& /ines BOC B43 sho" the am#i!uity in "hich Persephone descri#es her eatin! of the pome!ranate& While Persephone insists that she ate the fruit 0#y force6 she descri#es it as somethin! appealin!( 0s"eet as honey to eat&6 It thus #ecomes unclear "hether Persephone "anted to eat the fruit( or "as forced to eat the fruit&

&oin s o/ 'on ac 5 4&) Plato)s Symposium: In $ristophanes) speech( he recounts the tale of humans tryin! to o*erthro" the !ods& The !ods( thinkin! of "ays to su#due the stren!th of humans( consider "ipin! out the "hole race& Ho"e*er( just like in Hymn to Demeter( the !ods need humans for !lorification& They therefore cannot kill humans( #ecause they are dependent on them( just like the !ods cannot allo" all the humans to die at the hands of =emeter #ecause all the !ods are dependent on them& Lysistrata, $ristophanes2 In an attempt to end "ar( the "omen in Lysistrata "ithhold se+ as a means of po"er& This "ithholdin! of action as a means of po"er is similarly found in Hymn to Demeter "here =emeter "ithholds !ro"th and fertility as a "ay to !et #ack Persephone& The Medea, Euripides2 -edea "ithdra"s from society o*er the dis!race #efallen on her #y her hus#and& By separatin! oneself from society( -edea( like =emeter( sets up #arriers& Agamemnon, $eschylus2 The po"er of the spoken "ord is emphasi:ed in this te+t "hen $!amemnon puts a #it in his dau!hter)s mouth so she cannot utter a curse "hen he is sacrificin! her& Similarly( in Hymn to Demeter Persephone)s initial cry for help is not heard #ecause she doesn)t ha*e the stren!th and po"er of *oice yet& In each te+t( po"er is e;uated "ith "ord&

?&) 3&) B&)

#a aliya Bochuko9a : The Histories 0y %erodo us 4elec ion ; 1 < Book 1= 'ha) ers 1:140> Book 2 chs6 1:5>chs6 33:51= chs6112:120> Book3 chs617:3? &lo 4ummary Herodotus starts his story "ith 'andaules( the kin! of /ydia( "ho "as so proud of his "ife)s #eauty( that he made his #ody!uard %y!es hide in his #edroom so that he can see his "ife naked& The ;ueen sa" %y!es and made him kill the kin! and sei:e the throne in order to re*en!e the impropriety of the act& That)s ho" %y!es #ecame the kin! of /ydia and a prophecy #y the oracle "as made that the murder "ould #e re*en!ed in %y!es) fifth !eneration& Then Herodotus !oes on to tell some memora#le achie*ements of $rdys( Sadyattes and $lyattes "hich are the heirs of %y!es& 'roesus (the fifth !eneration) o*errun the $iatic %reeks and esta#lished the /ydian empire& This is "hen the $thenian philosopher Solon *isited him& When 'roesus asks him "ho is the happiest person Solon kno"s (thinkin! he "ill say 'roesus) Solon tells him that a truly happy person must ha*e a happy death and only then can he #e considered truly happy since life is a chance and happiness is temporary& $fter that 'roesus accepts in his home and cleanses $drastus "ho later !oes on to kill 'roesus son $tys #y accident makin! 'roesus prophetic dream come true& /ater on 'roesus is mislead #y an oracle messa!e and he !oes on to attack 'yrus and the Persians& 'yrus mana!es to "in the "ar and takes 'roesus prisoner& In this "ay the killin! of 'andaules "as re*en!ed in the fifth !eneration& Then Herodotus !oes on to e+plainin! ho" 'yrus came to po"er& His !randfather $stya!es had a dream that his dau!hter urinated that it s"amped the "hole $sia& Thus he decided to kill her son 'yrus& Throu!h some accidents the child "as not killed and later on( this "as found out so $stya!es sent 'yrus to Persia& When he !re" up he con;uered $stya!es and -edes fulfillin! the dream& $fter finishin! 'yrus) story Herodotus !oes on to descri#e the Persian customs& 'yrus "as succeeded #y 'am#yses "ho attacked E!ypt and Ethiopia& The Herodotus descri#es E!yptian customs ("ho do e*erythin! opposite to the %reeks) and Ethiopian customs& 'am#yses sent spies to Ethiopia and later on he #ecomes a mad man and starts the e+pedition to Ethipia& <n the "ay to Ethiopia the soldiers are star*in! so they turn to canni#alism after "hich they head home& Analysis o/ $a!or 'harac ers5 Gyges "ith his sei:in! of the throne Herodotus starts the e+planation of the "ar& %y!es is #lindly follo"in! the orders of his kin! and this is his main fla"& He kills the kin! and thus fi*e !enerations later 'roesus loses his throne in order to achie*e the cycle of re*en!e& 'andaules( "hom %y!es kills is a representation of hu#ris he thinks his "ife is so pretty and in order to sho" off "ith her he comes up "ith the plan that %y!es must see her naked& This is only one of many incidents of hu#ris in the %reek te+ts (compare "ith $!amemnon mainly) 'roesus he is in !eneral a !ood kin! #ut he #ecomes too confident in himself "hich is e*ident in his con*ersation "ith Solon o*er happiness& He thinks himself to #e the happiest person in the "orld& This is a!ain a form of hu#ris #ut it is not as hea*ily punished as 'andaules) ("hyP) 'roesus "ants to kill his !randson 'yrus #ecause of his dream& Still( 'yrus fulfills the dream "hich once a!ain sho"s that destiny cannot #e o*erturned& 'roesus reali:es the "isdom of Solon and ho" fleetin! happiness is& 4olon < he appears for a *ery short time settin! some *ery important themes in the Histories (mentioned #elo")& He is an $thenian philosopher "ho !oes to *isit 'roesus& 'yrus :'yrus spent his childhood in a poor family #ut he demonstrated his kin!ly #lood e*en in the !ames "ith the other children& He con;uers 'roesus #ut keeps him in his palace and takes care of him& 'yrus is the one "ho #rin!s !reat !lory to the Persians& The first instance "hen a child)s character !ains that much attention and still it is not fully de*eloped #ut ser*es the lar!er story of the te+t& 'am0yses <He starts out to #e a kin! "ho "ants to attack E!ypt and Ethiopia #ut later !oes mad and kills his sister and his #rother& He also offends the E!yptians #ut this is a!ain contri#uted to his madness& Herodotus speaks in Book 3( ch& 39 a#out the importance of custom and that 'am#yses couldn)t ha*e possi#le outra!ed $pis and all customs of the E!yptians if he "as not mad "hich is a!ain a kind of deducti*e lo!ic since for him customs are so important that only a mad man "ould transcend them& $a!or *hemes5 &ur)ose o/ he %is ories5 The Histories opens "ith a promise #y Herodotus to descri#e all mar*elous acts #oth #y Bar#arians and #y %reeks& He "ants to !i*e an account of "hy they fou!ht and e+amine the causes of these "ars( so for him it is not only important that "e descri#e "hat happened in order to preser*e the memories #ut to also understand the causes and analy:e the e*ents& Herodotus descri#es multiple causes of the "ar and he doesn)t fa*or one o*er the other #ecause he #elie*es that causes are immensely complicated and there are al"ays many reasons "hy somethin! happened& 8ha is kno7ledge5 Herodotus says that he kno"s e*erythin! he "rites #ecause he asked people and these people "ere not eye "itnesses #ut their "ord is taken for the pure truth& $lso( Herodotus deducts a lot of information& $lso( Herodotus deducts his kno"led!e of the other #ar#arian4 cultures #ecause he thinks that the further they are from %reece( they "ould do more thin!s in the opposite "ays& He #elie*es that the "orld is symmetric& .or Herodotus e+tremity in the customs of other cultures is "orth descri#in!& Thus( he does not descri#e thin!s that the
4

In the Histories 0#ar#arian6 does not ha*e a dero!atory meanin!

#ar#arians do in the same "ay as %reeks& Herodotus is different than <dysseus since he does not jud!e the other cultures #ut he is !enuinely interested in their customs& He does not hold an ethno centric *ie"& 'ycle o/ (e9enge5 We may call it %od( faith( destiny or just cyclical structures #ut in the Histories thin!s happen #ecause they had to& In a sense there is some *ery strict order of the "orld "here e*erythin! is interconnected& Thus( if %y!es kills the kin! fi*e !enerations later 'roesus has to lose his kin!dom& This feelin! of order is reemphasi:ed throu!h the numerous omens and dreams& People try to escape their destiny #ut they can ne*er do that ('yrus *s& 'roesus) *em)oral ha))iness5 from the *ery #e!innin! Herodotus says that 0.or most of those "hich "ere !reat once are small todayI and those "hich used to #e small are !reat&(p&C) This is the main "isdom of Solon "hen he *isits 'roesus and tells him that if he is happy today it is luck #ut not happiness& Oracles5 Herodotus is *ery skeptical of reli!ion and the oracles and he ;uestions them often in the Histories& This is a !reat major difference from the <dyssey and the Iliad of Homer& There are no !ods in the Histories #ut there are dreams and omens "hich are thou!ht to #e credi#le #y all& 'lose (eading +"ercise5 Book ?I 3B This is a !reat e+ample of Herodotus) deducti*e e+traction of kno"led!e& He does not kno" anythin! a#out 7ile #ut he #eliefs it should #e in the middle of $frica and must #e the lon!est ri*er since in Europe the =anu#e (the lon!est ri*er) crosses Europe throu!h the middle& $lso he says that 7ile should #e the same len!th as the =anu#e since the "orld for Herodotus is *ery symmetric( i&e& if Europe has a lon! ri*er passin! in the middle than $frica should also ha*e a lon! ri*er passin! throu!h the middle& &oin s o/ con ac 5 The Iliad and the <dyssey and ho" Homer)s account is different than Herodotus)& Ho" is Thucydides different in his History of the Peloponnesian "arP Why do Homer( Herodotus and Thucydides "rite their historical accountsP What is important to themP (to preser*e( to analy:e( to !lorifyP) The role of %ods in this te+t *s& the %ods in the Homeric epics @no"led!e in the Histories and kno"led!e in $!amemnon and <edipus the kin! =reams in the Homeric hymns( in other %reek te+ts *s& dreams in the Bi#le

The Oresteia By: Aeschylus &lo 4ummary The Oresteia is composed of three plays2 Agamemnon( The Libation Bearers( and The umenides& Agamemnon #e!ins "ith the sudden presence of a #eacon li!ht that si!nals the *ictory of the $treidae in Troy& The chorus( the elder men that did not !o to "ar( enters the sta!e and summari:es the cause of the Trojan War as "ell as $!amemnon)s decision to slau!hter his dau!hter( Iphi!eneia( for the sake of the "ar& In the midst of the chorus speech( the Herald #rin!s ne"s that confirms the $chaean success and praises $!amemnon for his *aliance and !reatness& $!amemnon returns home "ith 'assandra( a captured !irl from the "ar "ho is seen as a #ar#arian& While $!amemnon and 'lytaemestra are in the house( 'assandra cries to the chorus that she "ill die alon!side $!amemnon& 'assandra( cursed #y $pollo to kno" the future #ut ha*e no one e*er #elie*e her( prophesi:es of the death of $!amemnon and the return of <restes in *en!eance& 'assandra enters the house( and $!amemnon cries offsta!e that he has #een sta##ed& The doors of the palace open and the audience sees 'lytaemestra standin! o*er the dead #odies of $!amemnon and 'assandra& 'lytaemestra re*eals that she killed $!amemnon in re*en!e for her dau!hter and for punishment of his infidelity& $e!isthus enters and states that that he has a*en!ed the sins of $treus in feedin! the father of $e!isthus his o"n children& 'lytaemestra and $e!isthus are in po"er( "hile the chorus #e!s for the return of <restes to purify the house of $treidae& The Libation Bearers opens "ith the return of <restes to "itness the chorus( #lack *eiled "omen from the house( and Electra #earin! li#ations to pour o*er the !ra*e of $!amemnon& Electra finds a lock of hair that matches her o"n that <restes in si!n of !rief had laid for all the dead& She #e!ins to pray of his return( and <restes re*eals himself to them& They rejoice and Electra claims that her mother had "ron!ly #uried her father in the a#sence of his citi:ens( and <restes tells of the oracle from $pollo that he "ill punish his father)s murderers& The chorus relates a dream of 'lytaemestra that she had suckled a snake and the serpent dre" in #lood& <restes and Pylades de*ise a plan to enter the house dis!uised as an outlander& <restes enters as a messen!er "ith the ne"s that <restes has died and ;uestions his parents "hat they "ould like to do "ith his #ody& 'lytaemestra and $e!isthus #oth fei!n remorse o*er his death& $e!isthus "ould like to speak to the messen!er alone to ;uestion him( and <restes kills him in the room offsta!e& <restes catches 'lytaemestra speak "ords of affection o*er the death of $e!isthus( and takes her into the room to kill& The doors of the palace open( as <restes stands o*er the #odies of 'lytaemestra and $e!isthus& 7e*ertheless( <restes !rie*es for the death of his line( and ho" his *ictory is soiled& He claims himself an outcast and lea*es& The umenides #e!ins "hen a priestess of $pollo( the Pythia( sees the temple of $pollo "ith <restes( #lood drippin! from his hands and s"ord( surrounded #y #lack and repulsi*e creatures& $pollo tells <restes to !o to the citadel of Pallas $thene so that she can jud!e the case and clear him of his affliction& The !host of 'lytaemestra appears to "aken the .uries and sends them to hunt do"n <restes& $pollo rids the .uries from his home( and decides to pro*ide help in the trial& The settin! s"itches to $thens "here <restes is em#racin! the statue of $thene a"aitin! his trial& The .uries find him and claim that they "ill seek re*en!e for the murder of his mother& $thene asks <restes to ans"er their claim( and he responds that he shall accept "hate*er fate that is decided& $thene claims that the case is too lar!e e*en for her to analy:e( and calls upon t"el*e of her finest citi:ens to jud!e justly& The trial is held and $pollo speaks on #ehalf of <restes a!ainst the .uries& $thene claims that she has no mother and is al"ays for the male in case of marria!e& She casts her *ote for <restes in the case of a tie& When the #allots ha*e #een cast( there are an e;ual num#er on #oth sides( and <restes is sa*ed& The .uries feel they ha*e #een dishonored in the face of the ne" !ods( and $thene appeases them "ith the po"er to strai!hten the li*es of the citi:ens of $thens& The .uries #ecome the Eumenides& $nalysis of -ajor 'haracters

Agamemnon $!amemnon is the kin! of $r!os( and #rother of -enelaus& When the play #e!ins( $!amemnon is not present #ecause he is a"ay fi!htin! the Trojan War& $!amemnon and the men of $r!os ha*e #een in Troy fi!htin! for the last ten years& The people of $r!os are an!ry "ith him #ecause the "ar has lasted for such a lon! time( and so many youn! men ha*e died& When $!amemnon returns to $r!os( he #rin!s 'assandra( the dau!hter of Priam( home "ith him& $!amemnon is a character "ith immense hu#ris( and he displays this hu#ris "hen he "alks on the purple ro#es that 'lytaemestra laid do"n for him (53 5B)& This hu#ris is one of the reasons "hy $!amemnon)s death must occur& $nother reason for $!amemnon)s death is fate #ecause his death is completin! the #lood cycle that #e!an "hen his father fed Thyestes his sons& His death also is re*en!e for his sacrifice of his o"n dau!hter( Iphi!eneia& 'lya emes ra 'lytaemestra is the "ife of $!amemnon( and Queen of $r!os& When the play opens( she seems to #e a "ife *ery concerned a#out her hus#and)s "ell #ein! and his safe return home& While he has #een fi!htin!( ho"e*er( she has found a ne" lo*er( $e!isthus& 'lytaemestra is portrayed "ith stron! male ;ualities #ecause she has had to rule $r!os for the last ten years& Her manliness is also present "hen she murders $!amemnon instead of $e!isthus& She is consumed "ith an!er at $!amemnon for his sacrifice of Iphi!enia& She *ie"s her murder of him as an act of fate that had to #e fulfilled& Aegis hus The lo*er of 'lytaemestra& He "ants re*en!e on $!amemnon for the murder of his t"o #rothers& Ho"e*er( a "eakness of character is apparent "hen it is 'lytaemestra that performs the killin! instead of he& 'assandra 'assandra is a "oman #rou!ht to $r!os from the "ar #y $!amemnon& $pollo has !i*en her the po"er to foretell prophecy( ho"e*er( she is cursed for no one can understand her prophecies& When 'lytaemestra takes $!amemnon into the house and kills him( 'assandra speaks of his death( as "ell as of the cycle of re*en!e that is present& Ho"e*er( her "arnin!s are unreco!ni:a#le and are not understood& 'lytaemestra then murders her as "ell& 'horus /rom Agamemnon The chorus is composed of $r!i*e elders& They are critical of $!amemnon for the len!thy "ar and hi!h death toll& 'onse;uently( they are not completely sympathetic to him& Ho"e*er( they disappro*e of the murder of $!amemnon and cry for their actions to #e punished& Ores es <restes is the son of 'lytaemestra and $!amemnon& In The Libation Bearers( he slays his mother to a*en!e his father)s death& $pollo leads on his desire for re*en!e& There are many similarities #et"een <restes and 'lytaemestra& Both kill a family mem#er out of re*en!e( and their methods on sta!e are *ery similar& 'horus /rom The Libation Bearers The chorus is composed of a !roup of ser*ant "omen from the house of $!amemnon& They clearly ha*e sympathy for Electra and <restes& $lon! "ith Electra( they are the first to disco*er the return of <restes& The "omen aid in <restes) plan& +lec ra Electra is the dau!hter of $!amemnon and 'lytaemestra( and the sister of <restes& While her mother and $e!isthus rule( she li*es in the palace as a *irtual sla*e& Electra has immense sympathy for her father( and repeatedly fails to notice his o"n shortcomin!s& She stron!ly supports her #rother( for he is the only person that she has& The @uries .'horus /rom The Eumenides1 The role of the chorus in society is to punish murderers& The .uries represent the older !eneration of !ods in %reek culture& Throu!hout the story( there is a contrast #et"een this older !eneration and the ne"& The !host of 'lytaemestra calls them to punish <restes for the matricide he committed& They are an!ry "ith $pollo for his support of <restes& They #elie*e that the relationship #et"een mother and son is stron!er than hus#and and "ife& $t the end( they are renamed the Eumenides( "hich has a more neutral connotation( and they are !i*en a real position in $thens "here they can o*ersee the li*es of the people& A hene <restes escapes to $thens( so that $thene can clear him of his !uilt& She calls t"el*e men to decide the outcome of <restes fate& $thene ultimately casts the decidin! *ote that declares <restes innocent& $thene ends the #lood curse on the house of $treus and the cycles of re*en!e& She represents the ne" !eneration of !ods( and the ne" order& She is an opposition to the .uries( "ho are the old order of !ods& Her decision cele#rates an era of democracy and reliance on the justice system& -ajor Themes 16 4eeing The drama of a play is immediate and simultaneously occurs to the audience and the characters in the play& Therefore( in this play( kno"led!e is o#tained directly throu!h seein! the action that takes place& (The doors of the palace open( disclosin! the #odies of $!amemnon and 'assandra( "ith 'lytaemestra standin! o*er them&) Sta!e directions2 $fter /ine 43K4 Why is the murder not seenP Why must the murderer stand o*er the dead charactersP Why does the audience only see that ima!eP 4& When the palace doors open( the audience sees the 'lytaemestra standin! o*er the #odies at the same time as the rest of the kin!dom& The actual action of the murder is hidden from si!ht #ecause it is more si!nificant that the murderer is standin! o*er the #ody of the kin! and his mistress& The si!ht sho"s that po"er is no" in the hands of 'lytaemestra& ?& The si!ht of the $!amemnon)s dead #ody "ould shock the audience& The #ody of a dead kin! is a po"erful sym#ol of the o*erturn of social sta#ility& 3& The same palace doors are opened to the audience "hen <restes stands o*er the #odies of 'lytaemestra and $e!isthus& The audience sees the cycle of re*en!e and the prophecy #ein! fulfilled& 0Seein!6 and failin! to see The li!hts in the #e!innin! of Agamemnon are #eacons that si!nal the *ictory of the $r!i*es in Troy& $s the li!ht tra*els from one point to the ne+t( the audience and the characters understand the o*erthro" of Ilium& $!amemnon tramples upon the ro#es& It is an action reser*ed only for the !ods( #ut due to pride( he steps upon them&

<restes returns to the palace dis!uised as an outlander& $s a person e+iled from his home( those people closest to him cannot reco!ni:e him and see his return& The Pythia( $pollo)s priestess( cannot #ear the si!ht of <restes( his hands and s"ord co*ered in #lood( surrounded #y the dis!ustin! .uries& It is a si!ht that relates is terri#le to see& The Oresteia creates a catharsis and ser*es as a social function to en!a!e the emotions of pity and fear& $lthou!h the concept of a dead kin! is difficult to ima!ine( the audience can identify "ith the characters on sta!e simply throu!h the "ay the action is presented on sta!e& Instead of seein! the murder occur( the audience sees the palace doors open "ith 'lytaemestra o*er the #odies much like the rest of the kin!dom "ould see it& Therefore( the play pro*es to cause an e*en more effecti*e unsettlin! feelin!& 7e*ertheless( seein! is just one form of the disco*ery of information2 4& Prophecy 'assandra speaks of the fate of $!amemnon and the return of <restes& ?& Sufferin! Stories from the characters that in*ol*e pain from surroundin! forces& 3& >eport The Herlad informs #oth the audience and the characters that the $r!i*es ha*e #een *ictorious in Troy and that $!amemnon is due home shortly& B& Patterns 'ycles of >e*en!e( repetiti*e ima!ery( and metonymy trace action throu!hout the play& <ne o#ject or piece of fi!urati*e lan!ua!e is used to con*ey a recurrent action& 26 8e0A#e -magery In Agamemnon( there are many uses of ima!ery that refer to "e#s or nets& The meanin! of this ima!ery chan!es "ith each different character that uses it& In one instance( $!amemnon uses the "ord 1"e#1 "hen really he is referrin! to the purple ro#es that 'lytaemestra has laid on the !round for him& His odd "ord choice some"hat foreshado"s his o"n death for only !ods perform this action& When 'lytaemestra uses the net ima!ery( it is t"ice in reference to fishin! that si!nifies her murder of $!amemnon as somethin! that is a necessity and life sustainin!& E+amples2 The 'horus2 (3CC 5O) (4OBK J) $% In this ;uote( the chorus uses net ima!ery to depict the sackin! of Troy& They later use it to e+plain the fate of 'assandra& 'lytaemestra2 (955 9) (43K3 C) (4394 3) $% In these passa!es( 'lytaemestra comments on rumors she heard a#out $!amemnon)s death "hile at "ar& When sayin! this( she foreshado"s her murder of him& She also descri#es her need to murder $!amemnon& $!amemnon2 (JBB J) $% $!amemnon uses 1"e#s1 to mean the ro#e that 'lytaemestra has put on the !round for him& His "ord choice is ironic& 'assandra2 (44?C 9) $% 'assandra is tryin! to tell the chorus "hat is a#out to happen( #ut of course they cannot understand her& The "e# that she descri#es is much like the 'lytaemestra and $!amemnon)s "e# that she is cau!ht in& $e!isthus2 (4C9O ?) $% $e!isthus uses 1nets1 to refer to the cycle of re*en!e that is caused #y the curse of the house of $treus& 36 OldA#e7 Order The Eumenides centers around the di*ision #et"een the old order of !ods and the ne" order& The roles of $thene and $pollo represent the ne" order and The .uries are the old& The trial of <restes em#odies the conflict #et"een the t"o sides2

Society
House -arria!e .ather $polloF-asculine Sun 7e"er %eneration (!ods) >elationship of hus#andH"ife Speak for men

7atural
'a*e Birth -other .uriesF.eminine 7i!ht <lder %eneration (!ods) >elationship of motherHson Speak for "omen

Throu!hout the te+ts( there e+ist #inary references that contrast the t"o orders of !ods& The natural represents the older !eneration( "hile society si!nifies the ne"& The idea of femininity and masculinity are separated #et"een the t"o orders& The old order appears to #e that "hich is unci*ili:ed or dark( "hile the ne" !eneration is the product of ci*ili:ation and is seen as the li!ht& 46 (e9enge 9ersus Bus ice There are t"o forces that are at conflict in the moti*es of the characters& E;ually( "hile 'lytaemestra and $e!isthus are punished for their actions( <restes is found to #e free of punishment for his actions& The t"o a#stract ideals are e+plored in contrast to each other in each story& Why is 'lytaemestra punished for killin! $!amemnon( #ut <restes not punished for killin! his o"n motherP The moti*e of re*en!e cannot #e deemed ri!ht or "ron! in the stories& >e*en!e is an action of loyalty and a protection of one)s #eliefs& $e!isthus aided the killin! of $!amemnon in response to $treus feedin! his father his o"n children& Gustice is not necessarily ri!ht or "ron!( #ut it is !uided #ecause it seeks ri!ht& $lthou!h it may not follo" morality or e;uality( it searches for a #alance "ithin disorder& In The umenides( justice pre*ails to sa*e <restes from death& The story is a support for the system of li#eral democracy and cele#rates the po"er of the court system& There is no #etter jud!e or la" than that of the di*ine $thene&

Close Readings /ines 43K4 43J? (Agamemnon) 'lytaemestra has just committed the murder of $!amemnon and is e+plainin! to the chorus ho" she killed the kin!& She relates that it "as not an act that "as ne" in her mind( #ut "as 0pondered deep in time6 (43K9)& She is like a hunter in this passa!e and is descri#in! ho" she cau!ht her prey& It is this feature of hunter that !i*es 'lytaemestra masculine ;ualities throu!hout the play& She shares( 0Mas fishermen cast their hu!e circlin! nets( I spread deadly a#undance of rich ro#es( and cau!ht him fast6 (439? 3)& There is a pre*alent ima!e of pain and death in the passa!e( #ut the picture is #lurred "hen the scatterin! of #lood accounts for a !ro"th and rene"al of life& Within death( 'lytaemestra is !lad 0as !arden stand amon! the sho"ers of %od in !lory at the #irthtime of the #uds6 (43J4 ?)& The passa!e is important #ecause it helps to e+plain the *icious nature of 'lytaemestra and her masculine description& The pre*alent net ima!ery is also used to #ind $!amemnon& The same nets or ro#es that he ironically stepped upon in !lory are the "eapons for his destruction& /ines 4KJ K43 (The umenides) In this passa!e( $pollo is commandin! the .uries to lea*e his sanctuary& This is "here the stru!!le #et"een the t"o types of !ods #e!ins& The *ery !raphic descriptions of #odily punishment and harm depict the focus of the .uries& There is also a focus on #lood in this passa!e& These numerous mentions of #lood point to the importance of the #loodline( #lood cycles( and the literal #lood from mother to son& In this passa!e the idea of pollution of the #lood is introduced& This "as the %reeks) feelin! a#out culpa#ility& 'om)arisons o O her *e" s Hus#andH"ife relationship2 'lytaemestra and $!amemnon are in*ol*ed in a "e# of infidelity and end up destroyin! each other in the end& Penelope and <dysseus ha*e the opposite relationship "here Penelope practices complete fidelity in the face of her suitors at home& 'ycles of >e*en!e2 In the Iliad( a cycle of re*en!e #e!ins "ith the destruction of Patroklos( "here $chilleus( must take re*en!e on Hektor for the loss of his friend& 7ostos (Homecomin!)2 <dysseus recei*es a lon! a"aited homecomin! after years of hardship at sea& $!amemnon recei*ed an in*ersed nostos& $!amemnon returns home ;uickly( only to face the most dishonora#le end of his !lory& Ethno!raphy2 'assandra is *ie"ed much like the characters in Histories and The Odyssey& Those indi*iduals that are not from %reece and far from kno"n ci*ili:ation are *ie"ed completely as forei!ners& 'assandra is seen #y 'lytaemestra and a %reek perspecti*e as a #ar#arian& Hu#ris2 'haracters that #elie*e they can #ypass the la"s of their natural surroundin!s& Xer+es #elie*ed he could punish the land and sea( "hile $!amemnon stepped upon the ro#es( an action reser*ed for the !ods& Both are punished for their actions&

/i: .ink <edipus study !uide Plot Summary The play #e!ins "ith a pla!ue that has stricken The#es& Seekin! an oracle at =elphi( The#es and its kin!( <edipus( are told the pla!ue "ill end "hen the murderer of the former kin!( /aius( is cau!ht and e+pelled& Teirasias( the #lind prophet of $pollo( is summoned to re*eal "ho the murderer is& Lnder ;uestionin! he tries to refuse to ans"er <edipusI after <edipus accuses him of #ein! the murderer( Teirasias re*eals that <edipus is in fact the murderer& <edipus flies into a ra!e and accuses his #rother in la" 'reon of concoctin! a scheme throu!h "hich to sei:e the throne& 'reon protests that he is innocent of these char!es( and to pro*e it e+plains that he and Gocasta ('reon)s sister( <edipus) "ife( /aius) "indo") are as happy as they could concei*a#ly #e and thus he has no moti*e to #e kin!& Gocasta intercedes on 'reon)s #ehalf( attestin! to his innocence& Gocasta and <edipus talk and compare stories of the dead kin!)s murder& %radually( prophesies come to!ether& Gocasta e+plains that her and /aius) son "as prophesied to kill /aius& /aius pierced the #a#y)s ankles and told others to lea*e him out to die& <edipus tells ho"( "hen he "as a youn! man( it "as prophesied he "ould kill his father and lie "ith his mother( causin! him to run a"ay from his parents( Poly#us and -erope of 'orinth& While fleein!( <edipus met and killed a rude old man and the #etter part of his entoura!e at a crossroads& $ messen!er comes to tell <edipus and Gocasta that Poly#us is dead( "hich initially #rin!s them !reat joy #ecause clearly <edipus didn)t kill him( thus renderin! the prophesy false& Ho"e*er( their joy is short li*ed #ecause the messen!er also re*eals that Poly#us is not <edipus) #lood fatherI <edipus "as sa*ed from #ein! left out to die( and his ankles "ere pierced& <edipus( #ein! characteristically slo" on the uptake( thinks that the messen!er)s story just means he is of ple#ian rather than royal #lood( e*en "hile Gocasta panics as she reali:es the truth& $ herdsman comes and reluctantly re*eals that #a#y <edipus "as sent off to die( only to #e sa*ed #y Poly#us& $fter this re*elation the audience learns that Gocasta has killed herself& When <edipus disco*ers her( he !ou!es out his eyes "ith her 0!old chased #rooches( attemptin! to ease the pain of seein! and reali:in! his crime and his !uilt& <edipus prepares to !o into e+hile and asks 'reon( the ne" kin!( to please take care of his dau!hters( $nti!one and Ismene& $fter #iddin! his dau!hters a tearful fare"ell( <edipus lea*es& $nalysis of -ajor 'haracters Oedipus2 Po"erful kin! of The#es reno"ned for sa*in! the city from the Sphin+& $n e+emplar of .reudian theory( he takes on the role of a paternal fi!ure early in the play& He !reets the to"nspeople numerous times as 0children6 (lines 4 and CK)& He has a fiery temper and is ;uick to 'a*e fly into ra!es& This tendency to"ards ;uick and decisi*e action does( ho"e*er( ha*e its !ood side "hen he is a kin!I he can anticipate his House su#ject)s needs #y sendin! 'reon to the oracle at the play)s #e!innin!& He is also the last person in this play to understand anythin!I not only the Birth -arria!e audience #ut nearly e*ery other character understands that he murdered /aius and caused the pla!ue on The#es lon! #efore -other <edipus himself .ather understands& 7early until Gocasta kills herself( <edipus is constantly in action( threatenin!( callin!( and commandin! in a frenetic (perhaps .uriesF.eminine $polloF-asculine unconscious) attempt to race his fate&

Society

7atural

Sun 7e"er %eneration (!ods)

7i!ht <lder %eneration (!ods)

!reon2 <edipus) #rother in la" and uncle( he is honest and loyal to "hat he sees as the ultimate interest of The#es& He seeks the help of oracles and prophets and( "hile he makes no mo*e to alle*iate the pain of <edipus) final fate( he did send his dau!hters to say !ood#ye( "hich comforted <edipus& "ocasta2 The sister of 'reon( "ife and mother of <edipus( and "ido" of /aius& She stands #y <edipus throu!hout in the #est "ays she kno"s ho"& $t first she joins him in tryin! to pro*e the prophecies false& Then( "hen she reali:es the truth #efore <edipus( she triesFin a nota#ly maternal !estureFto protect him from the truth #y attemptin! in *ain to stop him from searchin! for the truth& Laius2 The murdered former kin! of The#es and hus#and of Gocasta& He attempts( like nearly e*eryone else( to a*oid their fate( and fails misera#ly& $t a crossroads( he)s killed #y <edipus( the son he tried unsuccessfully to ha*e killed& Teiresias2 The #lind oracle "ho reluctantlyFand only "hen accused of #ein! /aius) murdererFre*eals to <edipus that he is the polluter of The#es& The irony is that "hile Teiresias doesn)t ha*e literal si!ht he has metaphorical si!ht& -inor characters2 'horus of <ld -en of The#es( Priest( .irst -essen!er( Second -essen!er( Herdsman 7on speakin! characters2 Poly#us( -erope( Ismene( $nti!one

Major Themes Don#t try to escape your $ate% In this play pretty much e*ery#ody tried( to their e*entual doom& /aius and Gocasta tried to kill their child to a*oid a prophesy( <edipus tried to run a"ay from his fate& .ate still cau!ht up "ith them( seemin!ly #ecause they tried to a*oid it (i&e& <edipus "ouldn)t ha*e killed an old man on the crossroads is he hadn)t #een runnin! a"ay from Poly#us and -erope)& This is a play a#out fate( not free "ill& Sight& There)s the !reat irony that Teirasias( "ho is literally #lind( is the one "ho actually sees( "hile <edipus is metaphorically #lind& He #linds himself at the play)s end( so that he 0"ill ne*er see the crime I ha*e committed or had done upon meR =ark eyes( no" in the days to come look on for#idden faces( do not reco!ni:e those "hom you lon! for6 (lines 4?K4 B)& 8ision is sym#olic of kno"led!e& &uilt and the irrele'ance o$ intention & Intentionality is not a factor in considerin! !uiltI <edipus has no conscious kno"led!e that is committin! parricide and incest( #ut #ecause he committed the acts( he is e;ually !uilty as someone "ho had full conscious kno"led!e&

Aristotles definition of tragedy Terms2 Hamartia2 keeps character from doin! "hat they shouldI tra!ic fla" (%reek2 0to err6) Peripeteia2 chan!e of fortune (%reek2 0to chan!e suddenly6) $na!noresis2 moment of reco!nition (%reek2 0reco!nition6) Main ideas: $ tra!edy follo"s a trajectory of linear e*ents that #e!in in the middle of the action& The prota!onist( at the tra!edy)s #e!innin!( has a hi!h status and !enerally seems to #e in a !reat position in life& The tra!edy essentially e+plains and chronicles his fall& The tra!edy should ideally clima+ "ith ana!oresis& Oedipus perfectly em#odies this definition of tra!edy& (rom Aristotle#s Poetics, translated by &erald lse: 0Tra!edyMis a process of imitatin! an action "hich has serious implications( is complete( and possesses ma!nitudeI #y means of lan!ua!e "hich has #een made sensuously attracti*e( "ith each of its *arieties found separately in the partsI enacted #y the persons themsel*es and not presented throu!h narrati*eI thou!h a course of pity and fear completin! the purification of tra!ic acts "hich ha*e those emotional characteristics&6

Comparisons to Other Texts Speech acts Speech acts are actions fulfilled simply throu!h speakin!& 'ursin!( for instance( is a #i! speech act& 'ompare %od)s creation of the "orld in %enesis and the po"er of Gesus) Word in Gohn "ith the po"er of speech acts in Oedipus& Si!ht and kno"led!e >eally seein! and really kno"in! "hat)s !oin! on isn)t necessarily such a !reat thin!& In <edipus kno"in! his o"n !uilt and reali:in! "hat he)s done #rin!s him torment and e+ile& In %enesis( $dam and E*e !et e+pelled from Eden for eatin! the apple and /ott)s "ife !ets turned into a pillar of salt for lookin! #ack& Structure of the city In Oedipus( the citi:ens of The#es are remarka#ly in*ol*ed( and the play #e!ins "ith <edipus addressin! them& They seem to play more of an acti*e role in their o"n fate than the nameless and faceless Trojans that li*e #ehind the "all in the Iliad& $lso( the *iolence and threat that Troy faces comes from an in*asion outside its "alls( "hile the pollution that threatens The#es comes from "ithin& Mothers Gocasta)s role in Oedipus is a pa"n of fate& She is not a character takin! action( #ut ridin! alon! "ith those "ho are makin! action& $s a mother she neither orders nor stops #a#y <edipus) death sentence nor does she appear to #e any less passi*e as a "ife& While =emeter is acti*e in tryin! to rescue Persephone( 'lytenmnestra a*en!es the death of her dau!hter( and -edea is responsi#le for the death of her children( Gocasta emer!es as perhaps the most passi*e fi!ure of the !roup&

Other prophesies about the danger posed by family members. In The Histories( fears a#out the dan!er posed #y children come not from oracles #ut from dreams& $stya!es dreamt first that his dau!hter -andane urinated so much that it s"amped $sia( and then that *ines !re" from her !enitals and spread all o*er $sia& $n interpreter decided that this "as indicati*e of a threat posed to $stya!es #y -andane)s child( 'yrus( and $stya!es ordered the death of his !randson& /ike in Oedipus( the compassion of stran!ers #otches this and 'yrus did indeed li*e to fulfill the prophesy (pa!es BJ CO)& 7ick Wise 4?H9HO3 Medea 0y +uri)ides &lo 4ummary Medea opens "ith a speech #y the nurse( "ho e+plains the #ackstory of the play& In order to help Gason o#tain the %olden .leece( -edea killed her #rother and a#andoned her homeland& -edea and Gason then settled in Iolchus( "here( for Gason)s political #enefit( -edea contri*ed the death of his uncle& The couple fled from Iolchus and adopted 'orinth as their homeland& Here( Gason rejected -edea and married a 'orinthian princess& $fter the nurse reminds the audience of -edea)s misad*entures and current situation( -edea enters and e+presses hatred to"ards her children( her hus#and( and herself& 'reon( the kin! of 'orinth( enters and !i*es -edea one day to lea*e the city& $fter 'reon lea*es( -edea *o"s to kill Gason( 'reon( and the princess #ut reco!ni:es that no city "ill recei*e her after she commits this act& =isa*o"in! any responsi#ility for -edea)s impendin! e+ile( Gason enters and asserts that his ne" marria!e "ill protect himself and his children a!ainst e+ile& In contrast to 'reon and Gason)s rejection of -edea( $e!eus( the kin! of $thens( a!rees to offer -edea unconditional refu!e in his city& @no"in! that she can flee to $thens( -edea resol*es to kill her children after destroyin! Gason)s ne" marria!e& To carry out the first half of her plans( -edea sends her children to the palace "ith a poisoned ro#e for Gason)s ne" "ife& The ro#e kills #oth the princess and 'reon( "ho touches the dress "hile tryin! to sa*e his dau!hter& $ messen!er "arns -edea that a search party has #een sent to apprehend her for this crime& In response( -edea ;uickly slays her children& Gason reaches -edea)s home and finds her in a ma!ical chariot "ith the children)s #odies& -edea refuses to !i*e the #odies to Gason and flies a"ay( presuma#ly to $thens& 'harac ers $edea -edea is a sorceress "ith di*ine connections& She comes from the 0opposite shore of the %reeks(6 and is therefore considered a #ar#arian (?4O)& -edea)s cle*erness( coupled "ith eastern ma!ic( poses a threat to the %reeks that they cannot fully understand& 'reon #anishes -edea( #ecause she is a 0cle*er "oman( *ersed in e*il arts(H $nd&&&an!ry at ha*in! lost SherT hus#and6 (59)& 'reon o*ersimplifies -edea)s character( fearin! her "ithout fully !raspin! her mindset or moti*es& 'reon and others assume that -edea is a dan!erous and e+otic mystery& -edea contradicts this mystification of her character& She facetiously claims that her 0cle*ernessH Is6 actually 0not so much6 (p! 5J)& -edea portrays her "ays as #ein! simple #ut tra!ically misconstrued& Both 'reon and -edea)s characteri:ations are o*ersimplified& She is neither cra:ed and conni*in! nor transparent and !uileless& -edea)s many reasons for murder re*eal the comple+ reality of her character2 Bason3s 0roken marriage oa h2 0Indeed( I cannot tellH Whether you think the !ods "hose names you s"ore #y thenH Ha*e ceased to rule and ne" standards are set up6 (BJ3 B)& -edea has fulfilled her o#li!ation to Gason in marria!e& She left her homeland( #ore children( and assisted Gason in his *oya!e home from 'olchis& -edea #elie*es that Gason has no !rounds for remarryin!& $edea3s re/ugee s a us2 0&&&I am deserted ( a refu!ee( thou!ht nothin! of #y my hus#and somethin! he "on in a forei!n land6 (?CC 5) -edea has uprooted herself for her hus#and( #ut cannot remarry and tie herself into a ne" household( as Gason did& 'hildren3s re/ugee s a us2 0-y children( there is none "ho can !i*e them safety&6 (KJ3) -edea finds it unaccepta#le to lea*e her children "ith her hus#and or #rin! them $thens ("here she #elie*es they "ill #e su#ject to ridicule)& (eci)roci y2 0To pay my hus#and #ack for "hat he has done to me6 (?54) Gason has destroyed -edea)s family home& By murderin! Gason)s ne" family and old children( -edea "ill strip him of any familial ties& ,o9eA&assionAAnger2 0When once Sa "omanT is "ron!ed in the matter of lo*e(H 7o other soul can hold so many thou!hts of #lood6 (?5C 5) &ride2 0/et no one think me a "eak one( fee#le spirited(H $ stay at home( #ut rather just the opposite(H&&&.or the li*es of such persons are most remem#ered6 (9OK J) Thou!h -edea is ne*er apprehensi*e a#out killin! 'reon and his dau!hter( she has se*eral second thou!hts concernin! the murder of her children& She contemplates takin! them to $thens to a*oid personal sufferin!& Bason Gason is -edea)s e+ hus#and& He has replaced -edea "ith the 'orinthian princess& When Gason discusses his ne" "ife (BB5 5?C)( he seeks to distance himself from all accusations of lust& He claims that the ne" marria!e is desi!ned to protect himself( his children( and -edea from e+ile& Gason is so disinterested in se+ that he #elie*es 0life "ould S#eT !ood6 if men could ase+ually reproduce (CKC)& Det( it is reproduction "ith the princess that remedies Gason)s refu!ee status& Throu!h the prospect of creatin! a 0royal pro!eny6 "ith the princess( Gason incorporates himself into 'orinthian society (CJ5)& %reek marria!e roles are re*ersed in this situation& Wi*es are usually uprooted from their homelands( dependin! their hus#ands and children for social sta#ility (as "as the case "ith -edea)& Here( Gason takes on the "ife like role& Gason( "ho has #een remo*ed from his homeland in Iolchus( finds security in his ne" "ife)s social ties to 'orinth& -oreo*er( he feels that ha*in! children "ith the princess "ill firmly esta#lish himself in the city&

Gason depends on his ne" "ife for security in the same "ay -edea once depended on Gason& Ho"e*er( Gason does not see this similarity& He #elie*es that -edea is upset o*er losin! the se+ life she once enjoyed "ith him (CKO C)& He does not reco!ni:e that( "ithout a hus#and and a homeland( -edea has #ecome a refu!ee "ith only her children to clin! to& 'horus o/ 'orin hian 7omen The chorus interacts mainly "ith -edea ;uestionin!( critici:in!( or empathetically ela#oratin! on her feelin!s& The chorus) reactions to -edea chan!e throu!hout the play& The chorus mem#ers2 console -edea on her lost hus#and and ur!e her not to commit suicide (4B9 4CJ)I /ear that -edea mi!ht harm her children (49O B)I agree that -edea should seek re*en!e for her hus#and)s actions #ut do not respond to her claims of ine;uality #et"een hus#ands and "i*es& (?59 ?KO)I 0emoan -edea)s forced e+ile from 'orinth (3C9 353)I /renCiedly decry the deceitfulness of men( role of "omen in literature( and -edea)s refu!ee status (B4O BC)I commen on the an!er #et"een -edea and Gason (C?O 4)I 7eakly scold Gason for lea*in! -edea (CK5 9)I discuss lo*e and homeland in a !eneral manner and "ish to e+perience none of -edea)s hardships (5?K 55?)I ad9ise -edea a!ainst murderin! 'reon and his dau!hter (944 3)I D0egE -edea to not 0#e the murderess of SherT #a#es6 (9CB C)I cry o*er -edea)s murder plans (JJ5 K)I mourn the fate of the princess( Gason( and -edea (JK5 4OO4)I declare that those "ithout children are fortunate (4O94 44C) 0eg the Sun and Earth to pre*ent -edea from murderin! her children (4?C4 KO)I shar)ly chas ise -edea for killin! her children (4?KJ J?)I unemo ionally commen on the deus e+ machina endin! (4B4C J)& The chorus mem#ers are most supporti*e "hen discussin! issues unspecific to -edea)s situation& They stron!ly sympathi:e "ith the loss of homeland or "omen)s unjust depiction in literature& Det( "hen speakin! a#out the specifics of -edea)s situation( particularly her plans for murder( they #ecome much less supporti*e& They critici:e -edea)s plans for murder and sympathi:e "ith those she plans to kill& The chorus) role is some"hat hypocritical they call for the 0"orld)s !reat order to #e re*ersed(6 #ut they critici:e -edea)s #loody means for re*ersin! Gason)s fortune (B44)& $ particularly interestin! choral response is the unemotional reaction to the deus e+ machina (4B4C J)& Perhaps Euripides is commentin! on this hackneyed element of drama& If so( "hat is he tryin! to say throu!h the chorus) indifferent responseP 'reon F Aegeus 'reon( the kin! of 'orinth( and $e!eus( the kin! of $thens( can #e *ie"ed as foils& 'reon #anishes -edea from 'orinth( "hile $e!eus "elcomes -edea into $thens& -oreo*er( 'reon fears -edea mi!ht hurt his dau!hter( "hereas $e!eus trusts -edea to help him concei*e a child& This sharp contrast #et"een t"o political leaders mi!ht ha*e ser*ed propa!andistic aims& Euripides "rote for an $thenian audience that "ould ha*e appreciated $e!eus)s depiction as a #ene*olent $thenian leader& Euripides praises $thens) li#erality throu!h its acceptance -edea( "ho acts a hyper#olic representation of an outsider& $thens is so acceptin! that it e*en "elcomes misunderstood( #ar#arian sorceresses "ho kill their children& 4igni/ican *hemes -n9er ed roles Medea: )arrior '% Mother -edea takes on "arrior characteristics like those e+hi#ited in the Iliad% She has concern for her children)s honor( "orryin! that they "ill #e su#jected to ridicule #y her enemies in 'orinth and $thens& -oreo*er( -edea is *ery concerned "ith her o"n le!acy& She thinks a#out ho" she "ill #e remem#ered #y future !enerations if she does not act #oldly and a*en!e the "ron!s inflicted on her& This idea of re*en!e and reciprocity is another "arrior like philosophy that -edea adopts& The chorus re*eals that -edea)s actions are a strikin! a#erration from "hat they consider motherly& They ;uestion ho" -edea can 0kill6 the 0fruit of SherT o"n "om#(6 remarkin! that only one other "omen in history has killed her children (4?9O 4)& This "oman( Ino( "as dri*en out of her home #y ,eus( "ho 0made her "ander6 (4?9C)& Hus#ands deny -edea and Ino their roles as "i*es and mothers& There therefore( the t"o "omen destroy the product of marria!e and motherhood children& "ason: Husband '% )i$e In his marria!e to the 'orinthian princess( Gason takes on a more "ife like role& He depends on his "ife for social ties in the same "ay he once pro*ided social ties for -edea& See the character analysis of Gason a#o*e for more details&

(e9ersal o/ @or uneA4 a us -edea)s murders act as the clima+ of the play and the a+is a#out "hich Gason and -edea)s fortunes are in*erted&

$edea Be/ore he $urders 4) ?) 3) B) spouseless refu!ee #ar#arian no prospect ha*in! more children 4) ?) 3) B)

Bason Be/ore he $urders has a ne" "ife esta#lished in 'orinth %reek prospect of ha*in! more children "ith his ne" "ife C) unclear "hether he or -edea "ill keep their children

C) unclear "hether she or Gason "ill keep their children

Bason A/ er he $urders 4) ?) 3) B) C) $edea A/ er he $urders spouseless( #ut close friends "ith $e!eus #ecomes citi:en of $thens #ar#arian opportunity to create children for $e!eus and his "ife reclaims her children( thou!h dead 4) ?) 3) B) spouseless refu!ee %reek no opportunity to create more children

C) not e*en allo"ed to touch the #odies of his dead children

Without a hus#and and homeland( -edea)s is tied to society only throu!h her children& By murderin! her children( -edea #reaks this last tie to society and declares her total refu!ee status& Parado+ically( this e+treme #reak ena#les -edea to #e ultimately reinte!rated into society& She returns to $thens "ith the #odies of her children the prospect of helpin! $e!eus and his "ife concei*e a child& With a "elcomin! adopted homeland( ties to the royal family( and the opportunity to produce ne" children( -edea has e*erythin! (thou!h in imperfect forms) that Gason enjoyed in 'orinth& Her *oya!e #ack to $thens( a city from an earlier time in her life( su!!ests a cyclical rene"al for -edea( in "hich ne" ties to society are re!enerated out of the destruction she caused in 'orinth& -edea)s murder of 'reon and the princess #rin!s Gason do"n to her o"n le*el a refu!ee "ithout a homeland or family ties& When -edea murders their children( it destroys Gason)s last tie to any sort of society (as "ell as her last tie to any sort of society)& <nly throu!h deus e+ machina is -edea a#le to escape this utter refu!ee status( "hile Gason is left on the !round( "ithout e*en the #odies of his children& 4)eech -edea is often uses decepti*e speech( misleadin! others to ser*e her ultimate !oals& .or e+ample( -edea fei!ns appro*al of Gason)s marria!e so she can send a poisoned dress to the princess& In another instance( -edea uses supplicatin! lan!ua!e in a con*ersation "ith 'reon to delay her e+pulsion& <aths( on the other hand( presume honest interaction and a rou!hly e*en e+chan!e& $ concrete e+ample of this occurs in Book 8I of the Iliad( in "hich %laucos and =iomedes e+chan!e armor to seal their oath of friendship& -edea e+pects this same reciprocity in her marria!e& -edea)s hus#and( ho"e*er( #reaks the oath and 0#etraySsT #oth her #ed and her marria!e6 (?O9(5)& -edea)s situation hi!hli!hts the one sidedness of marria!e oaths( in "hich men can freely lea*e their "i*es( "hile "omen ha*e 0no easy escape6 (?35)& -arria!e oaths in*ol*e une;ual e+chan!e and are #indin! only #ecause they in*oke 0the Gustice of ,eus6 (?O9)& -edea is *ery concerned "ith the distinction #et"een oaths and re!ular speech& When -edea con*inces $e!eus to !i*e her refu!e( she insists that he make an oath& $fter her e+perience "ith Gason( -edea seems foolish to trust another man)s oath& Ho"e*er( she makes sure that they seal the oath #y e+chan!in! e;ually important thin!s& $e!eus pro*ides -edea refu!e "hile -edea promises to help $e!eus concei*e a child "ith his "ife& 4igni/ican &assages ,ines 1156:1170 In this passa!e( a messen!er relates the princess)s reaction to -edea)s !ifts& The !ifts ha*e stron! sym#olic connotations& The dress connects to an earlier place and time in -edea)s life& She e+plains that 0Helius of old(HSherT father)s father( #esto"ed6 the dress 0on his descendants6 (JCC)& The cro"n also relates to royal linea!e( perhaps representin! the position -edea once enjoyed in 'olchis& 'uriously( the princess is ne*er named and her character is physically a#sent from the play)s action& This su!!ests that the malicious !ift !i*in! is not so much re*en!e a!ainst the princess in particular( #ut rather a sym#olic dramati:ation of -edea)s usurped position& The princess) acceptance of the dress represents her e+cessi*e pride& When the princess dons the ro#e and cro"n( she hu#ristically usurps -edea position as Gason)s "ife& Her *anity reflects her hu#ris2 0<ften and <ftenH She "ould stretch her foot out and look alon! it6 (445C 5)& The princess)s prideful admiration of her o"n #eauty accentuates her darin!( prideful replacement of -edea& ,ines 416:430

The chorus critici:es the treatment of "omen in literature( particularly stories of "omen)s 0unfaithfulness6 (B??)& The chorus does not directly critici:e the 0ancient sin!ers(6 "ho "ere apparently all men (B?4)& >ather( they implore the sin!ers) 0muses6 to 0cease6 tellin! tales of female 0unfaithfulness6 (B?4 ?)& Perhaps these muses represent archetypes of female #eha*ior perpetuated in literature& <ne can find unfaithful "omen in the Iliad (Helen)( Oresteia ('lytaemestra)( and the Bacchae& In Medea( does Euripides #reak from this pattern of assi!nin! "omen 0e*il soundin! fame6 (B?O)P =oes he assi!n it instead to menP The chorus "ishes that "omen had the a#ility to 0Ssin!T an ans"er6 to male "riters (B?5)& This raises many ;uestions concernin! Euripides self a"areness as an author& =id Euripides feel that he "as representin! a more female *oice in MedeaP Was he !i*in! "omen in literature 0their due6 (B4J)P History of the Peloponnesian War Thucydides Plot Summary The Peloponnesian War "as fou!ht #et"een $thens and Sparta& The "ar "as mostly a demonstration and challen!e of po"er #et"een the t"o Hellenic forces& The tension #et"een the t"o nations spa"ned from conflicts o*er shippin!( trade and colonial e+pansion& The result of these conflicts "as a t"enty se*en year "ar in 7orthern %reece& This account of the "ar details the disastrous conflict that led to the do"nfall of the $thenian empire& 'haracters $thens (and it)s allies) Takeo*er of its allies don)t care a#out the internal politics of the other countriesMrules allies throu!h !lo#al imperialismMpost politics $thens liked to #e inno*ati*e and to chan!e( they "ere a li#eral society( "hich continually chan!ed their model of society and philosophi:ed a#out their culture& U $thens cared a lot a#out the physical structure of their society and cultureMthis says a lot a#out the "ay that they *ie" themsel*es& They had a lot more money than Sparta& The la"s "ere more re*isa#le dependin! on "ho could con*ince the "ill of the mass& U The 0mass6( there is almost no majority& Spartans (and it)s allies) 'ontrols their allies( #ut "orks "ith themMtheir allies "ere controlled politically instead of economically& Spartans "ere a conser*ati*e and traditional po"er& Spartans "ere the first to ha*e la"s free from tyranny and kept those la"s 7ot democracy nor tyranny (may feel safer in Sparta #ecause of the consistency of la") VSimilarities *ie"in! alliances as a superstructure -ajor Themes Speeches the decline in the ;uality of the speeches represent the ;uality of $thens& =ispute o*er 'orcyra (4&34 B3) 'orcyra and 'orinth are on the *er!e of "ar( #oth !o to $thens to present "hy they should #e supported instead of the other& 'orcyra speaks first& They speak of #ein! the neutral *ictims( and "ays "hich they can help $thens #y #ein! allies& 'orinth responds #y sayin! that they are not innocent *ictims( and "ith point out that they ha*e a peace treaty "ith $thens that "ill #e #roken if they #ecome allies of 'orcyra& $#stract2 Both sides present a case( second case clearly responds to the points of the first& =e#ate at Sparta (4&55 K9) -any of Sparta)s allies send dele!ates to Sparta( and dele!ates of $thens "ere there on #usiness& The speeches !i*en are #y 'orinth and $thens& 'orinth says that Sparta needs to prepare as much as $thens does for "ar& $thens responds #y sayin! that they are not to #e #lamed for the state of affairs( that if Sparta "ere in their position they "ould ha*e done the same& $#stract2 Second case not a direct response to the first( #ut a defense #y point out different aspects& $ll speakers are in first person plural( speech comin! from a !roup of people& (4&9O 9K) When the speeches are done( Spartans ask all others to lea*e and ha*e an internal de#ate& @in! and an ephor (con!ressmen type position) !i*e speech& @in! presents the point that they should not !o to "ar since they are not ade;uately prepared to fi!ht $thens( as $thens has many more resources& Ephor says that he did not understand the $thenians) speech( and that $thens "as too proud and already actin! a!!ressi*ely( so they should !o to "ar& $#stract2 Second is not a response of the first& .irst uses e*erythin! 'orinth said a#o*e to reach different conclusion( second does the same to $thens) speech& Speeches are in first person sin!ular& Speech !i*en #y the Spartan @in! (?&44) %i*en to the !enerals ri!ht #efore they depart for #attle "ith $thens& Warnin! them to not #e too cautious #ecause $thens has the a#ility to defend herself& $#stract2 7ot a de#ate( instead a "arnin! to Spartan allies that if they "ant to "in not to underestimate the !reatness of $thens& The funeral oration (?&3B B5) =etails !i*en in close readin!& $#stract2 7ot a de#ate& Sayin! the !reatness of $thens& Policy of Pericles (?&5O 5B) $fter pla!ue( $thenian assem#ly ;uestions if they should ha*e !one to "ar& Pericles (!eneral "ho had *oted for "ar) defends himself and says they should e+pect !reat disasters #ecause of their !reatness& $#stract2 7ot a de#ate& But $thens is no lon!er !reat #ecause of the pla!ue& Pla!ue is the turnin! point( the #e!innin! of the end& Speech of the -ytlenians (3&J 4B) -ytlene "as an ally of $thens that re*olted& They "ent to Sparta to ask to #e taken into their alliance& Their point "as that $thens really used their allies as sla*es( and thus "ere #ein! treated unfairly and "anted to end their affiliation "ith $thens& Sparta takes them& $#stract2 7ot a de#ate& It claims to sho" ho" a"ful $thens is to its allies& The -ytlenian =e#ates (3&3K B9) $thens de#atin! on "hether they should kill all of the -ytlenians for re*oltin!& .irst speaker says that killin! them "ould !i*e them "hat they deser*ed and it "ould deter future re#els& Says that the -ytlenians "ere not #adly

treated& $lso that if they "ait too lon! to punish( that feelin!s of an!er "ill lessen( and they "ill not recei*e proper punishment& Second speaker #e!ins #y attackin! the first speaker personally& He also says that actin! in haste and an!er "ill only #rin! ruin to $thens #ecause they "ill ha*e to follo" the precedent and it "ill #e e+tremely costly to put kill re#els #ecause they "ill hold out for as lon! as possi#le& $#stract2 =e#ate& >eally sho"s ho" a"ful $thens can #e to its allies (althou!h second speaker "on( and so a second mission "as sent to stop the first( "hich "as ordered to kill e*eryone)& The -elian =ialo!ue (B& 9C 44B) -elos "as a colony of Sparta& $thens made an e+pedition to the island( and instead of destroyin! it immediately( representati*es "ent and spoke& Instead of #ein! allo"ed to speak in front of the people( they had to speak #efore a small !o*ernin! !roup& $thens "ants -elos to follo" $thens) self interest( #ut it "as not to -elos) self interest& -elos did not !i*e in& $thens #lockaded them in completely& $#stract2 This is the end of the do"nfall of speeches as it is not a speech at allI it is a dialo!ue to the point that it is "ritten as a play& It is this point that represents the do"nfall of $thens&

'lose >eadin! Pericles) .uneral <ration (#ook ?& 3B B5) Pericles) .uneral <ration is one of the key passa!es of the #ook& The form of the oration is as important as they content discussed& Pericles #e!ins his speech #y addressin! the form and purpose of a funeral oration( he discusses his personal disa!reement "ith it)s traditional implications( #ut decides that as a tri#ute to the men "ho died( he "ill continue to speak( #ut only after ackno"led!in! his feelin!s that the fact the mere actions of a funeral are honor enou!h for any man& He !oes on to say that he feels men can only listen to the praises of other men for so lon!( and that is "hy he has decided to speak a#out !reater forms of honor that applied to the men "ho had died and to the people listenin! to him speak& The first !roup of people he praises is the ancestors of the $thenian people #ecause they created the Empire of $thens& He then !oes on to praise their just and premiere !o*ernment& He discusses the "ays in "hich he feels $thens stands apart from it)s peers( as an empire full of people "ho kno" ho" to a#ide #y la" and also kno" ho" to cele#rate& He praises the people of $thens for creatin! a coura!eous and loyal military( superior to all others they fi!ht and for their a#ility to fi!ht their o"n fi!ht& He praises the characteristics of men in $thens( their rationality and deli#erateness in #attle( in addition to understandin! their priorities and not flauntin! e+tra*a!ance in their li*es& He !oes on to say that it is #ecause of all these reasons that $thens "ill #e remem#ered& Their le!acy "ill li*e on throu!h "hat they ha*e left #ehind at e*ery #attle( "hat has #een traded in e*ery e+chan!e( in "hat kindness has #een on in e*ery !ift and that any man "ho tries to record this throu!h his o"n estimation of the facts "ould fall short& It is here that his speech shifts focus to"ard the soldiers( althou!h not descri#in! them indi*idually( he does descri#e indi*idual characteristics of the "hole that he feels should #e represented #y the $thenian people& He descri#es their honor and spirit and asks that the people of $thens adopt that same ener!y and aim it a!ainst their enemies& To"ards the end of his speech he consoles the families "ho ha*e lost lo*ed ones( #ut tells them that their soldiers died "ith pride and honor( and that honor is the one thin! one "ill al"ays ha*e and ne*er looses& .inally Pericles makes a comparison #et"een the "omen that these men ha*e lo*ed and $thens& $thens is seen here as the ultimate perfect "oman( one any person should #e "illin! to die for& The pla!ue is descri#ed in the section of the story ri!ht after the funeral oration& Thucydides narrates himself into this section more than he did in the pre*ious one& He ackno"led!es this #y sayin! that althou!h he himself did not e+perience the pla!ueI he "ants to record it if it should e*er happen a!ain& Initially in the section he descri#es the symptoms of the disease in !reat len!th and discusses the "ays in "hich people)s #odies reacted to the disease& He does not ho"e*er address particular cases of sickness( #ut rather sticks to a !eneral o*er*ie" of those affected& The pla!ue marked a time of !reat mi!ration from the country in to the city of $thens and this mi!ration also coincided "ith the unra*elin! of the city& /a"lessness and ci*il unrest "ere rampant( men "ere dyin! inside $thens and outside land "as #ein! laid to "aste& There is an oracle to"ards the end of this section that the $thenians interpreted as a description of their situation ad at the same time an oracle "as sent to the Spartans tellin! them to !o to "ar& $n important note is that althou!h this "as the !oriest part of the #ook( a "ar story( the pla!ue took place "hen no actual fi!htin! "as !oin! on #et"een the Spartans and the $thenians&

'omparison The t"o passa!es are connected throu!h opposition& They are recounted side #y side #ecause they sym#oli:e a complete re*ersal of fortune U peripeteia In the funeral oration he is constructin! an honora#le and coura!eous *ie" of death and in the pla!ue death is this a"ful e+perience that is deconstructin! the honor and structure of the city& In the pla!ue( he descri#es ho" the pla!ue destroyed e*erythin! that they had honored in the oration& U E+ample culture is disrupted in the pla!ue and "as *ery important in the funeral oration( as "ell as honor& The funeral oration is the one sur*i*in! account of $thenian democracy (from a supportin! *ie"point) and the #ulk of the ima!es from the pla!ue are a#out la"lessness and disre!ard for order& Points of 'ontact

4& ?& 3&

>e*ersal of .ortune2 connections to <edipus( -edea and the Bacchae& Peripeteia( the idea that there can #e a complete chan!e of fortune in one moment& This is seen in the pla!ue in Thucydides( in -edea( the peripeteia happened #efore the play actually #e!an and in the Bacchae it is "hen Pantheus)s mother reali:es "hat she has done (actually killed her son&) <racles2 they happen and they matter& They also happen in <edipus& Dou !et the idea& H<7<> there are se*eral points of contact #et"een the idea of honor in Thucydides and in other te+ts such as the Iliad& Honor is mentioned in other te+ts( ho"e*er( as t"o stories a#out "ar( the connection is stron!est here& Ho"e*er( in Thucydides honor is only mentioned on a 0city"ide6 or non indi*idual #asis& In the Iliad fallen soldiers are indi*idually talked a#out in accordance to their honor& Lysistrata By5 Aris o)hanes

4ummary5nmG /ysistrata !athers the "omen of $thens and Sparta in the front of the $kropolis for the purpose of formulatin! a plan to help stop the "ar #et"een $thens and Sparta& /ysistrata asks the "omen if they "ould like their hus#ands to return to them from the "ar( and the "omen at first( claim that they "ould do just a#out anythin! to !et their hus#ands #ack& Then( /ysistrata proposes her plan( to stop se+ual acti*ity "ith their hus#ands& The "omen( after hearin! this( #ack do"n and hesitate to concur to such an act( e+cept /ampito& Soon( ho"e*er( "ith the help of /ysistrata)s persuasi*e ar!uments( the "omen consent to her plan& /ysistrata has arran!ed the sei:ure of the $kropolis( the $thenian treasury( so no money "ill !o to"ard the "ar effort& @leonike proposes that the "omen s"ear on a cup of "ine( that they 0"on)tMdilute it "ith "ater(6 and the "omen a!ree to s"ear to the plan (355)& $fter all the "omen s"ear( the "omen enter the $kropolis& The elder $thenian men march to the $kropolis carryin! firepots "ith the purpose of #urnin! do"n the !ates of the sei:ed #uildin!& The elder "omen encounter the @oryphaios of -en at the !ates( and the "omen pour "ater all o*er the men( puttin! out their fire& $t this moment( the 'ommissioner of Pu#lic Safety arri*es to try to settle the dispute& Before the 'ommissioner and the other men are a#le to #reak open the !ates "ith a cro"#ar( /ysistrata comes out of the $kropolis& $rchers attempt to arrest /ysistrata( #ut all four of the archers that the 'ommissioner sent forth fail "ith the help of the other "omen& $fter the archers are scared off( /ysistrata #e!ins to tell the 'ommissioner that the "omen "ill stop the "ar& Then /ysistrata places her *eil on the 'ommissioner)s head and the other "omen help dress him up as a "oman and then #eat him off the sta!e& Then the 'horus of Women and the 'horus of -en display a se+ual #attle( "hich results in #oth the men and "omen naked& The "omen soon #ecome filled "ith desire for se+ and make e+cuses to /ysistrata as to "hy they ha*e to lea*e& Then( @inesias( "ith his son( arri*es at the $kropolis !ates( 0in erection and considera#le plain6 (B4J)& He tries to "oo his "ife( -yrrhine( into returnin! home to her #elo*ed son "ho needs her care& -yrrhine pretends she "ill ha*e se+ "ith her hus#and( "ho insists on do on the !round outside the $kropolis& -yrrhine( all the "hile delays intercourse( makin! @inesias *ery frustrated& Then she lea*es her hus#and on the !round for !ood since he "ould not a!ree to *ote for peace( as she "ished& $ Spartan herald arri*es( #rin!in! ne"s of the Spartan)s sufferin! due to the "omen)s refusal of se+& He and the 'ommissioner a!ree to settle a treaty for the "ar( #rin!in! their respecti*e dele!ations to the scene& /ysistrata emer!es from the $kropolis "ith a naked !irl( Peace( "hose #ody "ould #e used to map out the portions of the land each side recei*ed in the treaty& $fter the $thenians and Spartans a!ree to the terms( order is restored in %reece and the poepel resume se+ual acti*ity& $a!or 'harac ers5 ,ysis ra a2 She is the $thenian "ho formulated the plan to sei:e the $kropolis and to th"art the se+ual acti*ity #et"een the "omen and their hus#ands in order to stop the "ar& Her actions portray her as *ery manly( as she controls most of the action in the play& 2leonike5 The nei!h#or of /ysistrata( she acts *ery feminine( unlike /ysistrata& -yrrhine2 She is the "ife of @inesias& /ater in the play( @inesias comes to the $kropolis "ith their son& -yrrhine leads her hus#and on( as she a!rees to ha*e se+ "ith him( #ut she finally denies him& This scene hi!hli!hts her stren!th in this play( #ein! a#le to stand up to her hus#and and command him& ,am)i o5 She is the #eautiful "oman from Sparta "ho is first to a!ree "ith /ysistrata) scheme& Her actions( alon! "ith /ysistrata)s( depict her as a feminist& 'ommissioner5 $lthou!h he is supposed to #e a stron! enforcer accordin! to his title( he and the other policemen are *ery co"ardly "hen they tried to arrest /ysistrata and the other "omen& This "oman like characteristic that he displays is only hi!hli!hted "hen /ysistrata dresses him up as a "oman& 2ineisas2 He is the hus#and of -yrrhine& In attempt to !et his "ife #ack( he !oes to the $kropolis( sufferin! from the pain of an erection& &eace5 She is the #eautiful handmaid of /ysistrata "hose naked #ody the men use at the end of the play to di*ide the land "hen formulatin! an a!reement to end the "ar&

'en ral *o)icsA*hemesAHues ions5 Po"er The "omen in Lysistrata ha*e po"er at home( "ith control o*er the se+ and household money S/ysistrata2 0We #ud!et the household accounts6 (3J4)T and sei:e control o*er the state( as they detained the $kropolis in attempt to "ithhold the money from the "ar effort& =omestic Political Se+ual do do "ithhold force no force female male Purpose of =omains2 maintenance family Se+ 2 Importance of se+ is for social order& When the "omen a#stain from se+( there is chaos in the society& When they #e!in ha*in! se+ a!ain( the men are #ack at home( the "ar ends( and the chaos stops& The "omen "ant their hus#ands home from the "ar so they can ha*e se+ "ith them( #ut at the same time( they are practicin! a#stinence so their hus#ands "ill stop the "ar& This is *ery inconsistent& Heterose+uality Throu!hout the play( there is a free floatin! erotic ener!y( until the end of the play( "hen the only se+ual connections are shared #et"een hus#and and "ife& >eunification e+pansion (The "omen "ant to stop e+pansion and !o #ack to maintenance of the home) state indi*idualHcouple

What should #e kept to!ether is separated #y "ar in this play& Hus#and and "ife are separated( as the men ha*e to fi!ht in the "ar& The di*ision in %reece( #et"een its t"o major cities( $thens and Sparta( is only ele*ated #y the "ar& The marital #ed #ecomes the reunification of %reece( as peace is restored after the males are denied se+& 'onnec ions o o her e" s5 Se+2 In this te+t( the purpose of se+ is pleasure( "hich is unlike other te+ts& In other te+ts( such as Hymn to Demeter and &enesis( the purpose of se+ "as for reproduction& Ho"e*er( in Symposium( se+ is also for pleasure& Se+uality2 This te+t can #e *ie"ed as a te+t a#out heterose+uality( "hereas Symposium focuses a lot on homose+uality( as the men e+press their lo*e for each other& $lci#iades e+pressed his lo*e for Socrates in his speech Po"er2 Symposium has the same theme that lo*e or se+ is po"er( or rather the "ithholdin! is po"er o*er those "ho "ant it& Socrates is like the "omen in /ysistrata( as he "ithheld lo*e from those "ho "anted it& Gust as in The Baccae( the a man is dresses up like a "oman& In The Baccae( Pentheus dis!uises himself as a "oman in order to spy on the actions of the drunken "omen& In Lysistrata( /ysistrata drapes her *eil on the commissioner( makin! him look like a "oman& $s in The Iliad( a "arrior sees his "ife and son& In The Iliad( Hektor has a moment outside #attle "ith his "ife and his son& The difference #et"een this and the encounter #et"een -yrrhine and her hus#and and son is that the "arrior #rin!s the son as #ait( to dra" his "ife out of the $kropolis to ha*e se+ "ith him& 'lose (eading5 /ysistrata2 0But "hen the s"allo"s( in fli!ht from the hoopoes( ha*e flocked to a hole on hi!h( and stoutly esche" their accustomed perch on the pole( yea( then shall Thunderer ,eus to their suff)rin! esta#lish a stop( #y makin! the lo"er the upperM But should these s"allo"s( indul!in! their lust for the perch( lose heart( dissol*e their flocks in "in!ed dissension( and sin!ly depart the sacred stron!hold( #reakin! the #ands that #ind them to!ether then kno" them as le"d( the per*ertedest #irds that e*er "ore feather&6 (B4B) This is the prophecy of the "ar)s fate that /ysistrata read to "omen& This in*ersion is like "hat Gesus had done consistently in Lu*e( as he made the poor rich and the #lind see& means that the "omen( "ho "ere thou!ht to #e #elo" men in the society( "ould #e raised a#o*e men "hen they sei:ed the $kropolis (B4B)& This in*ersion is like "hat Gesus had done consistently in Lu*e( as he made the poor rich and the #lind see& The s"allo"s here represent the "omen of %reece&

'omparison #et"een Homer (The Iliad-, Herodotus( and Thucydides& Homer >eason for "ritin!2 What he is doin!2 .ocus2 -ethod2 -emoriali:in! !lory of indi*idual "arriors (to please readers) >eco!ni:in! ine*ita#ility (possi#ly a criticism of ine;uality) Indi*idualsHculture (no distinction) In*ention

Herodotus -emoriali:in! collecti*e cultural !lory (to please readers) Social criticism 'ultures Gournalism (Stories to entertain) -ulti cause Speaks of forei!n countries in relation to %reek

Thucydides $naly:in! the causes of "ar (not memoriali:in!) (not to please) Social criticism Political Systems of the cultures $cademic criticism (InstructionH information) 'hain of e*ents Speaks of only %reek( and they are *ery di*ided( #ut mostly into t"o major !roups2 $thens (and allies) *s& Sparta (and allies)

Blame2 Possi#le modes of identification2

<ne cause Speaks of indi*iduals ($chaeans and Trojans)

Symposium Study Guide 'ha) er 4ummary5 Introductory Dialogue The Symposium opens "ith an unnamed man askin! $pollodorus( to recount the story of the symposium too him& $pollodorus a!rees( #ut e+plains that he is tellin! the story( "hich in turn he "as told #y $ristodemus "ho attended the party& $pollodorus then tells ho" the dinner proceeded( and ho" after the eatin! "as done the men decided to send a"ay the flute !irl and ha*e a discussion on the su#ject of lo*e& $pollodorus also apolo!i:es #ecause he cannot remem#er all the speeches and cannot e*en remem#er all that $ristodemus told him& This idea that the story "e are a#out to recei*e is much remo*ed from the ori!inal source is some"hat related to the Theory of .orms( in that there are se*eral le*els #et"een the present discussion and the truth& The a#sence of the flute !irl( "hich mi!ht carry some se+ual connotation( makes the room no" completely male( and thus increases the focus on homose+ual lo*e in the follo"in! speeches& The Speech o$ +haedrus Phaedrus speech depicts /o*e as an ancient !od #orn out of 'haos& He e+plains( 0I cannot say "hat !reater !ood there is for a youn! #oy than a !entle lo*er( or for a lo*er than a #oy to lo*e& There is a certain !uidance each person needs for his "hole life( if he is to li*e "ellI and nothin! imparts this !uidance not hi!h kinship( not pu#lic honor( not "ealth nothin! imparts this !uidance as "ell as /o*e(6 (4K9' =)& This passa!e captures the essence of Phaedrus speech& He #elie*es that /o*e is a !reat teacherI it educates the youth and promotes *irtue amon! men& Phaedrus #ases his ar!ument in Homeric myth and literature& He cites se*eral "ell kno"n stories and e+tracts his points from there& It is important to reali:e that this speech does not address /o*e so much as it addresses the effects of /o*e& Phaedrus concludes his speech( 0/o*e isM the most po"erful in helpin! men !ain *irtue and #lessedness(6 (49OB)& The Speech o$ +ausanias Pausanias #e!ins his speech #y dra"in! a distinction #et"een Hea*enly /o*e and 'ommon /o*e& Pausanias #elie*es that 'ommon /o*e is the lesser of the t"o forms #ecause it is e;ually directed at "omen and #oys( and #ecause it pertains more to the physical #ody and not to the mind& Hea*enly lo*e is a #ond #et"een a man and an adolescent #oy( and as Pausanias descri#es it( 0/o*e)s *alue to the city as a "hole and to the citi:ens is immeasura#le( for he compels the lo*er and his lo*ed one alike to make *irtue their central concern(6 (49CB ')& Pausanias is just like Phaedrus in that he e+plains the effects of lo*e( and more specifically focuses on ho" lo*e relates to *irtue& Ho"e*er( "here Phaedrus !rounded his ar!ument in literature( Pausanias !rounds his ar!ument in his kno"led!e of %reek culture and social e+pectations& The Speech o$ ry,imachus Ery+imachus opens his speech #y continuin! to de*elop the idea of a dichotomy in lo*e& Ery+imachus takes it in another direction and tries to e+pand the idea to account for the harmony "hich e+ists in nature #et"een asymmetrical o#jects& Ery+imachus e+plains that lo*e comes from the music of t"o !ods and acts like !ra*ity( as a constant force in this "orld& Ery+imachus speech is different from the first t"o #ecause he tries to #roaden the scope of "hat lo*e is responsi#le for& He states( 0Such is the po"er of /o*e so *aried and !reat that in all cases it mi!ht #e called a#solute& Det e*en so it is far !reater "hen /o*e is directed( in temperance and justice( to"ard the !ood( "hether in hea*en or on earth2 happiness and !ood fortune( the #onds of human society( concord "ith the !ods a#o*e all these are amon! his !ifts(6 (499=)& Ery+imachus

scope is "ide( and he constantly chan!es his metaphors in order to appear con*incin!( so that in the end his comes off as pompus and distinctly uncon*incin!& The Speech o$ Aristophanes With $ristophanes speech there e+ists a clear departure from the first three speeches& $ristophanes tells a myth a#out three species of human that inha#ited the earth and then "ere di*ided #y ,eus to #ecome the humans( "hich inha#it the "orld today& This myth introduces the ori!ins of lo*e and ackno"led!es the idea of lo*e as desire& $ristophanes intention is to descri#e human nature& $lthou!h his myth is fictional( his description is insi!htful& $ristophanes says( 07o"( since their natural form had #een cut in t"o( each one lon!ed for its o"n other half(6 (4J4$)& This is "here $ristophanes places the moment in "hich Nlon!in!) or Ndesire) "as #orn& Because of the split humans no lon!er ha*e their other half and they no" desire somethin!( "hich they are missin!& Socrates returns to this idea of desirin! "hat you do not ha*e "hen he ;uestions $!athon& $ristophanes then !oes on to conclude his speech #y e+poundin! maleHmale relationships as the ideal relationship& The Speech o$ Agathon $!athon)s speech stands in contrast to e*ery speech precedin! it( #ut is a useful foil for Socrates speech( "hich "ill follo"& $!athon declares that he is not !oin! to discuss the effects of lo*e( #ut instead focus on the character of the !od himself& He !rants e*ery possi#le accolade to lo*e( and his speech #ecomes !rossly e+a!!erated( and unfounded in lo!ic& His speech is hi!hly rhetorical and so it seems fittin! that it should #e the play"ri!ht "ho composes a speech that is so dramatic& He does not contri#ute much to the definition of lo*e& Socrates .uestions Agathon Socrates accuses $!athon of sophistry in his speech a#out lo*e& 7ot only( says Socrates( does he talk a#out the o#jects of lo*e( rather than lo*e itself( he attri#utes #eautiful characteristics to lo*e "ith no re!ard for the truth of his assertions& Socrates( for his speech( #e!ins #y ;uestionin! $!athon and thus #e!ins constructin! an ar!ument& Socrates leads $!athon to the initial conclusion that one must lo*e somethin!( specifically somethin! that one does not already ha*eI somethin! "hich one desires& To lo*e "hat one has( in terms of Socrates ar!ument( is to desire "hat one has in the present to #e "hat one has in the future& Socrates concludes the ar!ument #y refutin! $!athon)s point that lo*e is #eautifulI if it is true that lo*e desires "hat it does not ha*e( #ut that one lo*es #eauty( then lo*e itself cannot #e #eautiful& Diotima .uestions Socrates / the Speech o$ Diotima =iotima)s ;uestionin! of Socrates( as told #y Socrates( complicates the su#jecti*ity of the story #y a third de!ree ($pollodorus Socrates =iotima)I it is also the most philosophically important speech in the #ook& While $!athon had descri#ed the o#jects of lo*e( Socrates) (=iotima)s) speech is concerned "ith descri#in! lo*e itself& =iotima claims that lo*e is not a !reat immortal !od( nor a mortalI lo*e is a spirit that e+ists in #et"een these e+tremes( one that dies and is re#orn intermittently& The theme of lo*e as a medium is further de*eloped as the chapter pro!ressesI lo*e is ne*er "ithout resources( nor is he rich( he is in #et"een u!liness and #eauty( and he is neither i!norant nor "ise& /o*e desires "hat it does not ha*eI as such( lo*e desires #eauty and "isdom& =iotima !oes on to state that the lo*er of !ood and #eautiful thin!s lo*es them #ecause he "ishes them to #ecome his o"nI this pro!ression from one opposite to another constitutes 0happiness&6 >eproduction in this passa!e functions as the method #y "hich lo*ers can attain immortalityI the method #y "hich they can keep the thin!s they lo*e in the future& There are t"o types of reproduction( thou!h2 pre!nancy of the #ody and pre!nancy of the soul( yieldin! offsprin! and creati*e "orks respecti*ely& Those that are pre!nant in #ody are those that lo*e "omen( #ut those that are pre!nant in soul look for a different immortal #eauty& Alcibiades# ntrance Socrates) speech comes to a conclusion "ith a drunken cro"d of re*elers knockin! on the door& $lci#iades( drunk( shouts up to the !roup( and he is let in& $lci#iades "ears a cro"n of i*y and *iolets on his head& He intends to !i*e to the cro"n to $!athon( #ut it #linds him as he enters( possi#ly sym#oli:in! ho" $lci#iades( a politician( is #linded #y his prominent social position& When $lci#iades reali:es that Socrates is there( he is surprised and taken #ack& E*entually( $lci#iades is roped into !i*in! a speech of his o"n a#out lo*e& The Speech o$ Alcibiades $lci#iades speaks in praise of Socrates& He #e!ins #y descri#in! Socrates as a man "ho could care less a#out physical #eauty or riches( #ut a man "ho has incredi#le riches inside& $lci#iades !oes on to descri#e his relationship "ith SocratesI he had thou!ht that Socrates "anted to #e his lo*er( "hich "as accepta#le to him #ecause althou!h Socrates "as u!ly( $lci#iades kne" he "ould learn a lot from such a relationship& <*er time( $lci#iades sets up a num#er of meetin!s desi!ned to #rin! him and Socrates to!ether( such as "restlin! and a pri*ate *isit at $lci#iades mansion( #ut Socrates ne*er responds to these seemin!ly o#*ious pro*ocations& $lci#iades #ecomes confused( e*entually reali:in! that it is not Socrates "ho is in lo*e "ith him( #ut he "ho is o#sessed "ith Socrates& Socrates speaks to this( and e+plains his actions( "hen he says( 0Dou ($lci#iades) seem to me to "ant more than your proper share2 you offer me the merest appearance of #eauty( and in return you "ant the thin! itselfM6 This is consistent "ith =iotima)s hierarchy of lo*e( "hich prioriti:es the form Beauty( "hich #elon!s to the realm of the a#stract( o*er physical #eauty& Thus( Socrates theori:es that it "ould ha*e #een an unfair relationshipI Socrates has no use for $lci#iades) physical #eauty ha*in! already attained the !reater metaphysical Beauty that $lci#iades really desires& The last parts of $lci#iades speech !oes on to descri#e Socrates) actions "hen they ser*ed to!ether in #attle& (inal Dialogue

Socrates accuses $lci#iades of #ein! in lo*e "ith him( and tryin! to separate him and $!athon& Suddenly( a #oisterous( drunk cro"d comes in and people #e!innin! drinkin! out of order (chaos)& Socrates stays up philosophi:in! all ni!ht "ith $!athon and $ristophanesI "hen they fall asleep( he lea*es and !oes directly to the /yceum& *hemes5 The Theory o$ the (orm: The SocratesH=iotima speeches hint at the form( Beauty( as the ultimate desire of the lo*er pre!nant in soul& The idea of the .orm separates the "orld into the realm of the physical and the realm of the ideal( the imperfect and perfect correspondin!ly& To attain Beauty( one must first lo*e imperfect thin!s( such as a sin!le #oy( and a#stract further from there( from many #oys( to all #oys( to all #odies( and on& In this "ay( lo*e "orks in the SocratesH=iotima speech as a pro!ression #et"een opposites& The lo*er mo*es from mortality to immortality( u!liness to #eauty( and i!norance to "isdom& The !oal of this pro!ression is the .ormI as =iotima says( lo*e is desirin! "hat one does not ha*e& Socrates: Socrates is the em#odiment of =iotima)s lo*er& /o*e is descri#ed as ne*er ha*in! anythin! himselfI neither "isdom nor #eauty& Socrates( descri#ed u!ly in the te+t( also ne*er claims to #e "iseI in this "ay Socrates matches the description& .urthermore( Socrates desires "hat he does not ha*e( de*otin! his life to the attainment of "isdom and #eauty& $lci#iades) speech in praise of Socrates is also consistent "ith this description& Genesis Study Guide $or Literature Humanities: +ro$essor !laybaugh I. Chapter-by-Chapter P ot Summary! 1=25 'reation $ and B 35 $dam and E*e eat from the Tree of @no"led!e& %od e*icts them from Eden e*en thou!h he said he "ould kill them& 45 'ain and $#el are #orn& 'ain kills his #rother and %od curses him& E*e !i*es #irth to Seth& 65 The /ord re!rets creatin! man #ecause of man)s *iolence and corruption& He *o"s to destroy all humanity #ut to spare 7oah& 7:?5 7oah enters the ark& The flood comes and !oes in forty days& 7oah #uilds an altar to !od& 95 %od #lesses 7oah( for!es a co*enant "ith 7oah( sym#oli:ed #y the rain#o"& While 7oah !ets drunk and is seen #y his son Ham( "ho he later curses& 115 People attempt to #uild the To"er of Ba#el& 125 $#ram lea*es his homeland at the #e;uest of %od( "ho for!es a co*enant "ith him& 135 $#ram lea*es E!ypt& He and /ot split up( and $#ram mo*es to He#ron& 14:155 /ot is taken capti*e and $#ram sa*es him& %od promises $#ram an heir& 165 Ha!ar( Sarai)s maid( !i*es #irth to Ishmael( $#ram)s first son& 175 %od forms another co*enant "ith $#ram and chan!es his name to $#raham& Sarai)s name is chan!ed to Sarah& The #irth of Isaac is promised& $#raham circumcises himself and his household& 1?5 The #irth of Isaac is predicted #y three men (an!els) "ho are on the "ay to destroy Sodom& 195 $ mo# surrounds /ot)s house( "here the an!els are stayin!& The an!els sa*e /ot and Sodom is destroyed& /ot)s "ife is turned into a pillar of salt( and he sleeps "ith his dau!hters& 205 While in %erar( Sarah is taken #y the @in!& He is punished( #ut !i*es !ifts to $#raham& 215 Isaac is #orn& Sarah kicks out Ha!ar and Ishmael& $#raham for!es a co*enant "ith $#imelech& 225 $#raham is tested #y %od( "ho asks him to sacrifice Isaac& 235 Sarah dies& $#raham chooses to #uy a ca*e for her #urial rather than recei*e it as a !ift& 245 $#raham sends his ser*ant to find Isaac a "ife from $#raham)s o"n peopleI >e#ekah is chosen& 255 $#raham)s second "ifeI his death& Ishmael)s children and his death& Gaco# and Esau are #orn& 265 Isaac mo*es to the land of @in! $#imelech& He has pro#lems "ith locals o*er "ells and lea*es& 275 Gaco# decei*es Isaac "ith the help of his mother and takes Esau)s #lessin!& 2?5 Gaco# lea*es for /a#an)s house& He dreams a#out the ladder& 295 Gaco# marries /eah and >achel& He only "ants >achel& /eah has four sons& >achel is #arren& 305 /eah #ears more children& .inally( >achel !i*es #irth to Goseph& Gaco# "ishes to return home& 315 /a#an chases Gaco#& Gaco# curses the thief of /a#an)s idols (>achel)I the men form a co*enant& 325 Esau and a party of four hundred people come to !reet Gaco# "ho has split his party into t"o camps out of fear of his #rother& Gaco# "restles "ith the an!els and his name is chan!ed to Israel& 335 Gaco# and Esau reunite "armly& 345 =inah is taken and raped #y a local prince& His father tries to ne!otiate a marria!e "ith Gaco#& Simeon and /e*i destroy the entire city& 355 %od mo*es Gaco# to Beth El& Isaac dies( as does >achel& 365 Esau and Gaco# cannot inha#it the same land& Esau mo*es a"ay "ith his lar!e family& 375 Goseph is in constant conflict "ith his #rothers "ho are annoyed "ith his dreams and attitude& When a"ay from their home( they thro" him into a pit and later sell him to a #and of Ishmaelites& 3?5 The story of Gudah)s sons and Tamar( and of Gudah and Tamar 39:455 The stories of Goseph in E!ypt& He is thro"n into jail #y his master( and then #ecomes the *iceroy of E!ypt after interpretin! Pharaoh)s dreams& He makes peace "ith his #rothers and his entire family comes do"n to li*e in E!ypt& Gaco# dies& II. Ma"or Chara#ters! Adam2 The first #ein!& His name and the "ord Nman) are used interchan!ea#ly in the te+t #ecause they are the same in He#re"& He eats from the Tree of @no"led!e #ecause of his "ife and is fore*er e+pelled from the %arden of Eden&

+9e2 The first "oman2 created from the flesh of $dam& She is manipulated #y the serpent into eatin! from the tree& This story( "hich in*ol*es a tremendous act of Hu#ris( can #e compared to the moment "hen 'lytaemnestra tells $!amemnon to step on the crimson ro#es2 #oth "omen are responsi#le for the do"nfall of their hus#ands and they are #oth si!nificantly manipulated #y an outside male fi!ure& #oah2 The only Nri!hteous) man in his !eneration& He is commanded to #uild and ark and is sa*ed from the flood& $fter"ards( !od promises him that he "ill ne*er a!ain flood the earth( formin! a co*enant that is sym#oli:ed #y the rain#o"& A0raham (also kno"n as Abram)2 Is constantly #ein! tested #y !od( "ho forms many co*enants "ith him& $s ,oe mentioned in class it causes one to "onder "hy !od seems to #e N!oin! #ack on his "ord) a!ain and a!ain #y constantly re promisin! the land to $#raham and his descendants& ,o 2 $#raham)s nephe"( and a fre;uent Nthorn in his side&) He is sa*ed from the destruction of Sodom& /ot( "hile drunk( sleeps "ith his dau!hters& -saac2 $#raham)s son and heir throu!h Sarah& Hus#and of >e#ekah and father of Gaco# and Esau& -istakenly #lesses Gaco# "ith Esau)s #lessin!& Baco0 (also kno"n as Israel-2 Isaac)s second son& He steals the #irthri!ht from his #rother and also takes his #lessin!& His name is chan!ed t"ice2 first #y the an!el "ho he "restles "ith #efore encounterin! Esau( and second #y the /ord& Bose)h2 Gaco#)s fa*orite son& He is sold into sla*ery #y his #rothers( #ut e*entually #ecomes the *iceroy of E!ypt& He is *ery skilled at interpretin! dreams& III. Minor Chara#ters! 4arah (also kno"n as Sarai-2 $#raham)s first "ife and mother of Isaac& %agar2 Sarah)s maidI !i*en to $#raham as a "ife& -other of Ishamel& (e0ekah2 Isaac)s "ife& -other of Gaco# and Esau& She helps Gaco# o#tain Esau)s ri!htful #lessin!& +sau2 .irst#orn son of Isaac& Is tricked out of his #irthri!ht( #ut e*entually for!i*es his #rother& ,a0an2 .ather of >achel and /eahI Gaco#)s employer for a lon! timeI deals dishonestly "ith him& (achel2 Gaco#)s fa*orite "ife& -other of Goseph and Benjamin& ,eah2 Gaco#)s first "ife& -other of si+ of his children& Dinah2 Gaco#)s only dau!hter& She is capture #y a local prince and raped& 4imeon and ,e9i2 T"o of Gaco#)s sons& They destroy the city of the prince "ho raped their sister& $. Important Con#epts 'o9enan s5 'o*enants play an e+tremely si!nificant role in &enesis& People use co*enants to for!e alliances and %od uses them to make promises andHor to appease ner*ous follo"ers& 'o*enants take t"o forms2 the *er#al( "hich is merely a promise (usually #y !od)( and the physical( "hich can #e anythin! from a monument erected from stones to a circumcision& Gaco# and /a#an make a co*enant for the sake of peace (34)& %od makes a co*enant "ith 7oah and sym#oli:es it "ith a rain#o"& >epeated co*enants #et"een !od and $#raham make $#raham)s people the chosen people& Isaac is promised a !reat nation& %od uses co*enants to test 7oah (flood)( $#raham (sacrificin! Isaac)( and Gaco# (mo*in! his family to #uild a tri#ute)& The really uni;ue importance of co*enants can #est #e understood throu!h the story of =inah (3B)& 4e"uali y5 In &enesis( se+uality is somethin! to #e ashamed of& %ainin! kno"led!e is e;uated "ith !ainin! se+ual humility "hen $dam and E*e #ecome ashamed of their nakedness& 4e"ual + hics5 Se+ is appropriate and !oes unpunished #y !od and the community "hen families of those in*ol*ed ha*e formally appro*ed it or "hen those ha*in! se+ are doin! so "ith the intent of carryin! on a family line& The rape of =inah sho"s that &enesis is not tolerant of se+ual acts that do not ha*e formal and communal consent& Schehem is also punished #ecause he isn)t circumcised& The markin! of circumcision is only seen "hen a man is a#out to ha*e se+( "hich sho"s that a person)s mem#ership and association "ith a particular !roup is important e*en in the most intimate times& In contrast( Tamar is not punished #ecause she deser*ed impre!nation and /ot)s dau!hters are not punished #ecause they only seduced him in order to carry on the family line and& <nan( ho"e*er( is punished #ecause he "asted "hat could ha*e #ecome life and the Sodomites "anted to ha*e se+ that "ould not lead to reproduction( so %od destroyed them& 'hild0ir h5 %od has direct control o*er conception& The a#ility to ha*e children causes contempt (Sarah and Ha!ar)& Ha*in! children ensures that the family line "ill continue so in*estin! in an area of land or in a city #ecomes "orth"hile& %od !i*es fetuses to "omen to #alance une*en relationships& Since >achel and Gaco# hate /eah( %od opens /eah)s "om# and lea*es >achel Barren& %od !a*e /eah three sons to compel Gaco# to need /eah& $fter the sisters) maids #ore Gaco# children and /eah had more children( %od finally opens >achel)s "om#& >achel has a second son and dies after the hard la#or& $I. Comparisons %ith &ther Te'ts +a ing /rui 5 $dam( E*e( and Persephone all #ecome a"are of their se+uality from eatin! fruit& The fruit also marks a separation #et"een parent and child "here %od is the parent fi!ure in &enesis& With the attainment of se+ual kno"led!e( the characters from #oth te+ts step into adulthood& They remo*e responsi#ility for their actions from themsel*es& E*e attri#utes responsi#ility to the serpent and Persephone #lames Hades& This "ay( their deeds "ere reactions to a temptation( and not premeditated intentions& Persephone is tied to Hades #y eatin!( #ut $dam and E*e are e+iled& Dreams5 In the Iliad( $!amemnon is sent a dream of *ictory #ut he loses& =reams in the #i#le are portents of truth& Goseph)s t"o dreams a#out #ushels of "heat #o"in! to him and stars and the moon #o"in! to him are si!ns that his #rothers "ill #e su#ordinate to him& The pharaoh)s dreams a#out se*en skinny co"s and se*en fat co"s( and se*en ears of full corn and se*en ears of thin corn correctly predicted dreams that his #rothers) #ushels of "heat #o" do"n e*en years of plenty follo"ed #y se*en years of famine& &unishmen s5 The entire city of The#es suffers #ecause <edipus killed /aius& Similarly( %od "ould ha*e punished $#imelech)s entire kin!dom if he had se+ "ith Sarah& Thin!s happen to the nation on #ehalf of an indi*idual& Iirgini y5 8ir!inity is *alua#le and important in Hymn to Demeter and &enesis& Burial5 Proper #urial is important in &enesis (Sarah) and in the Odyssey& Gi/ 9s6 +"change5 $ny !ift that Gaco# !i*es to Esau is Esau !ettin! #ack "hat "as his in the first place& $#raham insists on payin! for the ca*e for Sarah #ecause he "ants the land to #elon! to him fore*er& This is compara#le to !iftin! and e+chan!in! in the Odyssey( and the Iliad% 'urses5 'lytaemnestra curses her son& Iphi!enia is !a!!ed so that she can not curse $!amemnon& Gaco# says "hoe*er took /a#an)s idols "ill #e cursed&

4acri/ices5 When 7oah lea*es the ark he sacrifices animals to !od and $#raham sacrifices a ram "hen %od says he can spare Issac& Sacrifices are important in the Iliad( Odyssey and Hymn to Demeter& %omose"uali y5 Sodom is destroyed in part #ecause of its e*il homose+ual practices( #ut in the Symposium( homose+uality is more *irtuous& $II. T(o Creation Stories C ose-)eading =ifferences #et"een the t"o creations stories e+emplify the multiple authorships in the Bible& The importance of #e!innin!s is emphasi:ed #y ha*in! t"o distinct descriptions of them& 'rea ion A 4& The first creation story has a hi!h le*el of !enerality& %od starts #y creatin! *ery a#stract cate!ories and mo*es to more specific cate!ories& (li!htday and ni!htli*in! creaturesman) 'reation $ illustrates the imposition of order on chaos& The process follo"s a certain order& The most #asic units are esta#lished first and then #uilt upon to make hi!her and more complicated units& The #eauty of the order of creation is cele#rated& ?& The replicated use of parallel structures makes any de*iation from the parallel structure stand out& .or e+ample( the use of 0and it "as !ood6 *erses 0and it "as so&6 Each ne" day starts "ith 0$nd then %od said(6 until the para!raph "here !od creates man( "hich starts( 0Then !od said&6 $fter %od created man( the te+t returns to usin!( 0$nd then %od said&6 3& $n emphasis is placed on the fertility of humans and ho" they should #e fruitful and multiply& 'rea ion B 4& Starts en medias res ?& The repeated use of Nand) causes hori:ontal mo*ement& 7othin! is su#ordinate to anythin! else& 0the /<>= %od formed man of dust from the !roundM$nd out of the !round the /<>= %od made to !ro" e*ery tree&6 The creation of man and plants are e+plained in *ery similar terms "here man is not e+plicitly superior to plants& 3& The t"o adjecti*es used in the main section detailin! creation (?2C 4O) are 0pleasant(6 and 0!ood&6 0The /<>= %od made to !ro" e*ery tree that is pleasant to the si!ht and !ood for food&6 $esthetics are mentioned #efore food( "hich is essential for sur*i*al( #ut $dam and E*e #ecome a"are of their #odies as *isual spectacles after they eat the fruit& B& Since "oman is created as a companion for man( the emotional ties #et"een men and "omen are e+plained& 'reation $ *s& Plural %od 0%od6 -an made last& E*erythin! made for man 'reated in 5 days Speech acts then rests %od is distant and all po"erful $ll thin!s come from %od)s speech acts& Women and men e;ual& 'reation B Sin!ular %od 0the /<>= %od6 -an created first& 'reated in one day %ro"in! and makin! %od is humanlike $ll thin!s come from the earth& Women are su#ordinate to man&

.amily Tree Adam (E*e) 000000000000000000000 !ain 4e h Abel (-any !enerations) #oah 000000000000000000000 Ham 4hem "apheth (-any !enerations) A0ram:(Sarai) 000000000000000000000 Ishmael -saac: (>e#ekah) sau Baco0:(/eah and >achel2 /a#an)s dau!hters( Bilhah( ,ilpah2 maids&) 1euben, Simeon, Le'i, "udah, Issachar, 2ebulon, Dan, 3a$tali, &ad, Asher, "oseph, Ben4amin, and Dinah% Bold indica es he hus0and o/ he 7omen in he )aren hesis and he /a her o/ he children lis ed in he ne" genera ion6 the dashed lines separate !enerations&

Go# Study %uide Summary of Te+t

There are t"o stories in Go# the framin! story "hich is ?&C chapters lon!( and the interior story( "hich is "ritten in poetry and is BO #ooks lon!& The #e!innin! prose introduces Go# as a N#lameless and upri!ht) man "ho "as *ery prosperous& %od con*erses "ith Satan( and #ra!s a#out Go#)s !oodness& Satan then challen!es %od to test Go#& %od does indeed test Go# and in one day four messen!ers come to Go# reportin! that his fields( li*estock( ser*ants( and children ha*e all #een #urned or perished& In response to this Go# still praises %od( "hich causes Satan to re;uest another test& This time %od afflicts Go# himself& Go#)s friends( Elipha:( Bildad( and ,ophar come to mourn "ith him and the poetry section of the te+t #e!ins& Go# #e!ins to speak after se*en days and a situation similar to that in The Symposium ensues "ith each of the men speakin! se*eral times on the su#ject of sufferin! (chapter 3 34)& The men tell stories and Go# ;uestions %od and the reasons for sufferin!& Go#(

"ho has faith in the le!al system( speaks of meetin! "ith %od and puttin! him on trial& ,ophar lea*es #efore the third round of speeches and is replaced #y Elihu( "ho is *ery youn!& Go# pays no attention to the speech that Elihu makes& Go# rests his case in chapter 34 and the Theophany( or seein! of %od( takes place from 39 B?& Go# ;uestions %od althou!h differently than he had practiced earlier( and %od ;uestions Go# to pro*e that Go# kno"s nothin!& Go# admits to %od)s unlimited po"er and Nrepents in dust and ashes6 (B?25)& The prose then returns for the last half of chapter B?( "hen He returnes to Go# his health and t"o fold his pre*ious fortune Historical #ack!round The #i#le deals "ith kno"led!e of sufferin! and %ods role& 7ot much is kno" a#out Go# e+cept that is "as "ritten #et"een the J th and 44th centuries B&'& The authors are not kno"n ho"e*er it is thou!ht that the prose "as "ritten "ell #efore the poetry& .or one of the first time the su#ject of indi*idual responsi#ility is #rou!ht into ;uestion as opposed to the !roup responsi#ility that "as assumed earlier& $nalysis of -ain characters Go# Go# is a %od fearin! man "ho %od #lessed "ith !ood fortune #ecause of his !oodness& Go# remains faithful durin! the first course of punishments and then starts to ;uestion sufferin! as the te+t pro!resses& Throu!h the con*ersations( Go# "ants to put %od on trial #ecause Go# has faith in the le!al system and "ants a reason for "hy he is sufferin!& Go# is a representation of mankind in totality here as he suffers e*en after #elie*in! in %od& Humans( as Go# does( "ant to ha*e reasons for their sufferin! and pain& Det throu!h this search for understandin! in the end the only thin! Go# understands is the po"er of %od and that there is no justification for his actions& %od In this te+t( %od tends to #e condescendin! especially compared to %enesis& He asks Go# "ho he is to ;uestion his po"er& %od tests Go# only to appease Satan and "ill pro*ide no e+planation to Go# as to "hy he made him suffer& Instead %od is sarcastic and put Go# #ack in his place& When Go# ;uestions %od and essentially put him on trial( %od pro*es that he is a#o*e the le!al process and a#o*e anythin! human& Because of his po"er and a#soluteness he does not need to ans"er ;uestions from a human& Elipha:( Bildad( and ,ophar Go#)s three friends ser*e as a forum for sufferin! and %od)s "ays to #e discussed& Elipha: kno" from e+perience and tries to !i*e ad*ice *ia that path"ay "hereas ,ophar kno"s #ecause of the di*ine& $nd so( a #alance is #ein! stuck as they lament o*er "hy %od "ould make them suffer& Their stories #ecome increasin!ly more unreasona#le as the te+t pro!resses& Satan Satan is not #ad as "e think of him to #e #ad( #ut rather the representation of the opposite of %od& Satan is also a hea*enly #ein! and therefore can talk to %od& Satan persuades %od to test Go# and to see if Go# is !ood #ecause he actually #elie*es in %od or #ecause he has #een prosperous& $a!or *hemes Lnderstandin! Sufferin! Humans ha*e trou#le understandin! "hy the %od that lo*es them and created them allo"s them to suffer& The mo*e to indi*idual responsi#ility comes into play in this te+t and Go# ;uestions "hy he( "ho is a faithful man( is #ein! punished "hile his nei!h#or( "ho is a sinful man( is #ein! re"arded& Go# thinks that the le!al system is the ans"er to his pro#lems #ecause the le!al system is a "ay of ;uestionin! the party "ho has done "ron! and findin! out "hy they did this thin!& Ho"e*er %od appears and Go# does not follo" throu!h "ith his plans of interro!atin! %od& Instead %od interro!ates Go# and sho"s Go# that not e*erythin! is suppose to make sense& Some thin!s( such as %od( are a#o*e reason and do not need reason to performH carry out a task and he e*en says that his po"er is #eyond di*ine justice and humans should not e+pect justification& This tension is amplified for the reader( as he kno"s that %od is only punishin! Go# #ecause Satan challen!ed him& 424 Go# #elie*es #lindly and is faithful 3 Go# curses the day that he "as #orn J Go# "as to contend "ith %od and #rin! him to trial 4O Go# is dissatisfied "ith %od and ;uestions "hy humans "ere made 3 34 the four men ;uestion "hy sufferin! e+ists and "hy %od inflicts it %od comes and uses rhetorical ;uestions to pro*e that Go# and humans are not "orthy of ;uestionin! %od %od emphasi:es that he is far a#o*e courts of la" and he does not ha*e to justify "hat he does to humans %od does say that "hile humans are nothin! compared to him( they are still important to him& Human Shortcomin!s $nother main theme and one that ties in closely "ith the pre*ious one is that of human shortcomin!s& Be!innin! "ith Go# prayin! for the sin of his children it is kno"n that humans are not perfect and they do not "orship perfectly& Go# then falls #y cursin! his o"n #irth and then "hen %od comes further alon!( Go# reali:es that speech is an imperfect "ay of #elie*in!( e*en thou!h %od had to sho" himself and speak to Go# for Go#)s faith to #e restored& Si!ht is a much more po"erful "ay of kno"in! and seein! %od is to reali:e all that you don)t kno"& Go# has this epiphany and reali:es the complete a"esomeness of %od in comparison to himself( "hile Elipha:( Bildad( and ,ophar are stuck on the physical ma!nitude of %od& Go# understands that #ecause he is human he cannot fully comprehend all that is %od and all that %od does& 'lose >eadin! 'hapter ?9 34 This speech of ;uestionin! deli*ered #y Go# is central to the human)s confusion concernin! %od& Go# compares humans to !ems and metals that are remo*ed from the earth and darkness( or unkno"in! in the case of the humans( to #e polished into #ri!ht sil*er or kno"in! of the !lory of %od& He sho"s all that man can do and kno" in comparison to animals in ?92K 44& Go# kno"s that man can accomplish much on his o"n and is a#le to kno" much&

In ?924? Go# addresses "hat he does not kno"& He asks the source of "isdom and ho" it( unlike sil*er( cannot #e found just #y lookin!& The *alue of "isdom is that a#o*e any earthly product and Go# says that %od is the only one "ho kno"s ho" to o#tain it& The fear of the lord is "isdom& Go# !oes on to e+plain that he had the fear of %od and that e*erythin! he did "as for the /ord #ut no" he is made fun of and has #een hum#led #y %od& This speech hi!hli!hts "hy Go#( and men in !eneral( are #affled #y the act of %od and are confused a#out the "ay to "isdom& Go# "as innocent( al"ays fearin! %od( and yet %od turned on him and struck him do"n& This #eha*ior is trou#lin! to the humans "ho do not understand ho" the /ord "orks& The main ar!ument of Go# lies in this speech and the unrest of humans is found in his "ords& %od speaks in response to this speech sayin! that Go# has no ri!ht to ha*e any of these ;uestions& 'onnec ions o o her e" s /ike The Symposium( this is a discussion of somethin! a#stract #y se*eral people "ith differin! opinions& Odyssey Go# has had #ad and !ood so he kno"s "hat !ood is& This is a more e+treme e+ample than the one found in the Odyssey B4&44 related to &enesis and the co*enant that $#raham has "ith %od& The conflict #et"een e+chan!e *ersus !i*in! and ho" since $dam e*erythin! is an e+chan!e rather than a !ift& $lso e+chan!e in Hymn to Demeter *he Gos)els o/ ,uke and Bohn $s E+plained #y2 %a#y $*ila Bront( $le+ Epstein( and %eo @arapetyan Plot Summary

$uke The $rchan!el %a#riel *isits ,echariah( "ho "as a priest( "hile he "as ser*in! and tells him that his old "ife Eli:a#eth is to !i*e #irth to a son "hose name is to #e Gohn( "ho "ould #e filled "ith the Holy Spirit and prepare the nation for the /ord& Det( due to his lack of faith( %a#riel makes ,echariah mute until the #irth of Gohn& Si+ months later the an!el !oes to a *ir!in named -ary "ho is en!a!ed to a man named Goseph and tells her that the Holy Spirit "ould impre!nate her "ith a son "hom she "ould call Gesus( "ho "ould #e the Son of the -ost Hi!h and ha*e an e*erlastin! kin!dom& In Bethlehem( Gesus is #orn in a man!er( and an!els tell shepherds of His #irth& When Gesus is t"el*e( his family tra*els to Gerusalem for Passo*er& When they lea*e( -ary and Goseph think that Gesus is "ith their relati*es( #ut they cannot find him& They return to Gerusalem and find him in the Temple& -any years later( Gohn #e!ins teachin! and #apti:in! and tellin! of He "ho is to come ('hrist)& E*entually( Gesus is #apti:ed and his linea!e is traced #ack to $dam& Gesus then !oes into the "ilderness and eats nothin! for forty days and is tempted #y the de*il "ho mocks and taunts him for #ein! the Son of %od& Gesus then #e!ins to collect disciples to follo" him( e*entually findin! t"el*e main me and later( se*enty others& =urin! Gesus) ministries( he heals many illnesses includin! #lindness( leprosy( and "ithered hands( and he cures people filled "ith demons& -oreo*er( he resurrects numerous indi*iduals and also pardons the sins of many& $ll of this is done throu!h faith& The Pharisees( ho"e*er( constantly try to find fla"s in Gesus) actions( yet Gesus al"ays finds a "ay out of their traps& Gesus tells numerous para#les throu!hout the te+tI some of the major ones include2 the para#le of the #rides "aitin! for the #ride!roomI the para#le of a man "ho thro"s a party and in*ites poor people to itI the para#le of the lost sheepI of the prodi!al sonI and the one of a man "ho plants a *ine in his home and is killed #y the ser*ants "ho tend it year after year& Some major e*ents and interactions durin! Gesus) ministry include2 Gesus 'hrist is in a #oat "ith his disciples and falls asleep "hile there is a storm and He reassures the disciples that no#ody "ould perish #ecause of their faith& He feeds the multitudes #y multiplyin! the t"o fish and fi*e loa*es of #read that a youn! #oy supplies him "ith& $ rich man asks Gesus 'hrist "hat he has to do to achie*e eternal life( and Gesus 'hrist tells him to o#ey the commandments and !i*e a"ay all of his fortune( "hich the man admits that he cannot do& To this( Gesus 'hrist says that it is easier for a camel to "alk throu!h the eye of a needle than a rich man to enter hea*en& He tells the citi:ens to !i*e 'aesar "hate*er #elon!s to him (ta+es) Lpon entry into Gerusalem( Gesus 'hrist prophesi:es the end of the "orld( "here one "ould see Gerusalem surrounded #y armies and for those "ho ha*e faith not to lose it #ecause they "ill #e sa*ed& He then eats for the last time "ith his disciples2 he !i*es them unlea*ened #read and "ine( and "ashes their feet to sho" them #rotherly lo*e& That ni!ht( Gesus 'hrist is arrested and put on trial #y his enemies( the reli!ious leaders of Israel& He is turned in #y his astray follo"er( Gudas( "ho sells the secret of his location& Pontius Pilate( the >oman !o*ernor of the area( finds Gesus not !uilty( #ut Pilate kno"s that he must crucify him in order to keep peace amon!st the nation of Israel& Gesus is crucified and #uried and then is resurrected on the third day follo"in! his death& He appears to his disciples a fe" days later&

John

"ohn #e!ins "ith a e+planation of the ori!in of Gesus 'hrist "ith respect to %od (0In the #e!innin! "as the Word and the Word "as "ith %od6)& $ description of the #irth of Gohn the Baptist is pro*ided as "ell& The te+t then skips some thirty odd years to the main part of Gesus) ministry& The first thin! Gesus does in the te+t is to turn "ater into "ine at a "eddin! upon the re;uest of his mother& /ater( he scolds the "orshippers at the Temple #ecause they are sellin! in the House of %od& He heals many indi*iduals throu!h faithI some e+amples include2 curin! #lindness and the resurrection of /a:arus& Gesus is follo"ed #y people #ecause they ate to their fill "ith him( #ut he tells them not to seek perisha#le #read( #ut e*erlastin! #read from his .ather& $lso( on numerous occasions Gesus tells his disciples that he "ill #e lea*in! soon and that one of them "ould #etray him( ho"e*er( they can ne*er understand "hat he means #y this& E*entually( "hile teachin! in the Temple( some ask him to stop speakin! in riddles and tell them "ho he truly is& <nce he does( some #elie*e his story "hile others do not& Still( some Ge"s continue to ask him "ho he is( and he tells them that #y no" they are so sinful that they no lon!er ha*e the same .ather as he does& $fter more healin!s( Gesus eats his last supper "ith his disciples& There are fe" major differences in description "hen comparin! this *ersion to the one in Lu*e& The fe" chan!es include that Gesus reassures his disciples that e*en after his death he "ill still #e "ith them& He then "ashes their feet( prophesi:es that Peter "ill a#andon him that ni!ht #efore the cock "ould cro" three times( and sends Gudas on his "ay to do his e*il deed& Gesus is arrested and "hen the soldiers come( Gudas identifies him #y kissin! him on the cheek& Peter then cuts the ear of one of the hi!h priest)s sla*es& /ater that ni!ht( Peter denies #ein! one of 'hrist)s disciples three times( fulfillin! Gesus) prophecy& Gesus is then put on trial and mocked for claimin! to #e the kin! of the Ge"s& Soldiers !am#led for his ro#e "hich "as "ithout seam( thus fulfillin! one of Isaiah)s prophecies& <n His cross "as "ritten 0Here /ies the @in! of the Ge"s&6 -ary -a!dalene returns to the tom# that follo"in! -onday and finds that the stone had #een remo*ed from the openin! of the tom#& She calls Peter and they find the linen in "hich Gesus 'hrist)s #ody had #een "rapped in a corner of the tom#& -ary stands "eepin! outside the tom# and she see a fi!ure "hich is 'hrist& He tells her not to touch her for 0SHeT had not yet ascended to the .ather&6 /ater that day( he *isits the $postles "ho are in hidin! for fear of the Ge"s& <ne of the $postles( Thomas( is missin! and "hen told that Gesus 'hrist had *isited them( did not #elie*e it "as true& Gesus comes later on to pro*e to Thomas that he had indeed risen from the dead& He then re*eals himself to the disciples a!ain #y tellin! them "here to cast their nets "hen they are fishin!& $nalysis of 'haracters Gesus His name means 0/ord( sa*e(6 and is also called 'hrist( "hich means 0anointed one6 and refers to his role as the -essiah( or Sa*ior& $s descri#ed in the %ospels( Gesus is the Son of %od the *ery human incarnation of %od #oth %od and human& He is sinless( has di*ine kno"led!e( and is a#le to o*ercome death and return to *isit his follo"ers& The central character of the entire 7e" Testament( the %ospels tell of his ministry( death( and miraculous resurrection from the dead& Both /uke and Gohn follo" Gesus) life( tellin! of the miracles he performs& Gohn refers to him as 0The true li!ht that enli!htens e*ery man6 (Gohn 42J) Gohn the Baptist son of the elderly Ge"ish parents Eli:a#eth and ,echariah( "ho "ere of a priestly family& Because his mother "as pre*iously #arren( his #irth "as miraculous& When an an!el told his father a#out his #irth( he "as prophesied to 0drink no "ine nor stron! drink(Mturn many of the sons of Israel to the /ord their %od(M!o #efore him in the spirit and po"er of Elijah(Mturn the hearts of the fathers to the children( and the diso#edient to the "isdom of the just( to make ready for the /ord a people prepared6 (/uke 424C 4K)& His mission "as to prepare the people for the comin! of the -essiah #y #apti:in! people "ith "ater& -ary The mother of Gesus( she is impre!nated #y %od( the Holy Spirit( "hile #etrothed to Goseph( and still a *ir!in& It is the an!el %a#riel "ho announces her pre!nancy to her( and she accepts the "ill of %od& She is one of the fe" "omen at the crucifi+ion and #urial of her Son& Goseph The hus#and of the 8ir!in -ary( and therefore the human representation of a father to Gesus& E i*abeth - the mother o+ ,ohn the Baptist- daughter o+ Aaron- and (i+e o+ .e#hariah. She (as barren unti she be#ame pregnant (ith her son. She is a so a re ati/e o+ the $irgin Mary- ma0ing ,ohn the Baptist a re ati/e o+ ,esus. .e#hariah 1 the husband o+ E i*abeth- and the +ather o+ ,ohn the Baptist. &n the o##asion o+ .e#hariahs2 duty o+ burning in#ense in the temp e at ,erusa em- an ange appeared to him- in+orming him that his prayers had been heard- and that his barren (i+e (ou d bear a son. Gudas Iscariot <ne of the first of the t"el*e disciples( and "as personally called #y Gesus& In follo"in! "ith Gesus) prediction( Gudas #etrays Gesus for money( to the 0chief priests and captains6 (/uke ??2B) after the /ast Supper( and therefore is the cause of Gesus) crucifi+ion& The T"el*e =isciples The first t"el*e =isciples of 'hrist "ere2 Simon Peter( $ndre"( Gohn( Games( /e*i( Philip( Bartholome"H7athanael( Thomas( Games the son of $lphaeus( Thaddeus( Simon the 'ananean( and Gudas Iscariot& In the %ospel of Gohn( ho"e*er( the disciple pre*eiously referred to as Bartholome" is no" called 7athanael& 'hrist appears to all of the disciples "ith the e+ception of Gudas Iscariot the man "ho

#etrayed Gesus& In the %ospel of Gohn( 'hrist appears to them t"ice for all e+cept Thomas( "ho( #ecause of his initial dou#t( "as a#sent for the first appearance& Pharisees and Scri#es The Pharisees "ere one of the major Ge"ish !roups durin! Gesus) lifetime& They had political po"er and "ould read the He#re" Scriptures "ith strict literalism and le!alism& Throu!hout each of the !ospels( they are hostile to"ards 'hrist( constantly testin! his character and kno"led!e of la"( as they feared that he mi!ht challen!e their la"s& The Scri#es "ere e+perts in the la" and interpretation of the scriptures( and "ere *ery likely the le!al counselors to the Pharisees& They "ere also a!ainst the 0mission6 of 'hrist( and "ere amon!st those "ho plotted 'hrist)s murder& Pilate The roman %o*ernor at the time of Gesus) death& $lthou!h he declares Gesus innocent of any crime( he is pressured into allo"in! the crucifi+ion( sentencin! 'hrist to death& -ary -a!dalene <ne of the "oman follo"ers of Gesus( and is one of the "omen "ho sees the crucifi+ion and #urial of 'hrist( and "ho !oes to the tom# on the third day after his death to attend to the #ody& In the %ospel of /uke( 'hrist remo*es e*il spirits from her( "hile in the %ospel of Gohn( she is the first person to "hom 'hrist appears once resurrected& /a:arus Gohn tells the story of his resurrection as the se*enth and last miracle that Gesus performs in his !ospel& In this miracle( Gesus raises /a:arus( the #rother of -ary and -artha( after #ein! dead for four days& Gohn interprets the si!nificance of /a:arus) story from a statement that Gesus makes2 0I am the resurrection and the lifeI he "ho #elie*es in me( thou!h he die( yet shall he li*e( and "hoe*er li*es and #elie*es in me shall ne*er die6 (Gohn 442?C ?5)& /a:arus( a friend of Gesus( is typical of all human #ein!s "ith the presence of the Spirit of %od( one is no lon!er dead( #ut instead partakes of the (spiritual) life that is eternal& $n!el %a#riel $n archan!el of %od a messen!er "ho announces the future #irths of #oth Gesus and Gohn the Baptist& Goseph of $rimathea The follo"er of 'hrist "ho secretly asks Pilate for the permission to take the dead #ody of Gesus for a proper Ge"ish #urial& He remo*es Gesus from the cross( co*ers his #ody in the traditional ointments and linens( and #uries him in an empty tom#& $a!or *hemes Lu*e 4) In*ersion ('haismus) -uch of the structure in Lu*e is presented in the in*ersion style( "hich emphasi:es the chan!e in status #et"een the "orld and the afterlife& Gesus( the son of %od( is #rou!ht to earth to li*e amon! the lo"liest indi*iduals rather than in lu+ury and comfort& This in*ersion allo"s for the concentration on the afterlife rather than on the "orldly2 those "ho are poor no" #ecome rich after death( and *ice *ersa& -ajor e+amples include2 4) 32C 0E*ery *alley shall #e filled( and e*ery mountain and hill shall #e #rou!ht lo"M6 Gesus is ;uotin! Isaiah)s prophecy and #e!ins the pattern of in*ersion ?) 52?O ?5 Gesus preaches to the disciples that those "ho are poor "ill reap in hea*en( "hile those "ho ha*e plenty no" shall hun!er later 3) 4?23 Gesus speaks to his disciples2 0Whate*er you ha*e said in the dark shall #e heard in the li!ht( and "hat you ha*e "hispered in pri*ate rooms shall #e proclaimed upon the housetops&6 B) 4524J 34 Gesus tells the story of /a:arus and the rich man( in "hich the poor and sick /a:arus #ecomes comforted in hea*en( "hile the rich man suffers in Hades C) 4K233 Gesus speaks the disciples a#out !ainin! e*erlastin! life2 0Whoe*er seeks to !ain his life "ill lose it( #ut "hoe*er loses his life "ill preser*e it&6 This techni;ue of in*ersion is present in all three le*els of Lu*e2 the structural form of the sentence( in the para#les and miracles( and finally( in the !eneral theolo!y of 'hristianity (Gesus comes to sa*e the sinners and not the rich)& $t the same time( ho"e*er( it is important to note that some of the in*ersions ha*e no counterparts2 in many of the miracles( the #lind or the mute are !i*en the a#ility to see or speak( respecti*ely( and yet( there is no foilFno one is made #lind literally& Det( spiritually( those "ho ha*e no faith in Gesus (and thus cannot reap the #enefits of his po"ers) are #lind to his "orks and his di*inity& .aith .aith is of primary consideration in Lu*e rather than the idea of o#edience( "hich is found in &enesis& While the t"o may appear to #e e;ui*alent( no physical action is necessary to pro*e one)s faithFonly spiritual and emotional responses are considered& The idea of faith is pre*alent throu!hout the te+t( particularly in the conte+t of the miracles and the para#les( "here the faithful are #lessed and the faithless critici:ed& -ajor e+amples2 4) 92B3 B9 While passin! throu!h a city( Gesus is mo##ed #y people and a sick "oman touches Gesus) clothes so that she may #e healed& Gesus stops and demands to kno" "ho touched him& The "oman professes her faith( and Gesus responds( 0=au!hter( your faith has made you "ellI !o in peace&6 ?) 4J23C B3 <nce a!ain( Gesus heals a #lind man #ecause he claimed his faith in Gesus& 3) 7umerous para#les deal almost e+clusi*ely "ith the idea of faith to %od and the re"ards that follo" (The .aithful Ste"ard in 4?2B? 9 and the Prodi!al Son in 4C244 3? are key)& In the midst of all this faith( there are instances of faithlessness2 the actions of the disciples are !ood instances& .or e+ample( the disciples are ne*er truly con*inced of Gesus) di*inityI they continually ;uestion him( and e*en "hen he has risen a!ain( some still do not #elie*eFand yet( they are chosen #y Gesus to continue his "ork& .urthermore( Peter refuses to ackno"led!e his relationship to Gesus after Gesus is captured& $lthou!h this "as predicted #y Gesus( Peter)s faithlessness should still #e noted&

?)

Gohn 4) $fterlife The idea of life after death is of main concern in "ohn( as it "as in Lu*e( as "ell& Gesus comes to earth in the interest of sa*in! souls and offerin! 0eternal life6 (3245 and 4?2BK)& This is the essence of Gesus) ministries( and therefore Gohn)s account of Gesus) life& While Gesus tra*els( he often speaks that those connected "ith the "orld "ill not cannot reap the #enefits of the afterlife2 4) 92?3 B Gesus speaks in the temple2 0Dou are from #elo"( I am from a#o*eI you are of this "orld( I am not of this "orld&6 This idea connects "ith Gesus) sayin!s that it is only throu!h him that man can come to hea*en (4B25)& ?) 4?2?O In a para#le a#out a seed( Gesus says( 0He "ho lo*es his life loses it( and he "ho hates his life in this "orld "ill keep it for eternal life& 3) 4K2J Gesus prays to %od2 0I am not prayin! for the "orld #ut for those "hom thou hast !i*en me&6 By not prayin!Hspeakin! for the "orld( and those associated "ith it( Gesus e+cludes them from the possi#ility of a #lessed afterlife& Det( then the ;uestion remains as to ho" does one actually lea*e the "orld( #ecome fa*ored #y Gesus( and li*e fruitfully in the afterlife& Gesus speaks of "orship (B2?? ?3)( faith #y follo"in! (924?)( and o#edience in the form of lo*e (4B2?3) as the keys to a #lessed eternal life& StasisHThe Essence of E+istence "ohn is a te+t that is *ery stationary in terms of synta+& >ather than incorporatin! *er#s of action and descri#in! the pro!ress of e*ents( ideas and indi*iduals are descri#ed only in the conte+t that is rele*ant to the te+t& .or e+ample( the narrati*e #e!ins #y descri#in! the creation of the "orld and incorporatin! Gesus into the creation (somethin! &enesis does not do)& The te+t then skips directly to the start of Gesus) ministry( skippin! thirty years in his life to the part that is of main interest& Therefore( there is no idea of 0#ecomin!6 in "ohn( only e+istence in the present is *alued& $lso( as "as pre*iously discussed in class( the openin! lines of the te+t (424 C) reflect the stasis nature of the te+t2 *er# usa!e is limited to stationary "ords such as 0"as6 and 0has&6 This is rather odd for a te+t that is descri#in! the creation of the entire "orld( "hich should theoretically #e full of action and mo*in! e*ents& Instead( the te+t e+presses this creation "ith minimal action2 0In the #e!innin! "as the Word( and the Word "as "ith %od( and the Word "as %od& $ll thin!s came into #ein! throu!h himM6 (424 3)&

?)

Quick Notes of Comparison between the

ospels

4) Para#le *& -etaphor /uke relies more hea*ily on the para#le style (Gesus tells a story that is related his mission on earth) to con*ey his messa!e to the pu#lic( "hereas Gohn uses the metaphor (Gesus is 0the Word6 S424BT( 0the #read of life6 S523CT( the 0!ood shepherd6 S4O24BT( and 0the true *ine6 S4C24T throu!hout the te+t&)& ?) Presence of Gesus Gesus is fre;uently present in Lu*e( "hile in "ohn Gesus is constantly !oin! a"ay form the masses and spendin! time alone& .or e+ample( in Gohn K24O Gesus lea*es his disciples and 0S!oesT up( not pu#licly( #ut in pri*ate&6 $lso( in "ohn( Gesus speaks much less fre;uently than in Lu*e& 3) The Human and =i*ine Sides of Gesus Lu*e2 Gesus is in theory a #iolo!ical descendant of %od ("hile Gesus has no relation to Goseph( /uke incorporates a lon! listin! of descendents) and is #orn of -ary& In the di*ine sense( he is metaphorically associated as the Son of %od& "ohn2 Physically( Gesus is the manifestation of the Word into flesh (424B)( "ith no direct ties to the earth or -ary as his mother (oddly enou!h ho"e*er( -ary is referred to on numerous occasions as Gesus) motherF4J2?C is an e+ample)& <n a spiritual le*el( Gesus is di*ine as the true Son of %od( no ;uestions asked& 'lose >eadin! /uke /uke( 52?O B5 The passa!e from chapters ?O to B5 descri#es the kin!dom of 'hrist( and "hat it means to reach it& 'hrist delineates that sufferin! in this "orld "ill #e re"arded in the ne+t (the ne+t #ein! an e*erlastin! kin!dom)& In chapters ?O to ?5( he classifies people into cate!ories "hich "ill rejoice on the day of jud!ment (i&e& those "ho are hun!ry( persecuted unjustly and not consoled)( and "hich "ill #e led to demise on that day (i&e& the rich( the satiated and those "ho li*e in lu+ury)& In the follo"in! chapters (?K B5) Gesus tells his follo"ers ho" to li*e their li*es( "ith the 0ne" commandment6 he has !i*en them (this commandment #ein! to lo*e one another and for!i*e those "ho do us "ron!)( and to li*e their li*es "ithout passin! jud!ment on others and !i*in! as much as they can and "ith all their hearts& This passa!e encompasses the 0chiasmus6 of the %ospel accordin! to /uke& Here( as #efore( there is an emphasis on the s"itchin! of roles that occurs as a result not of ac;uired "ealth( #ut of deeds done in one)s lifetime& The 0inner self6 is #rou!ht into li!ht( a concept that !o*erns much of Gesus) teachin!s& It is a self "hich must #e in contact "ith %od( and "hich must ha*e faith in the po"er that %od has to redeem and to make !ood "hat #e!ins as #ad2 0Blessed are you that "eep no"( for you shall lau!h6 (/uke( 52?4)& The 0chiasmus6 (or re*ersal of roles "hich ha*e opposite endpoints #ut cross paths on their "ays there) of this passa!e maps out "hat is no" and "hat "ill happen& It reinforces the duality of life and ho" the afterlife is somethin! completely different and unkno"n to the rules of manI for e+ample( Gesus does not ha*e to pro*e to the Pharisees anythin! and does not "ash himself #efore dinin! "ith them& It is thou!h this in*ersion that Gesus #rin!s to li!ht in his ne" "ay of li*in!& In fact( this in*ersion #ecomes more of a "ay to dissol*e the past and start ane" "ith his follo"ers than it is an addition onto the old rules& <n the final day of jud!ment( there "ill #e more

chiasmus and durin! this time( they "ill #e made literal& In the end of this passa!e( readers #ecome a"are that it is a person)s faith "hich lifts them to an eternal life& ,ohn And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth; we have beheld his glory, glory as of the only Son from the Father, (John bore witness to him, and cried, This was he of whom I said, He who comes after me ranks before me, for he was before me.) And from his fullness have we all received, grace upon grace. For the law was given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ. No one has ever seen God; the only Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, he has made him known. (John 1:14-18) The passage in verses14-18 explains the significance of Christs appearance on Earth. As Johns primary mission in writing his gospel was to prove the existence of Jesus as the Son of God, Jesus deity is constantly emphasized. John describes metaphorically how God became human in the body of Jesus, and the good characteristics that he embodies. Johns reaffirmation of Jesus as the Son of God is used as further proof of his existence. The structure used in the sentences is characterized by its use of repetition of sentence content by the rearranging its context. Johns heavy reliance on the words used emphasizes his own belief in the extreme significance of Jesus words. Throughout the text, we know that John uses Jesus words as a tool for the gaining of followers the Word is the Spirit of God, and it is permeated through the body of Christ and through his Words to the people who become his followers. These Words show the glory and grace of God. And because no one has ever seen God, Jesus uses his words and therefore has made him known. 4ome Huick 'om)arisons o O her *e" sJ /uke 4) ?) Gesus and =ionysus In #oth te+ts( the leaders of !roups are tryin! to persuade people to follo" them and "orship them& In Lu*e( ho"e*er( those "ho follo" Gesus are re"arded spiritually and in the afterlife& =ionysus promises only physical re"ards& .amily >elationships Gesus tells many to lea*e their families (J25O 5?) for 0no one "ho puts his hand to the plo" and looks #ack is fit for the kin!dom of %od&6 In &enesis( ho"e*er( the major theme that carries the te+t is !enerations and the importance of #iolo!ical families& Lu*e( on the other hand( deals e+clusi*ely "ith the #ond #et"een indi*iduals and Gesus( and the ne"( spiritual family that is present "ith %od as the father& Gohn 4) /o*e in Symposium( %od in "ohn In Symposium( Plato descri#es ho" #eauty is represented on earth in the form of #eautiful #oys( #ut their #eauty is not as !reat as the a#stract form of #eauty itself& In the same sense( %od comes to earth in the form of Gesus( "hich then raises the ;uestion( is Gesus imperfectP If so( ho" can Gesus #e imperfect if he is a part of %od (0the Word "as %odMand the Word #ecame flesh6 S424(4T)P This contradiction is one to #e noted& Worship *& <#edience &enesis and "ob call for o#edience for %od in order to recei*e #lessin!s and re"ards& "ohn( ho"e*er( claims that "orship and faith are the necessary elements to enjoy the re"ards of !od&

?)