APPENDIX

An m n matrix is a rectangular array consisting of m horizontal rows and n vertical columns. We say that 2 1 4 the size of the matrix is m by n or that its size is m n. Consider the matrix A = . This has 0 5 1 two horizontal rows and three vertical columns, so this is a 2 3 matrix. The entries in the matrix are called its components. To add or subtract matrices, they must be the same size. In this case we add or 2 1 4 5 2 3 subtract them component-wise (that is, entry by entry). Thus, to add A = and B = 0 5 1 1 2 0 we get A + B = just 2 + 5 1 + 2 0+1 5+2 4 + 3 1+0 or just 7 1 1 1 7 1 . Similarly, A B = 2 5 1 2 4 3 01 52 10 or

3 3 7 1 3 1

. We can multiply a matrix by a constant k by multiplying each component by k. Thus = 10 5 20 0 25 5 . The following is true of matrices.

5A =

5 2 5 1 5 4 50 55 51

Theorem A.1 If A, B, and C are matrices of the same size and k is a constant, then (a) A + B = B + A, (b) A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B ) + C, (c) k( A + B ) = k A + kB . b1 b2 If A = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is a 1 n matrix and B = . . . is an n 1 matrix, then we can dene the product of A ... bn 1 by B as the number a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 + . . . + anbn . Thus, to multiply A = 4 2 1 by B = 2 we get the 3 number 4 1 + 2 2 + 1 3 or 5. If A is an m n matrix and B is an n p matrix (that is, if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B ), then we can multiply AB to get an m p matrix. The entry in the i th row and j th column of AB is the product of the i th row of A multiplied by the j th column of B . Thus, to multiply 1 6 4 6 3 the 2 3 matrix A = by the 3 2 matrix B = 5 2 , we get the 2 2 matrix 2 1 0 7 3 AB = 4 2 6 3 1 0 1 5 7 6 2 = 3 13 3 3 14

724

Appendix

obtained as follows: The entry in the rst row rst column of our answer, namely 13, is the product of the 1 rst row of A or 4 6 3 multiplied by the rst column of B namely 5 . This yields 4 1 + 6 5 + 7 3 7 or 13. Similarly, the entry 3 in the rst row second column of AB is obtained from multiplying the rst 6 row of A by the second column of B. That is, 4 6 3 2 or just 4 6 + 6 2 + 3 3 = 3, and so on. 3 The graphing calculators of today easily multiply matrices. A square matrix is a matrix that has the same number of rows as columns. Square matrices that have 1s along the diagonals and 0 s everywhere else are called identity matrices. Below, we see two of them. 1 0 0 I3 = 0 1 0 . 0 0 1

I2 =

1 0

0 1

and

If X is any matrix and, if we compute I X where I is the identity matrix that makes the multiplications dened, we get X. Thus, multiplying a matrix by an identity matrix does not change the matrix. If A is a square matrix having n rows and n columns, then A is said to have an inverse if there is a square matrix B (necessarily n by n) such that AB = B A = In . B is called the inverse of A and is denoted by A1 . There is only one inverse of a matrix and it can easily calculators. most2 graphing be found with 1 3 5 1 2 4 3 1 and we can verify that AA1 = I3 . Here are some examples: If A = 0 3 1 , then A1 = 0 1 3 6 1 0 0 2 0 0 2 Some properties of matrix multiplication follow. Theorem A.2 If A, B, and C are matrices such that the matrix multiplications and additions are dened, and k is a constant, then (a) A( BC ) = ( AB )C, (b) A( B + C ) = AB + AC, (c) A(kB ) = k ( AB ), (d) AIn = A. If we have a system of linear equations, say 3x + 3 y + 7z = 30 4x y + z = 5 7x + y z = 6, we can write this system in matrix form as 3 4 7 30 x 3 7 1 1 y = 5 6 z 1 1

(A.1)

30 x 3 3 7 or just AX = B where A = 4 1 1 X = y and B = 5 . The AX = B form looks just like the 6 z 7 1 1 simple equation 3x = 9 that we solved in elementary algebra. There we solved by multiplying both sides of the equation by 1/3 or 31 . This suggests that we solve AX = B by multiplying both sides by A1 . If we do this, we get A1 ( AX) = A1 B

Appendix

725

which, by the associative law of multiplication of matrices, gives us ( A1 A) X = A1 B or just I3 X = A1 B . Since I3 X = X this gives us the solution right away: X = A1 B . A calculator easily computes A1 for us, and using the calculated value we get X = A1 B 30 0 1/11 1/11 = 1/10 26/55 5/22 5 6 1/10 9/55 3/22 1 = 2. 3 1 x Since X = y = 2 , x = 1, y = 2, and z = 3. We can check in ( A.1) that this works. 3 z a b , we dene the determinant of A, denoted by det ( A) or | A | to be the c d number ad bc , and the following is easy to verify by straight multiplication. For a 2 2 matrix A = Theorem A.3 If A is a 2 2 matrix and det ( A) = / 0, then A has an inverse. The inverse is given by d ad bc = c ad bc b 1 ad bc or just a ad bc ad bc d c b a

A1

If A is a 3 3 matrix, say a A = d g b e h c f i e h f i b det d g f i + c det d g e h

then we dene the determinant of A to be the number a det a(ei f h) b(di f g ) + c (dh ge ) which in turn equals aei + bf g + cdh gec hf a idb. This is easier to remember by lining up A next to itself as follows: a d g b e h c f i a d g b e h c f i

(A.2)

and multiplying the numbers diagonally, starting with a. On the rst diagonal we have a, e , and i which we have bolded. We multiply them. On the second diagonal we have b, f , and g . We multiply them. On the third diagonal we have c , d , and h. We multiply them. We now add the three products we get. This gives us the rst half of ( A.2). The next three products are subtracted. They come from multiplying the diagonal entries starting at the lower left hand corner, g . On that rst diagonal, you see g , e , and c . We multiply them.

726

Appendix

On the second diagonal we see h, f , and a. We multiply them. On the third diagonal we see i , d , and b. We multiply them. We subtract these three products from the rst 3 we added, and we get our determinant. This seems rather difcult. And the denition of determinants of larger matrices becomes even more complex. Whatever the size of a matrix, its determinant is denoted by det (A) or |A|. Most graphing calculators compute the determinant of a matrix for us. There are some theorems about determinants that are useful to know. Here is one. Theorem A.4 If we interchange two rows of a matrix, the determinant of the resulting matrix will be the same as the original, except that the sign will change. So, for example, if we compute det we get 17, while if we compute the determinant of the matrix 3 3 7 2 3 where we have switched rows we get 17, the opposite. Similarly, det 4 1 1 = 110 while 5 1 7 1 1 7 1 1 det 4 1 1 , where we have switched the rst and third row of the original matrix, is 110 as you can 3 3 7 easily check on your calculator. There is a similar theorem for switching two columns. The following is a famous theorem. Theorem A.5 (a) If A is a square matrix and if det( A) = / 0, then A has an inverse. (b) If A and B are square matrices of the same size, then det ( AB ) = det( A) det ( B ). One last thing. Suppose that we have the system of equations ax + by = e cx + dy = f e b f d ab c d a e c f ab c d 5 2 1 3

Then we can solve for x and y using determinants. Namely, x =

and y =

. This is known as

Cramers Rule. To illustrate, the solution of

3x + 2 y = 7 is, x = x 2 y = 3

7 2 3 2 3 2 1 2

= 1 and y =

3 7 1 3 3 2 1 2

= 2.

Student Learning Opportunities

1 5 4 2 2 1 1 2 3 , and D = 3 1 Given A = B = 0 3, C = 2 . Perform each of the 3 2 4 5 6 4 1 5 1 following operations or tell if an operation is undened. Do it by hand and then check your answer with the calculator. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) AB BA A+B B+D 4B 3D

Appendix

727

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

3A det ( A ) det (C ) det (DA) det (AD) A2 C3 A= 2 1 , 3 2 B = 4 2 3 , 1

2 Verify the Associative Law (AB)C = A (BC), for the matrices C = 5 7 9 6

. Do it by hand and then check your answer using the calculator.

3 Verify that det (AB) = det A det B for the matrices from Question 2. Dont use the calculator. 4 Pick any two 3 3 matrices of your choice, A and B , and using the calculator show that det (AB) = det A det B . 5 Solve the following systems of equations by using inverses of the matrices. Check your answer. (a) 2x + 3 y 7x 2 y +y 2 y +y =5 =7 z = 5 +4z = 2 +z = 9

4x (b) 3x x

6 Determine the inverse of each of the following matrices by hand or with the calculator. (a) 5 6 1 2

4 2 3 (b) 3 1 5 0 2 0 7 Show that, if AB = BA, then both A and B must be square matrices of the same size. 8 Using matrices nd the equation of the parabola passeing through the three points (1, 3), (3, 13), and (7, 57). 9 Suppose that we have a 3 3 matrix and switch rows 1 and 3 rst and then rows 2 and 1 in the resulting matrix. How does the determinant of the nal matrix compare with that of the original? Explain. 10 Solve the following systems of equations using Cramers Rule (a) 2x + 3 y = 8 4x y = 2 3x 2 y = 5 4x y = 3

(b)