What are the practical implications

of providing on-site wind turbine

technology to generate 10% of the
energy consumption of a non-
domestic building?
Christlne lowry
IDBE 12
University of Cambridge
Januat)l 2008
Contents
1 Introduction 4
2 Wind 11
2.1 Introduction 11
2.2 Wind Speed 11
2.2.1 The assessment of Wind Speeds 13
2.3 The Local Effect of Obstructions 16
2.4 Wind Quality 17
2.5 Existing Turbine installation Analysis 18
3 Planning 21
3.1 Introduction 21
3.2 Planning Policy 21
3.3 Obtaining planning permission for wind turbine installations 23
3.3.1 Sites of specific interest 24
3.3.2 Visual Impact 24
3.3.3 Noise 25
3.3.4 Safety 26
3.3.5 Interference with Electromagnetic Transmissions 26
3.3.6 Shadow Flicker and Reflected Light 27
3.3.7 Air Traffic Safeguarding 27
4 Grid connection 31
4.1 Introduction 31
4.2 Connection to the national grid - distributed generation. 31
4.3 The effect wind turbines will have on grid characteristics 35
4.3.1 Harmonics 35
4.3.2 VoHage Rise 36
Page 2 of 91
4.3.3 Thermal capacity
4.3.4 Fault
4.3.5 Reverse Power flows
4.3.6 Conclusions
4.4 Financial Incentives for exporting electricity to the grid
4.4.1 Renewables Obligation Certificates
4.4.2 Feed in Tariffs
4.5 The process required 10 grid connect a turbine
4.6 Selling electricity back to the grid
5 Procurement
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Introduction
Availability of wind turbines
Merchant Wind Power
Project Management
Second hand wind turbines
6 Conclusion
Appendix A - Wind Turbine Sizing
Appendix B - Existing Wind Turbine Analysis
Appendix C - Average Capacity Factor
Appendix D - Export Tariffs
Appendix E - Wind Turbine Manufacturers
Appendix F - Consultees to the Planning Process
Bibliography
References
Page:3 of 91
36
36
37
37
37
37
38
39
40
44
44
44
48
48
49
51
1 Introduction
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was adopted
in 1992. Set up to enable global co-operation In addressing the reduction of global
warming it was the Impetus for adoption of the Kyoto Protocol. With the primary aim of
reducing greenhouse gas emissions the protocol introduced firm and binding
commitments for each of the developed nations to meet. It was understood that this
would be the key to sending a strong enough message to convince people to act on
climate change. The Kyoto Protocol was first adopted in 1997 finally coming into force in
February 2005 with each country having a specified level of reduction required to be met
by 2012. The UK must limit its greenhouse gas emissions to 92% of 1990 levels'. This
forms the UK's part of the overall picture to reduce global carbon emissions by 5%.
It Is internationally recognised that climate change is being fuelled by the change In
human activities since the Industrial revolution. The intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change OGPCC) have provided compelling scientific evidence concluding 'Warming of
the cllmste system is unequivocal' 'Global atmospheric concentrations of CO
2
, methane
and narous oxide have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750'
They surmise that it is 'very iikely' that this is due to the observed increase in
anthropogenic global greenhouse gas concentrations.
2
In response to the greenhouse gas emissions targets set out in the Kyoto Protocol the
UK Government set a domestic goal to go beyond the Kyoto commitment and cut
emissions of carbon dioxide (C0
2
) to 20% below 1990 levels by 2010. The Energy White
Paper 'Our energy future - creating a low carbon economy' (2003) also set a further
long-term goal of reducing CO
2
emissions by 60% below current levels by 2050
3
The
White Paper Identifies two solutions to achieve the goal: Reduce the amount of energy
we consume and substantially increase our renewable energy generation. A
considerable proportion of all UK CO, emissions come from the generation of electricity.
Increasing renewable energy generation will therefore playa vital role in reducing these.
Emphasis is also placed on increasing local electricity generation, feeding distributed
networks and using the national grid as a buffer for excess capacity.
Renewable energy sources currently contribute to around 4%' of the UK's electricity
needs. To meet the UK govemment's renewable energy targets this contribution will
need to be increased to 10% by 2010, 15% by 2015, with an aspirational target of 20%
by 2020'. The increased development of renewable energy resources is essential to the
delivery of UK commitments on both climate change and renewable energy.
Page 4 0191
Renewable technologies have low CO, emissions, illustrated in Table 1, making them
highly desirable in the quest to reduce greenhouse gases. For every 1 GW of fossil fuel
fired electricity generation capacity displaced by an equivalent amount of renewable
electricity, carbon emissions would be around O.7MtC to 1.5MtC lower"
CO, Emissions (Tonnes per GWbj
Tecbnotol!.V Fuel Extraction Construction Operation Total
Coal-fired [5] I I 962 %4
AFBC t 1 961 963
IGeC 7.J8 751
Oil-tired 726 726
Gas-fired 4&.1 4&.1
cyrEc NiA .. 3UU 3W
Geothermal <1 1 56 57
Small hydro NiA
J()
!'if A 10
Nuclear (61 -2
I 5 8
Wind NiA 7 NiA 7
Photovoltaics NtA 5 NfA 5
Largchydro Nih .. NIA ..
Solar thermal N/A 3 NlA 3
Wood [71 -1509 3 13.J6 -160
Table 1: CO
2
emissions from different forms of electricity generation'
The Energy White Papers, Our Energy Future (2003) and Meeting the Energy Challenge
(2007) inform and encourage UK planning legislation and building regulations with
respect to adopting higher levels of renewable technologies. This provides the impetus
to ensure the country responds to the overall aims and objectives of the white paper. In
particular Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy (PPS22)8 has been
developed to give guidance on key principles the local planning authorities should
adhere to in their approach to planning for renewable energy. It acknowledges the
increased use of renewables as essential in achieving the government's commitments
on both climate change and renewable energy and encourages local planning authorities
to set targets for the minimum amount of installed capacity for renewable energy in their
region. The Importance of small scale renewable energy developments is also
emphasised with a statement that such schemes should be specifically encouraged.
The building regulations were updated in 2006 introducing the concept that every
building shOUld limit their carbon emissions creating an annual building CO, emission
rate (BER) for all new buildings'. Accomplished via a combination of energy efficient
measures and use of renewable or low carbon technologies, the regulations require an
improvement of approximately 23% for naturally ventilated buildings and 28% for alr-
conditioned buildings over the 2002 standard. The Intention is for the improvement over
Page 5 0191
the 2002 benchmark to gradually be lowered. It is difficult to reduce the energy
efficiency of a building to the 44% target without introducing an element of renewable or
low carbon technologies into the design.
The Code for sustainable homes already includes mandatory requirements for reducing
carbon emissions to achieve the different levels of compliance. It has been proposed
that the building regulations improvement over time for dwellings reduces the carbon
emissions from buildings by 25% in 2010, 44% in 2013 achieving zero carbon in 2016
10
,
These improvements are set against the benchmark of the 2006 building regulations.
These targets will drive the requirements for renewable technologies.
The range of technologies that are currently available to be considered for meeting a
renewable energy target imposed on a development are as follows:
Photovoltaic cells to generate electricity
Solar thermal panels to generate hot water
Biomass fuels to generate heat and electricity
Wind turbines to generate electricity
Ground Source Heat Pumps to increase the efficiency of heating and cooling
systems
Hydro electric systems
When considered in parallel wind energy has the ability to provide the most cost
effective yield of power for the capital cost investment in the technology making it an
attractive and viable economic option. Wind power has been identified as 'the most
successful and fastest spreading renewable energy technology in the UK'" It is also
being increasingly recognised that smaller equipment installed at the point of use
particularly in urban settings, can also play an important role in reducing carbon
emissions.
"Wind technology is currently one of the most cost-effective renewable energy
technologies"" This is due primarily to the scale of unHs that can be applied and their
operational efficiency as compared with aHemative technologies. European thinking
comes to a similar conclusion. Data from The European Renewable Energy Study
(TERES II) (DG XVII), indicates that wind may become one of the cheapest renewable
energy sources with prices comparable to traditional fossil fuel generation." Figure one
Page 6 of 1;)1
illustrates how the cost of saving CO
2
compares to the other major renewable
technologies. (WTG represents Wind Turbine Generator)
1200

1000
.g
u
0
BOO ..

~
600 ~ . .
c
-

200
w

WOC!.
Cost of C02 reduction using renewables
Compru-ed with cctWentiOl"laJ fossillue/tad tchndq;Jies in 1995
,.
15 24
51
-
--
WTG WTG BIo;jas WTG
450 225 :IOkW
kW kW
1152
~ 3 ~
..
H_
P\I
pump 100m2
Figure 1: Cost per ton of avoided CO, emissions for different technologies"
Wind turbines are also efficient to manufacture as they are one of the simpler renewable
technologies. There are no significant energy draining processes required to produce the
wind turbine generator, blades or mounting tower. On average a modem wind turbine
will generate as much energy as the amount required to manufacture it in just 3 to 4
months."
The costs of wind turbine installations continue to fall. This is primarily due to the
reduction in unit cost of manufacture with the economies of scale involved now
manufacturers are producing increasing numbers of individual units. This indicates that
wind turbines are a good choice for incorporating into a building scheme to meet a
renewable technology or carbon emissions reduction target.
The intrinsic cleanness of wind energy generation is undisputed. A wind turbine
generator emits a fraction of the NO, and SO, emissions of conventional gas, oil and
coal fired generation. In addition wind energy generation doesn't produce alrbome
particulates, carbon monoxide or hydrocarbons which when combined with nitrous
oxides in the atmosphere become irritants at ground level. There are no dangerous
waste products such as with nuclear power generation. Most parts of a wind turbine can
be recycled making decommissioning relatively straightforward and not too costly.
Another attractive bonus in favour of wind energy is the minimal remedial works required
once a wind turbine has ended its life. it is possible to leave the site it was erected on as
Page 7 of 91
it was found with relative ease. Extensive remedial works to clean up the landscape are
not required.
The UK govemment are currently actively generating a demand for renewable
technologies through policy, regulation and financial incentives. This political enthusiasm
has filtered down through planning policy and building regulations to affect new and
existing building developments. Policies target reducing carbon emissions through
improved efficiency and the incorporation of renewable technologies to provide on site
energy generation. This requirement for buildings to generate their own energy through
renewable sources is set to increase in line with global greenhouse gas emission
reduction targets. Local planning authorities guided by the introduction of PPS 22
16
have
adopted the national target to achieve 10% renewables by 2010. They have translated
the requirement into a need for all new building developments to assess the provision of
10% renewables on site. This thesis uses the 10% target as the basis for the scale of
wind turbines under consideration.
Independent energy generation at the local building scale is being encouraged to
increase diversity and security of supply whilst reducing the emissions of greenhouse
gases. The natural resources available for exploitation as a renewable source of energy
are limited to wind, solar, water and ground. The UK does not possess an equal
potential for hamessing each of the natural energy sources making some inherently
more viable than others due to geographical location. Prospective wind speeds
throughout the UK are favourable to electricity generation from wind. On paper wind
energy proves to be more economically viable than its renewable counterparts such as
photovoltaics, ground energy and solar thermal generation and the opportunities for
exploiting water are limited. In addition the technology involved is simple and well
developed.
However wind turbines that are capable of providing electricity generated by a
renewable technology to cover at least 10% of a buildings energy consumption are only
being included in a handful of new non-domestic developments in the UK. Only 1.5% of
all installed onshore wind turbines have a peak capacity in the range 50-600kW17. This
thesis will investigate some of the practical implications of installing wind energy to
support a building development. The particular focus will be looking at the issues
associated with non-domestic buildings achieving the 10% renewables target required
by many planning authorities. This work will draw conclusions on whether there are any
aspects of a turbine installation that can be improved to facilitate increasing the number
installed.
Page 8 of 91
This thesis Is concemed with wind turbines that generate a significant amount of useful
renewable electricity. The Energy White Paper targets a minimum of 10% energy
generation from renew abies to be achieved by 2010. This overall contribution has filtered
down into planning requirements and is the minimum figure considered to be a
significant contribution within this report.
The primary focus of this paper is the use of wind turbines coupled to buildings other
than dwellings including both the commercial and public sectors. Dwellings have a
different range of constraints and requirements and do not form part of this research.
Divided into four separate chapters this thesis covers the following constraints to the
installation of medium to large scale wind turbines: Wind quality; The planning process;
Exportation of electricity; Procurement of turbines. These are all areas of implementing a
WTG that can create a barrier to an installation. This thesis will investigate these
influencing factors whilst critically examining the practical constraints of erecting wind
turbines. An assessment of previous turbine installations will be made to inform the
ongoing discussions through each chapter.
Before proceeding the scale of turbine under consideration needs to be established in
order to make the research specific to wind turbines that are sized to meet 10% of the
electricity consumption of non-domestic buildings.
Table 2 contains a summary of the wind turbine sizing analysis presented in Appendix A.
Size of building Range of Turbine Output (KW)
1000m2 building 19-226
2500m2 building 49-565
5000m2 building
I
97-636
Table 2: Approximate sIze of a single wind turbine to provide 10% of the energy
consumption of a non-tiomestic building.
The range allows for the variation in energy consumption between different types of
buildings. The turbine sizing assumes a load capacity factor of 10% will be achieved.
This means that on average annually the turbine will generate 10% of its rated peak
output. To achieve this, a typical wind speed of 6m/s would be required with the turbine
located in a semi-urban area without any immediate obstructions upwind.
It is possible to improve the efficiency of a building such that a smalier turbine would be
required than stated. It is also possible to achieve a higher load capacity factor. typically
PageS of 91
up to 25% is achievable in the UK. However for this research to be applicable to the
majority of installations it has been assumed that an ideal site, in a rural area with open
fetch, will not be used. The turbine size could be further reduced if either the wind speed
was significantly higher such as in coastal areas, or the turbine location was in a remote,
open position.
The target range for wind turbines used for the remainder of the work will be 20-600kW.
The lowest and highest figures have been left out providing a range that is suited to the
majority of installations.
Page 10 of 91
2 Wind
----
2.1 Introduction
Wind is of primary importance in installing any wind turbine generator. Insufficient wind
speed affects the ability of a wind turbine to generate electricity. Turbulent wind patterns
influence the operation of a wind turbine and can significantly reduce its rated output.
Potential wind turbine sites must be assessed for the suitability of the wind
characteristics at the particular location. Considerations include the wind speed and
direction, surrounding buildings, vegetation and the broader picture including overall
ground roughness and topography.
2.2 Wind Speed
The power output of a turbine is proportional to the speed of the wind. Other factors that
come into play Include the swept area of the blades, the density of air and the efficiency
of the turbine rotor. Therefore the power generating characteristics for different turbines
are all very similar.
Wind turbines do not operate at low wind speeds. A typical lower wind speed threshold
or 'cut in' value for turbine operation would be between 3-4m/s. Below this speed the
blades of a turbine will not rotate and consequently will not generate any electricity.
Wind turbines achieve their peak output at wind speeds of typically 12-15m/s, above
these values the turbine will continue to generate electricity at Its rated output until it
reaches the cut out speed. This is the speed at which the turbine will shut down to
protect the components from damage. Typically turbines are manufactured to operate
up to a cut out speed of around 20-30mls.
Power curves for wind turbines are all of a similar shape, this comes from the
relationship of wind speed = wjnd power". The larger the blade diameter of the turbine
the bigger the swept area and the more power the turbine will generate but the
relationship between wind speed and power output remain the same. The graphs In
Figure 2 display the power curves for wind turbines In the typical size range reqUired to
meet the 10% renewables contribution for a non-domestic building.'
Page 11 of 91


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Figure 2: Typical Wind Turbine Power Curves

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Wind Speed [m/s]
The speed of the wind therefore plays an important role in the seleotion of a turbine and
its ability to generate electricity, An average wind speed of 6m/s is desirable to ensure
the installation is viable", Wind farms look for a higher minimum average speed of 7m/s
Page 12 of 91
to ensure the commercial investment realises the best possible price for the generated
electricjty2" .
2.2.1 The assessment of Wind Speeds
Wind speed varies depending on the location in the UK, height above ground, roughness
of the surface and local obstructions. It is necessary to undertake an assessment of the
wind speed at the site of a wind turbine installation to ensure the location is suHable
ensuring the wind turbine generates sufficient electricity annually to make its operation
viable.
Figure 3 identifies the variance of wind speeds across the UK. Most of England has an
average wind speed of between 5 and 7 mls at 25m above ground level. This indicates
that with the right local environment a large portion of the country is suitable for siting
wind turbines.
To enable a more accurate assessment of the local wind speeds in the UK the
department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Refonn (BERR) operate an online
wind speed data base. This provides a global overview of likely wind speeds. The wind
speeds quoted are based on a square kilometre. Figure 4. iIIuetrates an example of the
database output. Wind speeds are given for different heights above ground level. Wind
speeds increase with height above the ground, therefore the chosen hub height of a
turbine will impact on its perfonnance.
Page 13 of 91
Annual mean wind speed
at 25m above ground Ievellmfs]

i
<
>10
9 _10
8-9
78
5_6
<5
Copyright fTSU for the 0111999
Figure 3: Annual mean wind speeds across the uK"
W-mdspeed Database Query Results
Ute 1k", grid squ .. re 418 442 (SE1842)
---------
Wind speed at Wind speed a1: Wind speed a1:
45m 891 (In _Is) 25 ... .,gl (In "'/5) 10tn 0191 (In tn/s)
BBB

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Figure 4: BERR wind speed database query resulttf"
Page 14 of 91
The wind speed could vary dramatically within the kilometre square reported by the
database. The specific topography at the site, vegetation and other man made
obstructions within the vicinity will all have an effect on the wind speed. Adjustments
need to be made to the database figure to take account of these. The surrounding
landscape effect on the wind speed is assessed using a roughness class. Roughness is
given five categories relating to different character landscapes as defined in Figure 5.
Roughness Classes and Roughness Length Table
: Rough-
Roughness Energy Index
iness
Landscape Type
Class
Langth m (per cent)
iO
0.0002 100 Water surface
0.5 0.0024 73
Completely open terrain with a smooth surface, 6"Q.concrete
runways in airports, mowed grass, etc.
1 0.03 52
Open agricultural area without fences and hedgerows and very
scattered buildings. Only softly rounded hills
I
Agricultural land with some houses and 8 metre tall shelterlng
1.5 0.055 45
hedgerows with a distance ofapprox. 1250 metres
2 0.1 39
AgricuJturalland with some houses and 8 metre tall sheltering
hedgerows wlth a distance of approx. 500 metres
Agricultural land with many houses, shrubs and piantsl Of 8
2.5 0.2 31 metre tart sheltering hedgerows With a distance of approx, 250
metres
,
13
Villages, small towns, agricultural land with many or tall
0-4 24 sheltering hedgerows, forests and very rough and uneven
terrain
3.5 0.8 18 Larger cities wilh Iall buildings
.4
1.6 13 Very large cities with tall buildings and skycrapers
Figure 5: Roughness a/asset!'
Page 15 of 91
The roughness factor provides adjustment to allow for the difference in wind speed
depending on the friction against the surface of the earth. Forests and cities create the
most surface friction with open expanses of water creating the least. In addition to
surface roughness coastal sites have a wind speed that is typically above the average by
0.5-1 m/s24. This is due to onshore breezes driven by the land sea interface. Rural areas
with open fetch especially the top of rounded hills also perform very well. Urban areas
increase the surface roughness which reduces the overall average wind speed. If
erecting a turbine in an urban area at the very least the hub must be above the line of
surrounding obstructions to remain viable.
An adjusted average wind speed will give good guidance as to whether a turbine will be
viable in a particular location, but will not provide a good indication of the power output
from the turbine. This is due to the non-linear nature of the power generation illustrated
on the output curves. For example, if the wind blows for 24hrs at Bm/s the output from
the WES 250 model would be 75kW giving a total of 1 BOO kWh that day. The following
day the wind blows at 16m/s for 12 hours (at an output of 250kW) and Om/s for 12 hours
giving a total of 3000kWh. Both days have an average wind speed of Bm/s. To ascertain
the likely annual generation of a turbine analysis is required looking at the annual wind
pattern in a particular area. The MET Office collates this data for sites across the UK.
This then needs to be translated to take account of particular nuances of a site. Detailed
wind speed analysis is required for any major installation of wind turbine and potential
wind farms will monitor wind speeds at the proposed turbine heights for at least a year
to gain accurate representative wind speed data for the area. This level of detail and time
commitment is not usually appropriate for smaller turbine installations or short projects
unlikely to exceed a year in length. Usually an average wind speed is a sufficient gauge
of suitability for smaller scale turbine locations.
2.3 The Local Effect of Obstructions
As we are particularly interested in wind turbines that provide on-site renewable
electricity generation to building developments, obstructions in the form of adjacent
buildings are going to form a key part of the analysis on wind speeds. Figure 6 illustrates
the effect of a single building on local wind patterns. Simple rules of thumb give
guidance on the turbulence created by obstacles. Depending on the height of the
obstacle a wind turbine should be placed a minimum distance away from the nearest
obstruction ensuring that it falls outside the zone of influence. If a turbine is more than
twice the height of an obstacle it should not be affected by it.
Page 16 of91
I
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Figure 6. Turbulence from obstacle?
Therefore unless the chosen site for the building has a lot of spare land around it, ideally
the bottom tip of the blades of a wind turbine should be at least twice as tall as the
building itself to ensure the building does not reduce its capacity to generate electricity
due to reduced wind speeds.
2.4 Wind Quality
Wind quality is also important, horizontal axis wind turbines do not perform well in
turbulent environments prevalent in urban settings. Vertical axis turbines are able to
cope much better but produce significantly less output and are not available in larger
CaPacity units.
Wind shear across the turbine blades can cause debilitating stress to a unit. To reduce
this effect the wind speed at the top must not be too different from the bottom. This can
usually be overcome by raising the height of the wind turbine or moving it further away
from the slowing influence the ground has on wind speed. Constantly gusting wind
speeds can cause the software controlling the wind turbine to become confused holding
off its operation until a settled wind speed can be detected. This loss In output can be
particularly acute where a geared wind turbine is installed. The turbine may be left In
limbo waiting for the computer to establish the optimum drive mode for the wind
condition.
Page 17 of 91
2.5 Existing Turbine installation Analysis
Appendix B contains data sheets for existing wind turbine installations in the UK that are
sized between 50 and 600kW. The raw data has been collected from the Renewables
Obligation database. A summary of the key analysis is contained within table 3. The
summary contains all turbines that are listed by either OFGEM or the BWEA within the
size range. In some cases complete data was unavailable. In 2005-06 there were only 25
wind turbines operating in turbine installations generating batween 50-600kW. This
accounts for only 1.4% of all turbine installations based on a total number of 1775
onshore turbines installed within the UK'''. There are more occurrences of <600kW wind
turbines operational, but where they are installed as part of a single wind farm with an
output exceeding 600kW they have not been included within the analysis as wind tanns
are not the focus of this study.
The analysis does not look at a sufficient number of installations to draw any statistical
conclusions. Observations from the data included within Table 4 indicate that urban
areas which lead to an increase in surface roughness factor have a significant effect on
the capacity tactor due to the reduced average wind speeds. Where a site Is
exceptionally windy such as East Kilbride the effect of the urban setting has been
overcome by installing a turbine on a relatively tall hub height In this case 65m.
The data also indicate the range of load capacity factors that can be expected.
Comparing the Renewable Energy Centre with Naylor Hill where both have a Vestas
225kW unit installed at similar hub heights the difference in load capacity factors is
marked. Naylor farm generates nearly 4 times as much electricity as the Renewable
Energy Centre.
The national average load capacity factor for onshore wind turbines operating in the UK
was 24.7% in 2007". Table 3 indicates that this capacity factor is unlikely to be achieved
in urban settings with a capacity factor of less than 10% possible where smaller turbine
sizes are installed.
Page 18 of 91
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The Renewable Energy
Hertfordshire 1 225 36 undulating 3 YES 3.7 7.69 7.59
centre
Barnard Castle GSK County Durham 2 250 30 Undulating 3 YES 3.5 8." 8.2
Centre for Alternativo
Powys 1 75 20 Hilly 3 No 3.1 10.64 7.07
technology
Faccombe Estates Hampshire 1 330 36 rolling hills 1 eo 5.4 11.09 11.72
Dottere! Farm North Yorkshire 1 80 30 Undulating 1
Yes bill. not
4.8 oJ, 13.27
upwind
81. Mary's Road Ramsay Cambridgoshire 1 250 30 nat lowland 1 YES 4.6 oJ, 17.61
Wood Green Animal
Cambridgeshire 1 225 30 Flat loWlands 1 YES 4.8 17.1 18.67
Shelter
Castle Pill Farm Pembrokeshire 1 500 40 Undulating 3 Unknown 4.3 18.19- 23.29
Lynch Knoll Gloucestershire 1 SOO 40 rolling hills 2 eo 5.0 19.36 22.24
Newlands2 Cumbria 1 400 30 rolling hills 1 YES 4.6 26.43 25.02
East Kilbride Wind East
1 600 65 Undulating 3 Unknown 5.2 27.55 23.17
Turbine Renfrewshire
Naylor Hill West Yorkshire 1 225 30 undulating 1.5 eo 4.6 27.8 28.77
Isle of Luing Argyll and Bute 2 50 oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, 23.06 12.72
Fair Isle Shelland 1 160 oJ,
0" 0"
oJ, oJ, 24.19 19.98
West Beacon Farm Laicestershire 1 70 oJ,
0"
0',
oJ,
0"
oJ, oJ,
Middlefields Wind Turbine County Durham 1 80 oJ, oJ,
0"
oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ,
The ECO centre Hebbum County Durham 1 230 oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ,
0"
oJ,
Th,! Greenhouse County Durham 1 100 oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ,
PliGen 1 County Antrim 1 70 oJ, oJ, oJ,
0',
oJ, oJ, oJ,
Bancran
County
1 100 oJ,
0"
oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ,
0',
Londonderry
Carhill wind turbine
County
1 230 oJ,
0"
oJ, oJ,
0"
0',
oJ,
Londonderry
LiniClate Western Isles 1 60 oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ,
0"
oJ,
Mynydd Glandulas Cerecligion 1 600 oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ, oJ,
Swansea docks Swansea 1 280 o'a
oJa oJ,
0"
oJ, oJ, oJ,
Table 3: Existing UK wind turbine installations 50-600kW
Page 19 of 91
Wtnd Turbine Operator
Comments
The Renewable Energy
Poor generation appears to be caused by the high roughness class and
relatively low raw wind speed of 5.6m/s at 25m. The adjacent town lies
centre
upwind of the turbine which will make the roughness effect more significant.
Poor generation appearS to be caused by the high roughness class and
Barnard Castle GSK relatively low raw wind speed of 5,3m/s at 25m, The adjacent town 'ies
upwind of the turbine which will make the roughness effect more significant
This turbine is located in a very hilly area. Loca' wind patterns may be
Centre for Alternative having a pronounced effect on the turbine. Poor generation appears to be
technology due to the very !ow average wind speed, toeal wind phenomena due to hilly
sHe may be improving the wind speed locally.
Poor generation for the wind speed experienced at tf1e site - anylsing the
turbine unit fndicates that the 22m dia swept area of the blades is much
Faccombe Estates less than other units with same peak capacity, The high rated capacity of
this particular tumine may be the reason for the apparently low annual load
capacity factor.
~ . .. - .. - .. - .. - ....
Dotterel Farm open countrystde yiefd good returns at reasonable windspeeds
St. Mary's Road Ramsey : open countryside yteld good returns at reasonable windspeeds
Wood Green Animal
open countryside yield good returns at reasonable windspeeds
Shellar
Castle Pill Farm open countryside yield good returns at reasonable wlndspeeds
Lynch Knoll open countryside yield good returns at reasonabJe windspeeds
Newlands2 open countryside yield good returns at reasonabte windspeeds
Very high raw wind speed of7.3mfs at 25m and relatively high hub height
Ea.t Kilbride Wind of 85m are helping to overcome urban location and high roughness class.
Turbine i The rown is not located upwind of the turbine H is downwind which may
I also produce tess of an impact on the wind speed at the turbine site,
i
~
open countryside yield good returns at reasonable windspeeds. The turbine
Naylor Hill is situated on the brO'N of an incline which may be increasing me average
wind speed in the locality.
Table 4: Comments on existing wind turbine analysIs
Page 20 of 91
3 Planning
3.1 Introduction
There are two principal ways in which the planning process influences and affects the
Installation of wind turbines. Planning departments are encouraged to set targets for
new developments to achieve a certain degree of energy generation from renewable
technologies w ~ the overall aim of reducing carbon emissions. This aspect of planning
policy is intended to promote and advance the take up of renewables within
development schemes including those in the urban environment. Planning authorities are
also responsible for granting the planning permission to allow wind turbine installations
to proceed. All wind turbine installations require planning permission. This section of the
thesis will explore the incentives behind planning policy that are driving an aspiration to
increase the number of renewables installations. Practical implications of securing
planning permission and the work currently being undertaken to improve the process will
also be discussed.
3.2 Planning Policy
The 2003 Energy White Paper'" highlights planning as a barrier to the up-take of
renewable technologies in the UK, although with more emphasis on the large
infrastructure scale renewable projects contributing significant portions of electricity
back to the grid than individual decentralised projects. The white paper includes some
fairly broad statements relating to developing the planning system including:
A more supportive approach to planning
A planning system that is more helpful
The 2007 Energy White Paper looks in far more detail at the changes needed to be made
to the planning system to facilitate the increased up-take of renewaible technologies. The
growth of decentrallsed electricity generation is emphasised and encouraged as playing
an important role in achieving overall targets. Recognising the need to make it easier to
find Information and advice on distributed generation of energy, this would help get
through the minefield of consultation required prior to planning. Unlike Denmark and
Belgium who have designated areas earmarked for wind turbine development the
Energy White Paper contains no plans to impose wind turbines in particular areas of the
UK.
Page 21 of 91
It should be noted that most of the reform discussed within the energy whitepapers
concerns either large scale infrastructure or microgeneration. The term 'Microgeneration'
has been defined by the government as including electricity generation up to 50kW and
heat generation up to 45kW. The assessment of the range of wind turbine sizes ideally
suited to providing 10% renewables to non-domestic buildings indicates that only a
fraction of buildings would be looking at turbine sizes of less than 50kW
2
'. Typically
buildings less than 1000m
2
with comparatively low energy consumption such as a
naturally ventilated office would be able to take advantage of the incentives being
provided at this scale. The majority of on-site generation would fall in the range of 50-
400kW. The issues associated with planning for this scale of installation are not drawn
out and dealt with, even though much reference is made for the need to apply
decentralised technologies of this scale with current targets of 10% renewables quite
abundant throughout local planning policy.
Current national planning strategy and guidelines for the application of renewable
technologies is set out in Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy, (PPS 22)".
The policy provides a guide for regional planning bodies, regional spatial strategies, and
local planning authorities in the generation of their own local development documents.
PPS 22 forms a mechanism for translating government energy policy targets set out in
the Energy White Paper to guide policy makers at a local level. It also enables the
country to adopt a comrnon approach in achieving the reduction of greenhouse gases.
The document sets out that local development documents should 'prornote and
encourage, rather than restrict the development of renewable energy resources.' It also
recommends that regional planning policy set targets for the amount of installed
renewable energy generation capacity.
In early 2007 a supplement to Planning Policy Statement 1 entitled Planning and Climate
Change" was drafted and published for consultation. It contains many overlapping
statements dealing with energy and renewables with PPS22. Whilst both documents
contain much information about national energy infrastructure and large scale generation
they also highlight the importance of on-site renewables.
PPS 22 identifies that it is not only planning for wind farms and similar scale installations
that need to be considered, many smaller installations could prove equally as important
in achieving the overall carbon reductions required. The supplement focuses on both
opportunities for utilizing and expanding existing decentralised energy supply systems,
and also supporting new opportunities for decentralised energy from renewable and
low-carbon energy sources"
Page 22 of 91
Both documents maintain that planning policy should not include restrictive policies
dictating particular locations or limits on renewable technologies and that stringent
requirements for minimising impact on landscape should be avoided. The supplement
also encourages policy makers to 'ensure that a significant proportion of the energy
supply of substantial new development is gained on-site and renewably andlor from a
decentralised, renewable or low-carbon, energy supply' 33
From the above it can be concluded that the alms of planning policy are moving towards
supporting on-site renewable generation through the introduction of targets for
developments to achieve. Planning policy should not be restricting the introduction of
wind turbines into schemes. However, wind turbines can influence many different
aspects of a development all of which must be carefully considered by planning
authorities before granting planning permission.
3.3 Obtaining planning permission for wind turbine Installations
it Is the responsibility of the applicant to ensure all consultations necessary have been
undertaken with all relevant parties such that they are satisfied with the development
giving no reasons for objections to be sustained"'. This section will look at the particular
items that can prevent planning permission being granted for wind turbines of the scale
under discussion.
Local Planning Authorities are responsible for determining applications for onshore
renewable energy schemes of a size up to 50 megawatts. Therefore at the scale of
technology required to provide on-site generation a decision will always fali within the
remit of the Local Planning Authority. The knowledge of planners will not be extensive
when it comes to local renewable technologies. It is not something that is applicable to
many building applications and it is a fast moving and new concept that de-centralised
energy generation shOUld be encouraged. Therefore the onus Is heavily put an the
applicant to provide sufficient information to satisfy the planners that the development
will not cause any undue adverse affects to the surrounding area. This can involve a
tremendous amount of work even for relatively small schemes as there are many points
on which the planners must be satisfied.
Planning for renewable energy: a companion guide to PPS22
35
provides comprehensive
gUidance to planning authorities including the likely issues that should be considered for
each renewable technology. However many of the items are subjective with no definitive
answer In terms of what are acceptable limits. Guidance is also available to planning
authorities in the form of suggested planning conditions'
s
to allow the erection of wind
turbines in areas that would otherwise have been considered unsuitable.
Page 23 of 91
3.3.1 Sites of specific interest
~ e s of specific interest include areas such as designated heritage sites, scientific
Interest or ecological speciality. The specific nature of each site will mean there are
differing requirements therefore these s ~ e s would need to be considered on an
individual basis. Specialist groups with expertise on the field of interest should be
consulted to ensure the erection of a wind turbine would not be detrimental to the site. It
is not possible to generalise in this area or provide definite parameters or constraints for
turbine installations to ensure they will be satisfactory. Wind turbine generators do have
the advantage of minimal long term impact on the landscape. A single installation of a
turbine could be decommissioned after a set period of time with little disruption to Its
surrounding environment.
3.3.2 Visual Impact
It is difficult to quantify the effect of the visual impact of a wind turbine as it depends on
the individual siting, Its surrounding area and the perception of the viewing public. Wind
turbines will always create a degree of visual impact due to the nature of the technology
requiring exposure to the wind to be successful at generating electricity. This means it Is
not possible to place the turbine within an enclosure or use any altemative methods for
disguising it. Wind turbines are at a significant disadvantage as compared to other
renewable technologies in this respect. For example, ground source heat pumps can
have the entire installation hidden from view both burled beneath the surface of the
ground and enclosed within a building.
The planning process USeS the well developed method of Environmental Impact
Assessments to determine judgement on the extent of negative visual Impact of a wind
turbine Installation. Other gUidelines Include Landscape Character Assessment",
Landscape Institute and Institute of Environmental Management and Assessment" and
Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment.
Planning authorities are required to screen wind turbine applications on the need to
undertake an environmental Impact assessment (EIA) where the development has more
than two turbines or the hub height of a turbine exceeds 15m." Wind turbines are listed
under SchedUle 2.3(1) of the Environmental Impact RegUlations. The majority of turbines
installed in the range being addressed will require a height of greater than 15m
40
only the
very smallest installations would be looking at hub heights of less than this, and a taller
hub may stili be preferred to take advantage of better wind quality,
Page 24 of 91
If the planners adopt a 'screening opinion' following their review of the application an
EIA will need to be undertaken. The conclusion of which will determine the authorities
standing on the likely visual impact of the turbine installation.
Undertaking an EIA Is an extensive and expensive process for many minor schemes and
would usually only be necessary if the turbines were located in a particularly sensitive
area with a rich landscape character.
3.3.3 Noise
Any wind turbine installation will generate a new noise source in an area. Planning
Authorities will request a noise impact assessment In accordance with PPG2441. There
are well established gUidelines that define the acceptable noise levels for a wind turbine
installation and a standard methodology'" for the measurement of wind farm noise.
Maximum allowable noise levels have been selected so whilst providing reasonable
protection to the neighbours of a wind turbine installation they do not place
unreasonable or unachievable restrictions on wind turbine developments. Whilst these
guidelines have been written wilh wind farms in mind they are equally as applicable to
smaller single Installations of turbines albeit with some relaxations on calculation
procedure noted to simplify the assessment process. Planning Authorities usually adopt
any report based on these guidelines and generally use the conclusions to place a
condition on the noise limits that the installed turbine will need to meet.
The primary noise consideration is the proximity of the turbine to the nearest noise
sensitive property, usually a residential dwelling. Sleep disturbance must be prevented.
Noise limits are set relative to existing background noise levels and should take into
account daily variance in background noise levels and the variance in both background
noise and turbine noise at different wind speeds. Modern wind turbines have to be
placed at a distance of between 200 and 300 metres from the dwelling to reach a sound
pressure level of between 45 and 50dBA which is acceptable under the ETSU
guidelines" .
Different wind turbines have different noise characteristics. The blades of a turbine can
be located on either the upwind or downwind side of the turbine. In Europe most
turbines have downwind blades that minimise turbulence as the blades pass the tower,
eliminating the strong pulse sometimes heard with upwind blades. Twin Speed and
Variable Speed Machines alter the speed of the turbine blades in accordance with wind
speed. This allows the blades to rotate more slowly when there is less wind, generating
less noise when low background levels occur. Direct Drive Machines do not have a
Page 25 of 91
gearbox or drive train. Therefore they are quieter as they do not produce mechanical or
tonal noise.
Selection of turbine type will be important if noise presents itself as a limiting factor in
achieving planning permission.
3.3.4 Safety
A wind turbine erected in accordance with best engineering practice that is
subsequently properly maintained should be as safe as any other structure permitted to
be erected. Supplementary guidance to PPS 2244 states that 'The very few accidents
that have occurred involving injury to humans have been caused by failure to observe
manufacturers' and operators' instructions for the operation of the machines. There has
been no example of injury to a member of the pUblic.'
Despite this there are a number of perceived dangers. There is concern that the turbine
structure and components could fail causing harm to people or powerlines. There is also
a concern that the turbine itself could prove to be a distraction causing an element of
danger either to motorists or potentially horse riders if a horse became frightened. Fall
over distance (Le. the height of the turbine to the tip of the blade) plus 10%45 is given as
a gUideline to planners and developers, however this is not a formal requirement and as
long as any potential safety risks have been considered a turbine could be located
closer than this to any surrounding structure. with the Highways Agency or
local highways authority is necessary if the turbine is in close proximity to a trunk road or
other publicly maintained highway. Similarly Network rail would be consulted for close
proximity to operational lines. Wind turbines should also be separated from overhead
powerlines in accordance with the Electricity Council Standard 44-8 Overhead Line
Clearances.
An absolute minimum distance for wind turbines adjacent to public rights of way or
adjoining property would be the length of the turbine blade to prevent oversailing.
This could prove to be a limiting factor to the size of the wind turbine selected for a site
depending on the available space for its location.
3.3.5 Interference with Electromagnetic Transmissions
Wind turbines have the potential to affect electromagnetic transmissions with their
rotating blades and physical height either blocking, deflecting or scattering transmission
signals. Radio and "TV links and telecommunications can all be affected by this
phenomenon. However the issue is usually easily resolved. For a single turbine
Page 26 of 91
installation moving the turbine location a matter of meters could restore a signal. Larger
wind farm developments can afford to have signals rerouted at their cost to prevent
disruption caused by them. However this is likely to be too costly a scenario to consider
for on-site renewable technology. Consultation with specialist organisations responsible
for the operation of electromagnetic links is therefore essential. Typically 100m either
side of a line of sight link is required to satisfy the consulting body. Although an
important part of the planning process it should not prevent a turbine installation from
progressing. If the constraints are understood early enough within the process suitable
siting of the turbine should overcome any potential problems.
3.3.6 Shadow Flicker and Reflected Light
Shadow flicker and reflected light are both caused by direct sunlight shining on the
rotating turbine blades. Shadow flicker ooours inside buildings as the blades pass in
front of the sun causing it to flick on and off. Sites with existing developments
surrounding them will be at greatest risk from this problem. The further away the
buildings are from the turbine the less pronounoed this effect will be. Flioker effects have
been proven to occUr only within ten rotor diameters of a turbine'.
Turbine blades rotate at between 0.3 and 1 Hz. Health effects oaused by flickering light
occur between 2.5 and 30Hz. Therefore this effect is more of a nuisanoe than a risk to
health. European guidance recommends that the shadow flicker effect should not
exceed 30 hours per year or 30 minutes per day at neighbouring offices and dwellings to
prevent a nuisance.
47
Wind turbines can also cause flashes of reflected light, which can
be visible for some distance. It is possible to reduce the flashing but It is not possible to
eliminate it. Careful choice of blade colour and surface finish can help reduce the effect.
Light grey semi-matt finishes are often used for this. Other colours and pattems can also
be used to reduce the effect further.
3.3.7 Air Traffic Safeguarding
Wind turbines cause two principal issues with relation to air traffic. The proximity of a
turbine to either a military or civil aerodrome should be considered early on. If turbines
are to be erected above the existing building line of an area, conSUltation should be
undertaken with the civil aviation authority and the ministry of defense. If the turbine is
sited within the protected air space of an aerodrome risk of collision with low flying air
craft Is the main concem. Whilst the CM is the statutory consultee they devolve all
power to deal with these matters to the operations management of each individual
airfield. Their express concem will be for the safety of the aircraft and maintaining
protected air space. These aims ate achieved through a series of notional protected
Page 27 0191
zones around an airstrip. The airfield will ensure that the turbine location does not
penetrate any of these zones. If it does, further detailed assessment will be required to
prove whether the Installation causes a potential hazard. Military low flying zones away
from aerodromes can also be a cause for objection to a planning application.
As well as the inherent danger of collisions wind turbines can cause interference with the
proper operation of radar eqUipment. The moving blades of a turbine can easily be
Interpreted by radar equipment as a moving object, which is only intermittently seen.
This creates the potential for the wind turbine to either be mistaken for an aircraft, or for
the radar to lose the ability to track an aircraft in the vicinity of the turbine location. The
closer the turbine Is located to the radar the more powerful the effect. There is a 15 km
consultation zone, and a 30km 32km advisory zone around every civilian and military
air traffic radar respectively. Radar equipment relies on line of sight therefore
topography, buildings and tree plantations can mitigate the effect. Other radars may also
be affected by the siting of a wind turbine. The MOD and MET Office both require
additional consuitatlon to ensure the turbine does not affect defence or weather radar
installations.
Planning approval will be difficult to achieve If a developer cannot demonstrate that the
installation of a wind turbine shall not cause problems with respect to these issues.
Table 5 below provides a summary of the planning constraints associated with the
above topics.
A full list of consultees to the planning process is contained within Appendix F.
Page 28 0/91
Consultation Analysis Oefinitive Prevent
What could be
Consultees done to mitigate
required required parameters Installation
this
Site of specific YES if the site is Specialist
NO NO YES
Chose a different
interest proposed on one groups site
YES
YES if >2
planning Potentially an
depending
Choose a different
Visual Impact turbines or>15m
authority EIA
NO on current
site
hub height landscape
character
YES
although if Select a quieter
cales done turbine which may
Noise NO n/a YES YES show mean smaller.
guidelines Choose a different
are met it site
would not be
Locate turbine a
YES if adjacent Highways
NO only
minimum of topple
Safety to public right of Agency NO
guidance
UNLIKELY height +10% away
way/highway Network Rail from closest
structure
OFCOM
All comm.'s & Move the turbine on
Electromagnetic
broadcasting
NO only
the site
transmissions
YES local gas, elec, NO
gUidance
UNLIKELY Re-route
water communications
emergency signals
services
Locate turbine on
YES if
NO but analysis the site so it doesn't
existing
required to show cast shadows over
Shadow flicker NO n/a development
amount of
UNLIKELY
existing buildings.
occurance Locate far enough
is likely to be
throughout the away so it is not
affected
year. deemed to be a
problem
Choose a different
YES if in a
CAA
site
Aviation safeguarding
MOD
NO YES YES Demonstrate
zone through analysis the
installation is safe
CAA
Choose a different
Radar YES MET Office NO NO YES
site
MOD
Table 5: Summary of planning constraints
Page 29 of 91
The more choice a developer has in the selection of a site the greater the opportunity to
meet rigorous planning requirements. Similarly early consideration of planning
constraints within a scheme development will identify the optimum turbine location. This
highlights the need for renewable options to be considered early within the design
process. For on-site generation from renewables, the technology is secondary to the
function of the building. The need for the building is the primary focus of the
development. In contrast, a wind farm's primary driver is to generate as much electricity
as possible therefore choosing and arranging wind turbines most efficiently is essential.
With the number of constraints associated with a building project, technology will always
suffer and may be prevented from being installed altogether.
Once a site has been identified, flexibility in locating the turbine is important. Again, early
consideration ensures that its location causes as few planning issues as possible. Key
constraints include siting away from public highways, as far from residential
accommodation as possible, located so as not to cause shadow flicker issues to name a
few. Having the option to move the turbine location would resolve a number of the less
significant potential problems.
Compared to other renewable technologies the erection of a wind turbine can involve a
phenomenal amount of consultation to get through the planning process. The onus rests
completely on the applicant to undertake the necessary consultation to satisfy the
planners the wind turbine meets the requirements of all parties consulted. This could
involve significantly more work than would be required for just the building planning
application and would in most cases form an entirely independent application to ensure
planning permission for the building was not held up by a drawn out process required for
the turbine.
Page 30 of 91
4 Grid connection
4.1 Introduction
Grid integration is essential, especially with larger installations to allow the maximum
potential of a wind turbine installation to be realised even when the building it is linked to
does not require the electricity. A building's electricity demand will not necessarily
coincide with the peak turbine outputs. Therefore, unless a building has a continuous
base load that is higher than the peak output from a wind turbine, there will be times
when the turbine Is capable of generating more electricity than can be used on-site. It is
typical for microgeneration units to export 50-60 per cent of the total electricity
generated.
46
There are two possibilities for the excess electricity, it can either be stored on-site in a
bank of bstlerles or It can be exported to the grid for use elsewhere. The scale of
turbine being considered (20-600kW) has the ability to exceed the capacity of a bank of
batteries in a very short period of time if none of its load is being used. A grid connection
Is the most suitable option for ensuring the maximum electricity generation potential is
achieved for a wind turbine installation.
This section will look at the practical implications of connecting to the grid. Incentives
provided for wind turbine installers to maximise their generation potential by using a grid
connection will also be assessed.
4.2 Oonnection to the national grid - distributed generation.
Since the 1970's Britain has operated a centralised high voltage electricity transmission
network called the national grid which is fed by a number of large power atations. The
National Grid distributes 85% of all electricity generated in the UK from source to the
demand. The sources have historically been a relatively small number of large power
stations that try to maximise output to match peak demand. This centralised network
has allowed economies of scale to be exploited, increased security of supply throughout
the country and greater diversity of use.
Page 31 of 91
Key Elements Within The Electricity Industry
r .... """" ' ... ..
i
Grid .. connsctod OisilribUlIQn:
Gunw.Uiion
Majorpcmer
stat'loM
generate et:mcity
wl'!1i:h fi'o'Ns
the

network.
Na1lana! Grid
traMrm1s. alsc1riony
arounti Q natio",,1Qe
HaM!t'lIlis.l0n
of hfgh !fQ!111go 4OI11(V
and 215 KV bnes,
nFAwork
opcriiltor.s {DNOs}
""flY
6:leC1rldi1y thfOugl'l
local neh'/ork!i; of
132 KV "'" 1_,

Oi:s1ributro gerrecaljon
plam, Including most
and" CHP,
10 then fecl,'ll
diGtribUlon network..
ltts)' may alSt! sarve

local Suppliers
l.(It'.;a1f;\,Ippllert.
oompe:te (0 selt
to

dotl'/:e:Stf,:
comun'!e:l'.s
Figure 7: Characteristics of Centralised Generation and Transmission'"
The national grid feeds lower voltage distribution networks operated by independent
companies. These networks under conventional generation take electricity from the HV
transmission network and deliver it to where the demand is. They are sized to reduce in
size as they distribute further out from the source. Two fundamental operating
characteristics of the current UK electricity system can therefore be identified as follows:
The flow of eleotricity is in one direction only
Electricity Peak Generation matches peak demand
The aspiration to move towards many local generators, as outlined in the Energy White
paper 2003 will create a strain on the existing transmission system. 'Distribution
networks will have to be capable of aooommodating many more direotly conneoted
generators"o. Distributed generation of renewables will generally link directly into the
distributed networks and not the HV transmission system. The scale of an on-site wind
turbine installation would always fall into this area of connection. Distributed generation
will impact most significantly on these lower voltage distribution networks. The national
grid will not be affected by local distributed generation.
Local distribution networks will be required to transport electricRy from the national grid
to distribute to customers as well as accommodating local sources of generation to be
redistributed to customers. It Is not just connecting local sources of generation to the
grid that raises issues. In addition, particularly true for wind turbine electricity generation,
Page 32 of 91
it is not demand led. Generating capacity will be dictated by wind speed, therefore the
local network needs to be able to cope with the distribution of excesS energy generation
at particular times.
Local distribution networks are operated and maintained by licenced regional public
electricity suppliers. Therefore access to the network for a connection will be arranged
through a specific company depending on the location of the connection required. The
diagram below identifies the current ownership of local distribution networks. There is no
choice in who provides the connection. Each company has to hold a Public ElectricHy
Supplier (PES) licence and abide by distribution codes. Of GEM regulate the rules of the
licence to ensure each PES remains competitive and fair.

..
.1
-m.:.,Y'&'!!
#-'> it" ilf'ii>d
r/flure 8: Ownership of Britain's distribution network?
Each PES is responsible for planning the development of their natworks. Distributed
generation is classed as embedded generation within the electricity codes. PES
licenses, distribution codes grid codes and the electricity supply regulations ali contain
Page 33 of 91
clauses relating to the connection of embedded energy generation. A small degree of
embedded energy generation has always been accommodated the changing issue is the
significant increase in the number of generators the PES's are likely to have to
accommodate in the future.
PES licenses require the PES to offer terms for a connection without discrimination to
any embedded generator. Transparency of costs is also a requirement to ensure that the
PES offers a fair price for the connection works. Incorporating embedded renewable
generation will therefore require a significant change in approach to how the distribution
networks operate. However, this is likely to be slow in development. This will give
network operators time to respond to the changes effectively. Especially if the likely
demand is anticipated and incorporated into ongoing maintenance and upgrades of the
system capacity.
Currently the amount of distributed electricity generation is so small it does not exceed
the capacity of the distribution network therefore existing infrastructure has been
sufficient for what has been required. The cheapest and simplest way for the Public
Electricity Suppliers to control this is to apply an export limit on any generating source to
ensure that the network is not overloaded in a particular location. In the future this may
mean that potential energy generation is otherwise wasted as the network cannot
accommodate it. To accommodate the governments aspiration for the increase in
distributed generation the networks will need upgrading to allow many sources to feed in
to their infrastructure without the need for strict export limits.
Of GEM, as part of their price control proposals for 2005-2010 have proposed to provide
incentives for distribution companies to support renewable generation connection to the
distribution network. The intention being to encourage them to think more about the
benefits of distributed generation to thern as well as the generator. In Denmark and
Holland the distribution companies are responsible for the costs of any grid
reinforcement required in association with installing renewable technologies. This
provides them with an incentive for ongoing upgrading of existing network
infrastructure. 52
The OFGEM review of the barriers to distributed generation informed the Energy White
Paper 2007. It examined economic incentives for suppliers to buy electricity, and
barriers for small generators to sell electricity. It also looked at the economic costs and
benefits for Distribution Network Operators to connect new generators and invest in
upgrading distribution networks. Incentives for DNO's to engage in innovation aimed at
minimizing the costs of DG were also reviewed.
Page 34 of 91
For very small microgeneration installations the rules have been waived and where there
is an existing import connection an export connection can automatically be connected
without the approval of the DNO. It is the responsibility of the generator to inform the
DNO that the details of the connected generator. However this does not help with the
scale of wind turbine required to achieve 10% renewables in many non-domestic
buildings.
The Distribution Working Group (DWG) set up by the Electricity networks strategy group
(ENSG) aims to consider the Implications to the electricity distribution networks of the
Governments Energy Strategy as well as addressing the longer term technical and
commercial Issues arising from it. The group reports to the Dn/OfGEM and is currently
assessing the aforementioned Issues. The aim of the work Is to address barriers,
incentives, innovation, regulation and legislation and provide guidance on the most
effective way to ensure the government vision of future energy generation is facilitated,
adopted and successful,
The Centre for Sustainable Electricity and Distributed Generation (CSEDG), a venture
established to bridge the gap between academic research and the needs of industry to
meet the 2010 targets on renewable energy for the UK. Its focus is on researching the
cost effective integration of Distributed Generation (DG) into operation and development
of the UK electricity systems. Their activities contribute to other DTIIOFGEM objectives.
4.3 The effect wind turbines will have on grid characteristics
The main issues associated with incorporating wind turbine generated electricity back to
the grid are as follows:
Harmonics
Voltage Rise
Fault Levels
Thermal capacity
Reverse Power Flow
4.3.1 Harmonics
Wind turbine technology has advanced to a point where they return comparatively low
harmonic contribution and faults to the grid when compared with other electricity
generators both renewable and traditional. Most turbines are fixed speed asynchronous
induction generators that incorporate the necessary electronic devices to enSure thst
grid fluctuations and imbalances are not unduly caused by the generator feeding back to
it. Britain also requires G59 protection to all exporting generation devices. G59
Page 350191
protection includes systems for the detection of the following conditions, over voltage,
under-voltage, over and under frequency and loss of mains power. The G59 protection
detects any of the aforementioned conditions and trips the wind turbine generator circun
breaker to prevent damage to the iocal network. This helps alleviate the concerns
associated with Voltage Flicker and Harmonics, however the remaining issues are
associated with attributes of the distribution network itself.
4.3.2 Voltage Rise
Voltage rise is particularly significant on closely Voltage-regulated circuits such as an
11kV or 400V. To overcome voltage drop especially on long radial circuits they will be
operated close to their upper voltage limit. This means that in times of low load draw off,
if an embedded generator feeds back into the local network the upper voltage limit will
be exceeded no longer complying with the distribution codes. This effect is less
significant for the less well regulated 33kV, 62kV and 132kV distribution. However if
many embedded generators were introduced to a higher voltage network the same issue
could occur. The simplest way to overcome this is to limit the export amount to a level
that would prevent this occurring, however that is not a long term solution to the
encouragement of embedded generation. AlternatiVely the network would require
reinforcement; initially this could be achieved by using larger conductors with lower
impedance. Therefore in the short term the voltage of the network supplying a building
could have an implication on the amount of electricity that can be exported and could
significantly affect the cost of achieving the desired export connection depending on
reinforcement work required.
4.3.3 Thermal capacity
Each component within the distribution system has a thermal rating that defines its
current carrying capacity. If this capacity is exceeded by the inclusion of embedded
generators then the components affected would need to be up-rated. Therefore the
connection size to a building needs to be large enough to carry the peak export load.
With wind turbines this may exceed the import requirement, therefore a larger
connection than required would need to be requested. In terms of reinforcement
infrastructure, because on-site generation is looking to primarily supply a buildings
needs which draws from the grid with export only being for times of excess generation,
the local infrastructure should not need upgrading to support applications of this scale.
4.3.4 Fault
Faults can occur within a distribution system for many different reasons. The incident of
the fault reduces resistance and allows increased current to pass through. The fault
Page 36 0191
current that could occur comes from either the transmission network, distributed
generators or loads with induction motors. Therefore if there were an increase in
embedded generators on a network the potential current level would increase. If
this exceeded the fault rating of equipment this would need upgrading to accept the
increased load from the embedded generator. distribution networks could
be reconfigured. Although a problem for embedded generation, this is not so significant
for wind turbines which are asynchronous Induction generators. This means they need
electricity from the grid in order to operate, therefore if they lose grid connection due to
a network fault their generation current will diminish rapidly not causing a particularly
large increase to the level on the network.
4.3.5 Reverse Power flows
The distribution networks are cUrrently set up to operate with the main flow of electricity
In one direction only. Therefore in some cases installed components will be inadequate
for use on a network requiring reverse flows of electricity. This phenomenon must be
assessed by the network operator. This issue is easily solvable with updated network
components however the nstwork operator may need to invest In upgrading their system
to ensure it can accommodate the reverse power flow from a wind turbine.
4.3.6 Conclusions
The PES will need to undertake a distribution network evaluation to aSSeSS the changes
to the network character that could occur from the installation of a new wind turbine
generator. The most likely cause of problem with a local connection will be voltage rise
arising from the voltage of the distribution networks available in the locality. If significant
upgrading is required the cost would be borne by the generator and It would not usually
be cost effective for the single WTG installation to pay for a significant upgrade to the
system. Therefore either a lower export limit would be put on the machine or
alternatively a higher voltage connection with larger capacity would be sought.
4.4 Financial Incentives for Exporting Electricity to the Grid
4.4.1 Renewables Obligation Certificates
The government has set up a renewables obligation for every utility supplier to source an
annually increasing percentage of their electricity from renewable sources. Wind turbines
of any size are eligible. Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROC's) are issued for each
MW of electricity generated from a renewable source recorded by an Of GEM approved
ROC meter. A ROC can be claimed regardless of whether the electricity is used on-site
or exported back to the grid and are currently worth about 34/MWh. With typical non-
domestic turbines capable of generating between 1O,OOOkWh/yr and 500,OOOkWhlyr this
Page 37 0191
would yield 340-17 ,000 for the sale of ROC's back to utility companies. For smaller
Installations the 19 pages of paper work will seem like a lot of effort for the money
whereas the larger installations can yield significant additional savings to help reduce
pay back times.
Change Is proposed for small generators of less than 50kW to allow them to claim
ROC's through an agent who would deal with the Ofgem application and also the selling
of ROC;s allowing producers where it is not their primary concem to claim the benefit
with out the excessive burden of the administration of it. therefore Increasing the benefit
to small generators. This however does not apply to communltylindustry scale
installations. Amalgamation of generation by agents is another proposal that wou Id allow
part benefit to be gained by very small Installations. Type approval is also under
consideration where just for operating a specific unit a set number of ROC's will be
issued annually. No longer requiring demonstration of the energy generated. Sale and
Buyback the process of selling entering into agreement with the utility provider to sell the
electricity and then buy it back is also proposed to be removed making It easier to claim
ROC's especially If the producer consumes all the generated electricity themselves.
4.4.2 Feed In Tariffs
Renewable Energy Feed In tariffs are the alternative to the market based certificate
trading operated in the UK. With a feed in tariff there is a guaranteed price per unit of
electricity that a supplier has to pay for renewable electricity from private generators.
The government regulates the tariff rate.
Feed in tariffs place a legal obligation on electricity suppliers to purchase electricity from
renewable energy installations. The tariff rate is regulated by the government, and in the
best examples, for a long period -- say 20 years. The tariff rate is scientifically
determined and different for each technology, to ensure profitable operation of the
installation. Such a system has been supported by the German government successfully
since 1990. Both Denmark and Spain also operate a successful fixed minimum price
systern for wind generated electricity.
The system is aimed at promoting the uptake of renewable technologies and within the
pricing mechanisms can promote their swift uptake and innovation. Critics of the system
are concerned that it does not necessarily ensure renewables are adopted where it is
economically viable to do so.
It would appear that a feed in tariff would aid the ability of on-site wind turbine
generators to receive closer to the true value for the electricity they generate. However at
the same time the electricity suppliers would be forced to offer an amount for the
Page 38 of 91
electricity that was not commercially what it is worth, this cost would be distributed and
charged back from customers elsewhere increasing the overall cost of purchasing
electricity.
The ROC system favours large renewables installations and gives an incentive to major
generators to increase the amount of electricity they generate from renewables.
However a feed-in tariff system would favour the smaller generator and encourage the
uptake of the medium scale distributed energy schemes such as the installation of on-
site wind turbines.
4.5 The process required to grid connect a turbine
In addition to the network problems caused by connecting a wind turbine to the grid
there is the bureaucratic process that is also undertaken. As we are dealing with building
linked wind turbines, the majority of this process will be necessary for securing the
incoming supply to the building as well as the export connection for the turbine.
The process involved in getting a grid connection:
Gather data on the local network
Discuss connection options with PES
Provide data about WIG scheme
Agree connection scheme
Establish connection budget
Make connection application including exact details of wind turbine to be
installed
Include any substation overhead lines In planning application
Negotiate wayleaves required
Civil works
Customer works
Earthing
Telecommunications
Metering
Agreement of Protection settings
Testing and Commissioning
The Connection timescales are shown in table 6 below. This could be a major
disincentive, especially if it cannot be achieved within the timescale of the bLJlIding
project.
Page 39 of 91
Connection Connection timescale
voltage
11kV 4 8 months
33kV
6 12 months
661132kV 9-18months
Table 6: Guidelines for connection timescale?
4.6 Selling electricity back to the grid
The connection to the local distribution network will be arranged with the public
electricity supplier responsible for the operation and maintenance of that network. Once
a grid connection has been established then an electricity supplier needs to be found to
sell the electricity to. There is more choice in electricity supplier, since deregulation in
1990, the consumer is able to purchase electricity from any of the UK suppliers.
UK Electricity Suppliers & Market Shares
Scottish and Southern Electricity Group
Atlantic Eleetric and Gas
SWALEC
Southern Beelric
Scottish Hydro EleatJic
British Gas
Countrywide Ener9Y
Ecotricity
EDF Energy
London Enoryy
Seaboard
SWEB
Good Enef9Y
Green Ener9Y UK
Scottishpower ManweIJ
Npower Telecom Plus
E.ON (fonnerty Powergen)
Ulilija
Figure 9: UK Electricity Suppliers and Market Share'"
[Ii British Gas
.Powergen
o Npower
IJ EDF Energy
fi!ilSSE
Scottish Power
Others
Tariffs are not necessarily equal across the country from each supplier. The principle
electricity suppliers are shown in Figure 9. The idea of diversified generation requires the
grid to be used as a public utilities transport network services rather than a service that
purely sells electricity.
Page 4001 91
Four of the Seven of the district network operators (DNO's) are also electricity suppliers
holding 63% of the market share. This gives rise to a conflict of interest between the
incentives to introduce more distributed generation and the loss of income faced by
supplying less electricity.
It is suggested that government intervention will be required to encourage the
development of the national grid in order for it to operate in a more flexible manner. To
address this issue the government has introduced an incentive for electricity distributers
and suppliers to convene and devise their own framework for oVercoming the difficulties
faced in the arrangements for buying back electricity generated locally". If they do not
then the act gives the government power to impose changes to their licensing
agreements to ensure the target for increasing microgeneration can be achieved.
The high transaction costs can make exported electricity unattractive for suppliers which
can lead to a commercial value for the export that is disproportional to its true value.
This has currently resulted in export prices offered that are significantly lower than
Import prices.
Table 7 contains a review of the prices currently available from electricity shippers for
exporting generated electricity.
The electricity suppliers have responded to the Increase in interest in micro generation on
a domestic scale, a number of choices are available that suit different export
arrangements at iess than 10kW export peak. However electricity suppliers are less
informative when it comes to establishing their export tariffs for larger installations. Most
applications for export tariffs larger than domestic are negotiated on an individual basis
with the electricity supplier. This makes it difficult to compare what is on offer from
different suppliers. Green Energy, Good Energy and Scottish Power are currently the
only suppliers who advertise commercial export connection tariffs.
page410f91
Size of Electricity Price for Claim for Type of
Frequency
Company of Meter Name of Scheme
Generator Price ROCs ROCs Meter
Reading
kW p/kW p/kW
British Gas <2000kWh/yr 5 0 claim export meter quarterly Eco-save
Countrywide No schemes
Energy offered
E.ON
Information
unavailable
Ecotricity <10kW 4.5 0 claim export meter annually
Renewable
Rewards
EDF Energy-
either, Power Purchase
<5kW 5 0 claim depending if annually Agreement - yearly
scheme 1
exported contract
EDF Energy-
don't buy Power Purchase
<10kW 7.64 nla and don't export meter quarterly Agreement - 3 year
scheme 2
claim contract
Good Energy -
O.5-6kW 0 9p buy
generator twice a
Home generation
scheme 1 meter year
Good Energy -
6-75kW not stated 4.5p buy export meter monthly Smart generation
scheme 2
Good Energy
75kW+ not stated 4.5p buy export meter monthly
Commercial
scheme 3 generation
Green Energy UK
0-30kW 4p 3p buy export meter quarterly cellus energy
- scheme 1
Green Energy UK
30kW+ 3p 4p buy export meter monthly commercial export
scheme 2
same as
don't buy
Npower <6kW
Import
nla and don't export meter quarterly Juice
claim
Scottish Power domestic 4 4.6 buy export meter annually none
located same as
don't buy
information
Scottish Power
within area import
nla and don't export meter
unavailable
RSPB
claim
not located
don't buy
information
Scottish Power
within area
5p nla and don't export meter
unavailable
RSPB
claim
Table 7: Review of Electricity Suppliers export tariffs"
Page 42 of 91
Green Energy, Good Energy and Scottish and Southern are the only electricity suppliers
advertising a scheme for buying back electricity from a local renewable source greater
than 20kW. Domestic scale installations of less than 10kW are better catered for with a
number of options from both specialist renewable electricity suppliers and the large
mainstream energy providers. The buy back price for the energy generated by local
renewables is providing little or no incentive at present. Each contract needs to be
negotiated on an individual basis making it difficult to compare between providers to get
the most competitive price for the electricity.
Page 43 of 91
5 Procurement
5.1 Introduction
The actual purchase of a wind turbine can be a complex part of the overall process of
achieving the on-site renewable generation required. Selection of a turbine to match the
required capacity and site constraints is not as straight forward as it may seem.
Wind turbine technology is well established throughout Europe with many machines
being procured every year. This chapter will look at the availability of wind turbines
within the current market and identify limitations that may be Imposed on a scheme by
restrictions caused by the procurement process.
5.2 Availability 01 wind turbines
Appendix E contains analysis of all wind turbine manufacturers currently operating within
the European market. The data indicates the turbine capacity of each model
manufactured with its physical size. The turbine range applicable for 10% on-site
generation of the annual consumption of a non-domestic building is contained in
Appendix A. It indicates that in the majority of cases 20-600kW units would be required
to supply 10% of building loads. From the graph in figure 10 it can be seen that only
12% of turbines available to the European market fall within this size range. The majority
of the market is focused on extending the upper range of turbines, increasing the rated
capacity for each individual unit. This strong market is driven by the wind farm demand
for wind turbines. The turbines are suited to more remote locations with high wind
speeds due to their physical size, noise parameters and rated cut In wind speeds. At the
other end of the scale there are many turbines available in the small domestic market.
Page 44 of 91
Scale of wind turbines vvithin the European market
o Small domestic 0-5kW
o Large domeslic >5-20kW
!ll Small 'medium scale' >20-10OkW
l1li Large 'medium scale' > l00-400kW
o Small 'lruye scale' >400-1000kIW
scale >1000kW
Figul'8 10: Scale of wind turbines within the European market'
If you look at turbines within this sector that are available in the UK, the options reduce
to about hall of the available turbines. A number of the European manufacturers will only
bulk deliver. Single turbine purchases for on-site generation are not available directly
from the manufacturer. These could only be installed if a third party responsible for a
number of installations of turbines were to become involved.
Table 8 contains the manufacturers and capacity of all turbines currently available within
the UK of the scale required. This range of turbines forms a very small part of the overall
market. The larger capacity units have not been ignored; the table finishes with the
330kW Enercon model because there are no turbines available above this until the
smallest large scale 600kW models are reached. Therefore to meet an output in the
region 330-600kW two smaller turbines would need to be used.
The table of turbines highlights that it would not always be possible to select a wind
turbine that perfectly matched the buildings 10% renewables requirement. For example,
a low consumption 5000m
2
air-conditioned office would require a turbine of
approximately 128kW peak rated output", To achieve this you would either use the next
model size up or two smaller turbines. The restrictive nature of the market means that
choice is extremely limited and turbine size will more often than not be dictated by what
is available rather than what is required. This may mean that an individual site may need
to allocate a larger portion of external area to the siting of a wind turbine than it actually
requires. Initial capital cost could be higher than necessary. Both of these factors could
stall a project or make it infeasible if the required size of turbine is not available.
Page 45 of 91
Where available, manufacturing lead in times are stated within Table 8. The shortest
delivery periods are for the smaller units all of less than 100kW. An on-site wind turbine
will be linked to a new building development construction programme. A 3 month lead in
period is not unusual for certain elements of a build and could easily be incorporated.
The information required by the manufacturers for turbines of this size is also limited. A
turbine will be supplied to meet whatever the order requires.
A more typical lead in time for all the turbines within this range is 4-6 months.
Manufacturers of larger units require more site data before an order can be placed. They
will assess the wind characteristics of the site as well as ensure a grid connection has
been arranged and can be achieved. Allowing for this initial communication the entire
process for the units larger than 100kW is more likely to take 9 months from start to
finish. This timescale could still be accommodated within the construction programme
for the rest of a building.
Page 46 of 91
Peak Cutin Rated
Cut
Manufacturer Turbine
Hub Blade Country of
Wind Wind
out Lead In
Rating
Height Diameter Origin
Speed Speed
wind Time
speed
kW m m
Enwia 15 12-18 7 Poland 3.5 12 15
up to 12
I
weeks
Eoltec SAS 20 18-32 11 France 2.6 11
Gazelle 20 13-20 11 UK 4 13 20
about 22
weeks
._--, ..
Westwind 20 30 lOA Australia 3 14
not
stated
..
Enwia 40 12-18 10 Poland 3.5 12 15
upto 12
weeks
Entegrity 50 25 15 Canada 4.6 12 22.4
up to 18
weeks
Enwia 70 18-30 17 Poland 3.5 12 15
up to 12
weeks
6 months
WES 80 31-41 18 Netherlands 3 12 25 from
application
Vergnet 250 55 2632 France
45 months
!
from france
I 6 months
WES 250 30-50 30 Netherlands 3 12 25 from
application
Enercon 330 44-50 33 Germany 2.5 13 28-34
Table 8: Wind Turbine Manufacturers of20-600kW units available within the UK
Page 47 of 91
S.3 Merchant Wind Power
Merchant Wind Power (MWP) Is a phrase used to describe companies that install and
operate wind turbines on the behalf of their customers. Merchant wind power companies
facilitate the installation and operation of wind turbines on iand that is essentially leased
to them by the owner. This removes all the financial risk from the land owner for the
procurement and installation. The MWP Company own, operate and maintain the
turbine selling the electricity to you at a reduced rate based on an agreed minimum term.
The MWP Company claim the ROC's from the installation. There is limited long term
financial reward for the site owner using MWP as they gain nothing from the sale of the
electricity or ROC's. The big advantage is achieving on-site renewable generation
without needing to input the capital cost or effort in making the installation happen.
Companies that offer MWP in the UK Include Ecotricity and Wind-Direct. MWP as a
commercial venture will look to use the most suitable sites and will expect to use as
large a turbine as possible to get the best return on the capital cost of the installation. As
such MWP would not be available for any scheme of the size this report Is concerned
with. However there may be an option, if the appropriate site and space is available for a
MWP agreement to be used to facilitate a much larger turbine installation providing more
than the 10% renewables target. This is more suited to large industrial buildings built on
extensive brownfield sites.
SA Project Management
The procurement of the wind turbine forms about 80% of the capital expenditure of the
overall wind turbine installation'. Therefore procuring the right turbine for the site is of
utmost importance. Working through the process of gathering site data, liaising with the
turbine manufacturer, co-ordinating the site works and electrical requirements can all be
undertaken by a third party. For the larger turbine Installations this would ensure the best
possible turbine is procured for the site with their in depth knowledge of the wind turbine
manufacturing sector.
The buying power of third parties that are also Involved In the erection of wind farms
gives them far more leverage with wind turbine manufacturers, can help reduce lead In
times and can widen the range of turbines available. Where a single purchase may not
be available directly from the manufacturer, the third party may be able to source a more
suitably sized turbine otherwise only sold in mUltiples. They may also be able to source
from manufactUrers who do not directly market to the UK further expanding the range of
turbines available.
Page 48 of 91
5.5 Second hand wind turbines
Second hand reconditioned turbines are available from European sources. Particularly
Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands where the take up of wind turbines has been so
extensive they are now running short of productive sites. It can therefore be more
economic for them to replace old smaller sized turbines with larger higher capacity
models. The capacity of second hand turbines is ideally matched to the 10% renewables
requirement for a building. The units being taken down are from a generation of wind
turbines that were half the scale of the modern mega turbines. The graph in Figure 11
identifies the extent of the second hand market in Germany based on an assessment of
the current installed capacity across the country.
1500
S
1250
is
~
<
1000

~ .. .

.r.
750
~
:2
500
~
250
<
.'!
<
0
~
r
"
-
'i
lir-
e-
_r
~
0.-
,-
..."
0
..
.",
.
'-
/,
f-.
- -
0
...........
;
.
I",
, .
.no<!
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Figure 11: Potential number of second hand turbines available from GermanY"
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10 %
0%
The graph indicates that the availability of medium sized wind turbines will continue for
at most another 5 years. As the other European markets have developed at a similar rate
to Gemnany this is likely to be representative of all the existing sources of second hand
wind turbines.
The market for second hand turbines is continuously changing depending on what is
available. Wind Brokers operate from the Netherlands, at the time of writing they were
able to offer the turbines contained within table 9.
Page 49 of 91
Manufacturer
Turbine
Hub Height Rotor Diameter
capacity
kW m m
, .. W""" _._ ..... mmm ~ m m
""
Made 150 21 20
Made 150 28 20
Ecotencla 150 28 20
-.. ... - - - .
Made 180 28 23
Bonus 600 40
~ - - ~
Vestas 600 40 42
Table 9: Second hand wInd turbInes available from Wind Broker:!'
Second-hand turbines also come with the advantage that lead In times are not dictated
by manufacturing. The turbines are usually dismantled, reconditioned and then ready for
re-delivery and re-erection. They also come at much lower cost. Turbines worth
reconditioning will have already operated for 5 to 15 years and come without warranties.
Most of the working parts within a turbine are replaceable and ongoing maintenance is
much like servicing a car, the generation of turbines available second hand did not
incorporate complicated technology. The major maintainable components are the
gearbox, bearing, blades and generator itself. Acquiring spare parts might become a
future obstacle, as the technical support from most the manufacturers expires after 20
years.
Page 50 of 91
6 Conclusion
The recommended desirable 6m/s wind speed to ensure a wind turbine installation is
efficient appears to be difficult to achieve in an urban environment. The most significant
effect reducing potential wind speed is high roughness factor. This Is particularly acute
where there are collections of buildings. It only takes a small settlement to be influential;
therefore the average wind speeds in most building development locations will suffer
from this effect. The analysis of existing turbines confirms that load capacity factors of
less than 10% can be expected when wind turbines are located within or on the fringe of
urban areas. Linking on-site wind turbines to buildings to meet a 10% renewables target
will therefore come with an inherent reduction in turbine output if the building is located
in an urban environment. This will affect the majority of new building development.
The presence of an obstruction such as the building the turbine is linked to appears to
have a less significant effect on the overall wind speed. If IT is possible to raise the hub
height of a turbine then the effect of a local obstruction is minimised. A turbine would not
be considered for a site where it was not possible to ensure the turbine hub height was
at least twice the height of the surrounding buildings. This means that inner city sites
which are surrounded by tall buildings are unsuitable for erecting wind turbines of this
scale.
To overcome the urban factor, consideration would need to be made to increasing the
turbine height and blade diameter to Increase rated capacity. This would help to
overcome the wind speed reduction. The former would Increase the load capacity factor
for the turbine by uti11slng higher average wind speeds and hence average electricity
generation. The latter would yield a larger peak capacity increasing the electricity
generation possible at the same wind speed.
The efficiency of the wind turbine generator at turning wind power into electricity needs
to be as high as possible. Further development in this area by wind turbine
manufacturers to ensure their generator units convert as much of the available wind
energy as practicable would assist with the placement of turbines in the urban
environment. Effective generation from the lower cut in wind speeds would help increase
annual generation capacity.
National planning guidance encourages local planning authorities to adopt more
renewable technologies in the built environment. Planning policy is not allowed to
obstruct wind turbine applications and currently actively encourages the Introduction of
decentralised renewable energy generation with the inclusion of renewable targets within
Page 51 0191
many planning development policies. However there are no specific planning targets for
this type of decentralised on-site wind energy, unlike other European countries such as
Denmark and Germany where designated areas Were identified and targeted to promote
the uptake of wind energy through planning strategy.
Achieving planning permission for a wind turbine application is a complicated process
with a significant amount of consultation required. Little guidance is provided for the one
off applicant through the route to achieve planning permission. Whilst there is
documentation for the planners consideration there Is little in terms of guidance to
prospective developers. The BWEA have provided guidance to simplify the requirements
of aviation consultation. Consultation proforma need to be developed to expedite the
route to achieve planning permission.
The reality of obtaining planning perm ission for a wind turbine to meet the renewable
target is still fraught with obstacles. The planning summary table highlights that finding a
turbine location that meets planning criteria is very site specific. If a site is large enough
there will be scope to overcome some of the issues by adjusting the local position of the
wind turbine. However some factors such as aviation, visual impact and noise are
significant enough to completely stop the erection of a turbine in the vicinity.
Using wind turbines to meet a building's 10% renewable target generally indicates that
the building is the priority and not the wind turbine as the need for the building came
first. This means that site selection will be based on the building's requirements and not
those of the turbine. This inflexibility in site location will prevent many turbines from
obtaining planning permission.
In all but the remotest locations grid connection of a wind turbine should be technically
possible. The rate of uptake of decentralised energy generation will allow network
operators time to update infrastructure to accommodate local export requirements.
Although it may come at the high price of negotiation time and connection costs,
network operators will not be able to refuse a connection request. The timescale for
agreeing a connection also aligns itself well with the construction programme typically
involved in a building development.
Wind turbines can introduce new characteristics to a network that are currently not
experienced. Whilst these factors need consideration in the design of turbine protective
systems and the analysis of the network infrastructure capacity and components,
understanding issues arising will allow implementation of adequate remedial measures
to overcome any technical difficulties associated with the compatibility of wind turbines
for network connection.
Page 52 of 91
The financial reward for generating on-site renewable electricity Is currently quite weak.
Utility companies provide little incentive in terms of buy back costs for locally generated
electricity. Utility buy back of electricity needs to be universally adopted with increased
clarity of tariffs offered to allow the generators to select on a more competitive basis.
Comparison between the major electricity shippers is currently not possible due to the
lack of published information on the tariffs they will offer.
The governments ROC scheme currently provides a reliable source of incoming for the
larger scale installations, but can prove ineffective for smaller units due to set up costs
for generation meters and application administration. Combined buy back and ROC
schemes offered by utility companies could usefully be extended from the typical 10kW
limit towards the lower end.
The feed in tariff system widely used in Europe ensures that a defined price is paid by
utility companies for iocally generated electricity sold back to the grid. A system such as
this could increase the financial benefit of generating on site renewables offering a more
attractive payback Incentive to help kick start the Integration of on-site renewables.
The availability of an appropriate sized wind turbine is limited. The majority of the
investment in wind turbine technology is aimed at domestic scale units typically smaller
than 100kW or wind farm scale units exceeding 1 MW. There is limited choice of unit in
the 20-600kW range with no particular manufacturer specialising in this area to sell one
off units. As previously identified, to enhance the output of turbines in urban
environments prodUct research and development Is required to move this sector of the
wind turbine market forward. The demand In the UK for turbines of this size has not been
sufficient enough to encourage the Industry to develop turbines in this range but without
the investment the prognosis for wind turbines installed with the purpose of achieving
the 10% renewables target falls short of its potemial.
Second hand wind turbines are proving to be a good short term solution for erecting
cost effective turbines required at a smaller scale to those now installed in wind farms.
The older turbines are less efficient than newer technology and reliance on them for a
source will not Improve the eXisting situation or enhance the conversion of as much of
the potential wind energy on urban sites as possible Into electricity. Making use of
existing wind turbine stock has a limited life span and long term investmem will still be
required to ensure lack of supply does not make the technology unviable at this scale.
Mercham wind power Is unsuitable for the 20-600kW scale of turbine therefore large
capital cost Investment in this way is not available to achieve the 10% renewable target.
However if a suitable site were available this would be a sensible consideration for
Page 53 of 91
providing in excess of 10% renewables on a site. The wind speed at the site would need
to be sufficient to yield a high capacity factor from the wind turbine installation to ensure
the investor would recoup the capital expenditure. This approach would r s u ~ in long
term financial benefits being lost to the investor but potentially 100% on-site renewable
electricity generation being achieved for the building.
The principle conclusion to be drawn from this work is the importance of the site
location. Wind speeds must be sufficient to ensure a reasonable turbine capacity factor
can be achieved and the location must not be unfavourable for achieving planning
permission. Without flexibility in this area the number of circumstances where a suitable
setting occurs will be limited. Urban centres present many difficulties, whereas open
countryside provides more opportunities. The primary motives for selecting a site are
usually driven by the use and needs of a bUilding. As a consequence this brings
inflexibility in meeting the constraints associated with planning a wind turbine
installation. This often renders its realisation ex1remely difficult to achieve.
Page 54 of 91
Sizing
The following analysis is based on generating 10% of the total energy consumption of a building.
The following assumptions have been made:
The sizing is based on a single wind turbine providing the total generation capacity
The site is located on an urban site but not within a city.
The wind turbine will achieve an average load capacity factor of 10%
The building types selected are those identified In CIBSE Guide F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings
Table 20.1 OVerall Building Benchmarks. 2
nd
Edition pUblished 2004
Three floor areas have been identified. The benchmark applies to the floor area as follows:
Catering/EntertainmenVEducationJbanks: Gross floor area
Hospitals: Heated floor area
HotelS/OfficeS/Public buildings/sports and recreation: Treated floor area
Retail: Sales floor area
Summary of Results:
Size of building Range of Turbine Output (KW)
.. ... ..
1000m2 building 19-226
2500m2 building 49-565
5000m2 building 97-636
The purpose of this analysis is to establish the approximate scale of wind turbine required to meet
the 10% renewables target. There is obviously significant variation in building energy consumption
due to the nature of the type of building. There will also be a significant variation in capacity factor.
This variation will depend on the wind speed at the location, the roughness factor of the
surrounding area, local obstructions and also the turbine selection and hub height.
Turbine size required to meet 10% of annual building energy demand In
typical p",clice buildings
Treated Electricity Fossil fuel Total energy Energy Turbine
Building type area of consumption consumption consumption generation rated
building p . p.a. p . required output
m2 kWhlm2 kWhlm2 kWhlm2 kWhlyr kW
church 1000 150 20 170 17000 19
catalogue stores 1000 69 101 170 17000 19
-
secondary school 1000 144 33 177 17700 20
-.. _ .... - ..
pos1 office 1000 140
I
45 185 18500 21
-
primary school 1000 164 32 196 19600
!
22
banks 1000 98 101
i
199 19900 23
~ . ~ - - - - - -
naturally ventilated
1000 151 54 205 20500 23
cellular office
high street agencies 1000 150 55 205 20500 23
museum and art
1000 142 70
I gallery
212
I
21200 24
!
community centre 1000 187 33 220 22000 25
.... _ .....
dry sports centre 1000 158 64 222 22200 25
secondary with
1000 167 36 223 22300 25
swimming pool
sports ground and
1000 141 93 234 23400 27
changing facility
,,-------,
._-
naturally ventilated
1000 151 65 236 23600 27
open plan office
1-'"
distribution
!
1000 169 67 236 23600 27
warehouse
courts (magistra"'.) 1000 194 45 239 23900 27
r------
library 1000 210 46 256 25600 29
Ice rink 1000 100 167 267 26700 30
town hall 1000 205 111
!
316 31600 36
.. .. -.-,-,-,-".-, -
" .. _,,-,-'. __ .
fitness centre 1000 201 127 328 32600 37
-
depot 1000 311 39 350 35000 40
DIY store 1000 192 160 352 35200 40
social clubs 1000 250 110 360 36000 41
Turbine size required to meet 10% of annual building energy demand in
typical practice buildings
Building type
Treated
area of
building
ElectriCity
consumption
p.a.
Fossn fu.1
consumption
p.o.
Total .nergy
consumption
p.a.
Energy
generation
required
Turbine
rated
output
!--------j----j-----+-.--...
kWh/m2 I kWhlyr m2 kWhlm2 kWhlm2 kW

combined sports 1000 264 I 96 I I'
centre 360 I 36000 ,
41
electrical goods 1000 a 368 368 36800 42
clothes shops 1000 108 287 395 39500 45
i air conditioned
I office
1000 178 226 404 40400 46
day centre 1000 349 68 417 41700
!
48
53
residential care 1000 390 75 485 46500 I
_ho_m_._ .... _____ -I-__ -+ ____ --if-____ +
I
----f-f----f-----J
police station 1000 410 60 470 47000 I 64
1------+-.-.-.... /-----+- ----1----+-----..... +------1
!
meat butchers 1000 o 475 475 47500 64
off licences 1000 o 475 475 47500 54
small hotel 1000 360 120 480 48000 55
small food shop
residential nursing
hom.
1000! 80 400 480 48000 I 55
.... __ .... -1-------1---_._--+----+ ... _-.-
1000 417! 79 496 49600
!
57
sheltered housing 1000 432 68 500 50000 57
ambulance station 1000 460 70 530 53000 61
1000 411 122 533 53300 61 teaching hospital I
--......... ----+----I------j---........ --.,-----r----+-----l
temporary
1000 487 71
homeless unit
_...... =----j---+-----j---
holiday hotel
department slores
presige air
conditioned office
cottage hospital
long stay hospital
1000
1000
I 1000
1000
1000
400 140
248 294
210 358
492 78
518 72
538 53800 61
640 54000 62
642 54200 62
568 56800 65
570 57000 65
590 59000 67
1000 460 61000 lUXUry hotel

I__---:---;:--:--:c--... --.--+-----+-----1
acute and maternity 1000 510 108 618 61800.
150 610 70
hospital
71
fire station 1000 540 80 620 62000 71

swimming pool 1000 573 152 725 72500 83
Turbine size required to meet 10% of annual building energy demand in

typical practice buildings

Treated Electricity Fossil fuel Total energy Energy Turbine
Building type area of consumption consumption consumption generation rated
building p.a. p.o. p.a. required output
. .. _-----_ .

IT'"
h/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/yr kW
.. _._. __ ....
leisure pool 573 164 737 73700 84
bingo clubs 1000 640 230 770 77000
i
88
cinemas 1000 620 160
I
780 78000 89
theatres 1000 630 270
I
900 103
... -.... _.
frozen food centre 1000 0 1029 1029 102900 117
..
supermarket 1000 200 915 1115 111500 127
fast food restaurant 1000 670 890 1560 156000 178
.
restaurant with bar 1000 1250 730 1980 198000 228
.. . ~ ~ ~ - - - - ...
church 2500 150 20 170 42500 49
catalogue stores 2500 69 101 170 42500 49
.. ..
secondary school 2500 144 33 177 44250 51
~ - ~ ... .
post office 2500 140 45 185 46250

53
,
.... _ ... _ ....
----
.-
primary school 2500 164 32 196 49000 56
banks 2500 98 101 199 49750 57
naturally ventilated
2500 151 54 205 51250 59
cellular office
.
high street agencies 2500 150 55 205 51250 59
.... -...
museum and art
2500 142 70 212 53000 61
gallery
community centre 2500 187 33 220 55000 63
dry sports centre 2500 158 64 222 55500 63
_ ...... _ ....
secondary with
2500 187 36 223 55750 64
swimming pool
.. -
sports ground and
changing facility
2500 141

93 234 55500 67
..
naturally ventilated i
2500 151
I
85 236 59000 67
open plan office
I distribution
2500 169

67

238 59000 67
: warehouse
..
L....""urts (magistrates)
!
2500 194 45 239 59750 68
library 2500 210
!
46 256 64000 73
'---------
I
I
Turl>ine size required to meet 1/)% of annual building energy demand In
typical practice buildings
. Treated Electricity Fossil fuel
: area of consumption consumption
I building p.a. p.a.

I m2 kWhlm2 i kWhlm2
Building type
Total energy
consumption
p.a.
Energy
generation
required
Turbine
rated
output
kW : kWhlm2 kWhlyr I
______ ....... _+-___ __ --i--.-----f--
ice rink 2500 100 167 267 66750 76
'-_town __ ha_II ____ I -2500
205 111 316 79000 90
fitness centre 2500 201 127 328 82000
depot 2500 311 39 350 87500 100
f--- ........
! 2500 store
social clubs
combined sports
centre
electrical goods
clothes shops
air conditioned
offICe
day
residential care
home
potlce station
meat butchers
off licences
192
2500 250
2500 264
2500 o
2500 108
2500 178
2500 349
2500 390
2500 410
2500 o
2500 o
160 352 88000 100
110 360 90000 103
96 360 90000 103
368 368 92000 105
287 395 ! 98750 113
226 404 101000 115
68 417 104250 119
75 465 116250
133 !
60 117500 134
475 118750 136
476 475 118750 136

2500 360'
____ --------11:,---
small food shop 2500 80 I 400 480
small hotel 120 480
residential nursing
home
,...-......
sheltered housing
ambulance station
,........ .....
teaChing hospital
2500
2500
2500
2500
417 79 496
432 68 500
460 70 530
411 122 533
120000 137
120000 137
124000 142
125000 143
132500 151
133250 152
..
temporary I'
homeless unit
I
2500 467 71 538 134500 164
holiday hotel 2500 400 140 540 135000 ! 154
I
department stores I 2500 248 294 542 135500 155
I presige air 1,1 2500 210 ii'
__ L.. __ .....l _____ ..J ..
__ 35_8 __ L ____ ..JI ___ 14_20_0_0 __ LI __ 1_6_2--.-Ji
Turbine size required to meet 10% of annual building energy demand in
typical practice buildings
Treated Electricity Fossil fuel Total energy Energy Turbine
Building type area of consumption consumption consumption generation rated
building p.a. p.a. p.a. required output
m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/m2 kWh/yr kW
cottage hospital 2500 492 78 570 142500 163
long stay hospital 2500 518 72 590 147500 168
luxury hotel 2500 460 150 610 152500 174
acute and maternity
2500 510 108 618 154500 176
hospital
fire station 2500 540 80 620 155000 177
swimming pool 2500 573 152 725 181250 207
leisure pool 2500 573 164 737 184250 210
bingo clubs 2500 540 230 770 192500 220
cinemas 2500 620 160 780 195000 223
theatres 2500 630 270 900 225000 257
frozen food centre 2500 0 1029 1029 257250 294
supermarket 2500 200 915 1115 278750 318
fast food restaurant 2500 670 890 1560 390000 445
restaurant with bar 2500 1250 730 1980 495000 565
church 5000 150 20 170 85000 97
catalogue stores 5000 69 101 170 85000 97
secondary school 5000 144 33 177 88500 101
post office 5000 140 45 185 92500 106
primary school 5000 164 32 196 98000 112
banks 5000 98 101 199 99500 114
naturally ventilated
5000 151 54 205 102500 117
cellular office
high street agencies 5000 150 55 205 102500 117
museum and art
5000 142 70 212 106000 121
gallery
community centre 5000 187 33 220 110000 126
dry sports centre 5000 158 64 222 111000 127
I
Turbine size required to meet 10% of annual building energy demand In
typical practice buildings
!
BUilding type
Treated
area of
building
m2
Electricity
consumption
p ..
!<WllIm2
Fossil fuel
consumption
p .
!<WllIm2
i T 0101 energy
'
I, consumption
p.a.
kWIlIm2
c--....... --:--:-:--+--
secondary with 5000 187 i 36 ,
!-"sw"'i;;;m"'m"i"'n"'o""p"'O;;;OIC-.:c-"C"-+ ___ + ____ .......,......., __ ......... _ .
223
sports ground and
changing facility
5000 141 93
, naturally ventilated 5000 151 85
234
236
Energy
generation
required
!<WllIyr
111500
117000
118000
Turbine
rated
output
kW
127
134
135
I open Pl"l1off-:ci;;;ceC-. __ + ___ -t-_____ --t _____ .
I dhlstrlbutlon 5000 169 67 1
1
.... 236 'I' 118000 :' 135
: wafe OUH .j ______ ......., ___ _
courts (magistrates) 5000 194 45 239 119500 136
1------1'---1------
library 5000 210 46 256 128000 146
ice rink 5000 100 167 267 133500 152
town hall 5000 205 111 316 155000 180
r---......... ..
I
fitness centre 5000 201 127 328 ! 164000 187
depot 5000 311 ! 39 350 I 175000 200
DIY store 5000 192 160 352 176000 201
soclal clubs 5000 250 110 360 180000 205
electrical goods 5000 o 368 368 184000
clothe. shops 108 287 395 197500 225
1""C-"7.:';-;---'----+-- --+------+---.. --... .. - .. -
.ir conditioned 5000 178 226 404 202000 231
office
day centre 5000 349 68 417 208500 238
f--:-:-;--;;-;----t-.......... -f-----l-- ............ -f------t-
residential care
home
5000 390 75 465 232500 i 265
police station 5000 410 60 470 235000 i 268
meat butchers 5000 o 475 475 237500 271
off licences 5000 o
47-5-+1
237500 271
small hotel 5000 360 120 480 240000 274

small food shop 5000 80 I
....... ..... -_+---+--__l
hom':Sidential nursing 5000 417 79 496 i 248000 283
I sheltered ... .. .... _- ...J
400 450 240000 274
Turbine size required to meet 10% of annual building energy demand in
typical practice buildings
Building type
Treated
area of
building
m2
Electricity ! Fossil fuel -T Total energy
consumption ' consumptIon ' consumptlon
p.a. p.a. p.a.
kWhlm2 kWhlm2 kWhlm2
Energy
generation
required
kWh/yr
Turbine
rated
output
ambulance station 460 5000 303
.. ...
70 530 265000
leaching hospital 5000 411 122 533 266500 304
temporary
homeless unit
holiday hotel
5000 467
5000 400
71 536 269000 307
140 540 270000 308
'---------,
I

presige air I
' ditio ed ffi i' 5000 210 358 568 I,
I 5000
department stores 5000 248
492
294
78
542
570
271000
284000
285000
309
324
325
long slay hospilal 5000 516 72 500 295000 337
luxury hotel 5000 460 150 610 305000 346
5000 510 108 618 353 309000
, acute and maternity
: hospilal ,

fire sIaIion 5000 540 80 620 310000 354

! :
swimming pool 5000 573 152 725 362500 414
letsure pool 5000 573 1&4 737 368500 421
bingo clubs 5000 540 770 385000 439
cinemas 5000 620 780 300000 445
theatres 5000 630 270 900 450000 514
frozen food centre 5000 o 1029 1029 514500 587
supermarket
, 5000
200 915
I
1115 557500 836
Appendixl?- Existing ""ind Turbinl:Analysis
Wind turbine analysis of existing installations has been undertaken to assess the performance of
turbines within the range 50-600kW.
Where sufficient information for the turbine installation is available a data sheet has been created to
establish the nature of the turbine location. Google earth was used for the satellite images of the
area. Ordnance Survey was used for the topographical map of the area. The UK Renewable Energy
Foundation data was used for the 2005 load capacity figures. The country guardian data was used
for the 2006 load capacity figures. All load capacity figures are taken from the ROC register
available from the OfGem website.
Calculation of wind speed at hub height has been made based on adjustments from the department
for Business, Enterprise, and Regulatory Reform (BERR) wind speed data base raw data using the
Danish Wind Energy Association (DWEA) roughness calculator.
Sources:
Google Earth
http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.ukloswebsite/getamap
UK renewable Energy Data: Issue 1 (08.12.06): VoIS: wind 78/168. Renewable Energy
Foundation
UK Wind Energy Generation 2006 - By Site.
Complete%203Dec2007.pdf
BERR wind speed data base
http://www.berr.gov.uklenergY/sourceslr .. !1..!wableslexplain.!r!/wind/windspeed:
database/page27326.htm!
Danish Wind Energy Association Roughness Calculations
http://www.windpower.org/en/lour/wresicalculat.htm
Location Details for wind turbine sites
Wind Turbine Operator Location Post Code OS grid Ref
"""""--
The Renewable Energy
Hertfordshlre
WD48LR SP 29 71
centre
_.
Barnard Caslle GSK County Durham DL12 SDT NZ0517
Centre for Alternative
technology
Powys
I
SY209P\Z SH75 04
_._.
Faccombe Estates Hampshire SP110DB SU3958
i
Dotterel Farm North Yol1<shlre
I
YOl7 SET SE 95 71
i
Sl Mary' ambridgeshlre PE262SN
!
Tl2687
... -
Wood Green Animal
cambridgeshire PE292NH TL 26 68
Shelter
castle PIli Farm Pembmkeshire SA731HE SM91 07
--
,
Lynch Knoll Gtoucestersh ire GL103UJ
~ 6 1 1
..............
Newlands 2 Cumbria CA7SHP .. NY3539
East Kilbrjde Wind Turbtne
i
East Renfrewshire G75022 NS 6252
--..
Naylor Hill West Yorkshire BD229SU
I
SE0335
Isle of Luing Argyll and Bute nla
I
nla
Fair Isle
i
Shellano nla niB
West Beacon Farm leicesrershire nla nla
I--
Middlefield. Wind Turbine County Durham n/a nla
1--...
The EGO centre Hebburn County Durham nla n/a
The Greenhouse County Durham nla nla
Pil Gen 1
i
County Antrim nla nla
".".
1
..
Senoran County Londonderry nla nla
Carhm wind turbine County Londonderry nla nla
-
........... -
Unlclate
i
Western Isles nla nI.
....... -
Mynyod Glandulas Ceredigion nla nI.
Swansea docl<s SWansea nla nla
_ ........
_m
I
Barnard Castle
Post Code DL12 SOT

OS grid Ref NZ 0517

Number of windb.lrbines 2
Turbine capacity (kW) 250
.........
Hub height (m) 30
Wind speed at hub height (mls) 3.47
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 8.88
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 8.2
-........
Rou hoess Class g 3
......... -
Local Topography Undulating
Local O"'O;cm'
............ .....
", .. ,,,., ,
'.'
[tl
M
...
'-'
..,
M
",
..,
. ... ,.
. '.
..,
."
f

. .....

,., ..,
l
.,.
:
"",9--'------
..,
's
'Md -,,,."" " Co mM
.. , ... >.3
.. ',: .........
. ,_... ,._ .",6
..,
.........
.3 7
Castle Pill Farm
Post Code 8A731HE
08 grid Ref 8M 9107
Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 500
Hub height (m) 40
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 4.31
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 18.19'
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 23.29
Roughness Class 3
Local Topography Undulating
Local Obstacles Unknown
* averaged over 11 months data for February missing
Wmdspced Database Query Resurts
r.,...d!olbn grid 1 N U t t 191 207 (SM9107)

... ...
... .. 7
... '.7
. ..

..,
..,

,3 . ..
.. , .. , ..,
,3 ... .. ,
", , .. . ..
,,3 , .. , ..
Centre for Alternative Technology
Post Code SY209AZ

os grid Ref SH75 04

Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 75
Hub height (m) 20
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 3.14
Average , factor 2005 (%) 10.64
.. -
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 7.07
Roughness Class 3
Local Topography Hilly
Local Obstacles None, turbine exposed
Database Query Results
"., .,,,,,
...
I
S
... S.,
:
,
"7" '
~ ; ~ ' ' : ~ , .. , (ul"
.:
S.,

..S ...

. .. $.S
.. , .... 5.2
.... '_" 10m " ,."",
,.. ,., ..,
i
... u
i
..
..,
1. ..

..
Dotterel Farm
Post Code Y017 BET
OS grid Ref SE 95 71
Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 80
Hub height (m) 30
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 4.75
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 25.7*
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 13.27
Roughness Class 1
Local Topography Undulating
Local Obstacles Buildings within 100m not upwind
.. taken over 10 months
W!ndspeed Database Query Results
f .... thOlbr1 grid sq_ 4\1;5 47J (SBl511)
".mI.,
I,
u .. ..
I,
..
..,
..
I :" -_. __ ._. - 6.4_ ,----,.",.," ' ....... -r.l 6.4
..

M

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I"'
, .
..
,.
..
M
,., ,.
, m."J
M
::>.4 "" "",,.,
,.,
M
,
..
<3 .. ...
East Kilbride
Post Code
OS grid Ref
Number of wind turbines
Turbine capacity (kW)
Hub height (m)
Wind speed at hub height (mls)
._._.
Average capacity factor 2005 (%)
Average capacity factor 2006 (%)
Roughness Class
Local Topography
.........
Local Obstacles
Wirnlspeed Database Query Results
for f I ~ lkm grid square 262 6n (ifs6<1S:I)
7,. 7,9 7,7
7S

7 ..
1,7 1,' 7.7
1.1 7.S 7
1.> 7.3 7
7 7.> 1
... 6,S 6.2
6,S 6,. M
G,' M
.. ,
G75022
NS6252
1
600
65
523
,
27,55
I 23.17
3
Undulating
Unknown
Faccombe Estates
Post Code SP11 ODS
OS grid Ref SU 39 58
Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 330
-
Hub height (m) 36
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 5.41
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 11.09
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 11.72
Roughness Class 1
Local Topography Hills
Local Obstacles None, turbine exposed
Wmdspeed Database Query Resuhs
7.3 7.7 7.7
7 7.1 7.>
G.'
... ...
... 7.4 7.4
..,
6.7 7.1

... ...
G.> G.g
..,
5.4
S.1
Lynch Knoll
Post Code GL103UJ
I
OS grid Ref SO 8101
Number of wind turbines 1
-c
Turbine capacity (kW) 500
.-.---
Hub height (m) 40
,
Wind speed at hub height (mfs) 4.99
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 19.36
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 22.24
Roughness Class 2
I
Local Topography Rolling Hills

Local Obstacles None, turbine exposed

I
Wmdspeed Catabase Query Resutts
'''''" ... "
...
,.,
..
1,' ... M
i
1.'
;;;,-"
'"
..

,
, . M
...
,
..,

M
,
...
,.,
"" ."",
, ............. .. ....
...
,., .,
..,
'.1 5.'
M ...
,
Naylor Hill
Post Code BD229SU
SE 0336
Number of Wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 225
r-......................................
Hub height (m) 30
Wind speed at hub height (m/s)
I
4.6
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ . ~ .
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 27.8
................................ -
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 28.77
Roughness Class 1.5
I
Local Topography Undulating
Local Obstacles None, turbine exposed
W!nMpeed Database Que.ry Re!rufts
fMltre nun qrtd!llJl/.IIt'e 40.'1 41& (UO:n6)
'''"''P''''
m'" .
,., ,., ..,

. , ..
.. .. ..,
. ..
""",,,,,,,,
,
.
i
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u
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!. -,-. '.--. ~ , : ~ . , , """.'
'3 I
..
c .. z ........
~ . ...
............ ..
: ~ . :::-
. ~
j
: ~ .. "' .... " .. ,
...
.1
,.,
Newlands
........................ <m c._c__ ....-
Post Code CA78HP
OS grid Ref NY3539
Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 400
Hub height (m) 30
!
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 4.75
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 26,43
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 25.02
Roughness Class 1
Local Topography Rolling Hills
local Obstacles Buildings within 50m upwind
W'mdspeed oan.base Query
t1rv lIcm gotd. P.lulll'(l au $.39c {tj't:3Sl9}

,,,.
, ",,,,/.,
. . ..
'"
,.,
u .. .. ,
. ,
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M
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,,'
I,
u

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, . . ...
(om/"
I'
=
.,'
...
.7
,
SA
I'
u . ,
' ..
st. Mary's Road Ramsey
Post Code PE262SN
OS grid Ref TL 26 87
Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 250
Hub height (m) 30
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 4.59
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) not available
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 17.61
Roughness Class 1
Local Topography Flat lowland
Local Obstacles Building within 50m upwind
for u. .. 11m grid 5qUiIM 2 ~ 297 (TUII97)
.., ..,
.. ,
..,
.. .. ,
..,
.., ,.,
. , .. , . ,
. .. , .. ,
.. .. . .
.. .. . ..
... ... . .
The Renewable Energy Centre
Post Code WD48LR
'-os grid Ref
LNumber of
, Turbine capacity (kW)
SP2971
i 1
'" I 225
Hub height (m) -----'---c
36
=--
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 3.74
I Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 7.69
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 7.59
Roughness Class
Local Topography
3
Undulating
-------------.......... _---
Local Obstacles Buildings within 100m upwind
, .. M

U
, .
'"
N'.
,.,
M
55 ...
s.< '-7
14


.. U
Wood Green Animal Shelter
Post Code PE292NH
OS grid Ref TL2668
Number of wind turbines 1
Turbine capacity (kW) 225
Hub height (m) 30
Wind speed at hub height (m/s) 4.75
Average capacity factor 2005 (%) 17.1
Average capacity factor 2006 (%) 18.67
Roughness Class 1
Local Topography Flat lowlands
Local Obstacles Buildings within 50m upwind
W"lfIdspeed Database Query Results
, 1fIe:lbn grid sqLR>te 525 268 (n26!1;9)
~ ~
,"""m .. ,."'.)
.....
.., ..,
. ,
. ... ..,
.. M ...
"'''1'''''' . ,. mi')
~ . , u
.... ......
i
.
,., ,.,
,
...
,.,
...
. ,"" 'p''' i
U ..
...........
,.,
...
,
.., ,
u
Appendix C - y ~ r a g e Capacity Factor
Installed capacity of onshore wind turbines in the UK in 2006 = 1650.7MWe
Annual generation of onshore wind turbines in the UK in 2006 = 3574GWh
Source: BERR (2007) Capacity of, and electricity generated from, renewable sources. BERR
statistics database.
Average Capacity Factor for UK onshore wind turbines:
1650.7MW x 8760hoursx capacity factor: 3574GWh x 1000 MW/GW
Average capacity factor: 0.247 or 24.7%
Appendix D - Export Tariffs
Export tariff information has been obtained from the following contacts at each of the major electricity
suppliers.
The results of the research are contained within table 7 of the main document.
Company Contact
British Gas green energy 08459 650 650
Countrywide
0800 328 0011
Energy
E.ON +44 (0)24 7642 4000
Ecolricity
08000326100 Emma Cook
Emma,Cook@ecotricity,co.uk
EDF Energy
0800 096 2270
scheme 1
Good Energy ~
01249 766090
scheme 1
Green Energy UK
0845 456 9550
~ s h e m e 1
Npower
Sue Warman 01905 340 646
left message npower website
Sent to Alison McKeen 0141
Scottish Power 568 3964 Scottish power
website
Appendix E - Wind Turbine ___ __ _
Wind turbines available within Europe
Manufacturer
Size of Hub Blade t f
wind coun ry 0
height diameter manufecture
1-- .......... - _________ ' __ ---+---,--""1 -----I
kW i m I.... m
Rutland 0,025 ! 6 0,51 UK
I-T0e:::h0n:::o";el=e"'kt:::ro'--______
Rutland 0.09 6 0,91 UK
Ampair natural energy
Tehnoelektro 0,12 1,2 Germany

Windside production 1 0,12 0,3 Finland
I Solar Wind Team 1 0,15 4-8 1 1,2 Germany
ACSA Aerogeneradores
I-J7,-=B=-=0"Crn:"a"'y-':A.::e"-ro?g<.:e"'n.::.era;.;;c.;:d-'-Orei-:.::.S ___ ------'.1 ___ in __ -1
Ampair natural energy .... _ ... _-=0.:.:,3_--'--'_-=3:1P.
SolucionesEnergeticas 0,3 9-15 1,7 Spanish
Rutland 0,34 1 1.8 UK
Superwind 0.35 1-12 1.12_ Germany
I
Southwest Wind Power '0.4 1,14 US
i Aerocraft _+--=0.:.::,5'----_+ 7-12=---+---c2::c.4+--_i-:G::-e",r",-m-=a:;.:nLy_
I ACSA AerogeTlElr!jdores Canarios +_-;:"-:,6:-+.::-,6"'-0-12 ___ 1-_-=2:;:.2=--;--;:-l--iS'7,p=ia"'n:.:is::ch_---1'
n.::a::;tu:::r.:::a:.;1 e::n:::e::.;rg"'lY-,-___ -I __ O:::,c::6_+3:.-1.::0'--__ +_--:::--'-1:.:., __ --l
J. Bornay Aerogeneradores 0,6 2 Spain
Kestrel Wind Turbines 0,6 1,5 South Africa
?roveo..::..::..::=-'-=:c::::::.:-=-----t--c
0
"'.6c----- -'--:5=-.5=-_"71=-3+-2-::'.'=55'::----'--c
U
:c:
K
+--'-'-'---.:::'--j
Soluciones Energeticas 0.7 ,9-15 "" ---:2?-,2::---+--,-:SO!pa:::ni:=:sh,,---,
, Aerocraft ___ , ____ --+_0'::,---:75:-+1 ---;:-7 __ +-1 .;:G:::e",rm",a:::n:2 Y_--i
Fortis 0,8 6-12 0.2 NZ
Kestre
CC
, 2,2 South Africa
Southwest Wind Power 0.9 4-20 2,1 I US
ACSAAerogeneradores Canarios 1 6-18 3,12' Spanish
Aerocraft 1 12 2.4 Germany
Bergey --------+-, --c
1
'--+----::-9_3"7
1
--r--
2
=-,=-5-+.U-::S:---'-''----j
Deinwindkraftwerk 1, i 1.8 Germany
, Kestrel Wind Turbines Iii 1 I 3 South Africa
Solar Wind Team 1 8-10 2,1 Germany
Southwest Wind Power 1 420 3 US
Windside production 1
production ___
Windsave 1.25
1 Finland
1 Finland
1.75 UK
3,12
New
Zealand ;-1 F7=-rt=-iS:--:-___ 12-18 i
ACSA Aerogeneradores Canarios 1,5 6-24' 3.12 Spanish
E:I1Elfllotech ... __ ... ___
J, Bornay Aerogeneradores 1,5 2.86 I Spain
Manufacturer
, Fortis
Size of
wind
Blade country of
diameter manufacture
Manufacturer
Hub
height
Blade
diameter
country of
manufacture
Manufacturer
Leitner AG
MER
Acciona Energy
GE Energy
AG
Nordex
RE Power Systems
Mtorres
Vestas
rECOiecnia'
I MER
I EU Energy Wind
Ecotecnia
Enerccn
Fuji heavy industries
Gamesa
Harakosan
_ RE Power Systems
Suzlon
Vergnet
Vestas
Size of
wind
turbine
kW
1350
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1500
1650
Hub
height
m
80 !
65-80 i
80 I
64,7 I
80
65-
114.5
61.5-
100
60
1650 78
I 1670 60-70
2000 65-100
2000 60-100
2000 70 i
2000 64-113
I 2000
62 ,
2000 60-100
I 2000
i 2000 65-100
2000 80-100
2000 62
2000 60-100 .
Blade
diameter
m
77
70/77
70
70177
70177
70.5
70177
70177
77
70
82
74180
71/80/84
80
80
71
80
80190
70182192.5
88
80
country of
manufacture
Italy
canada
Spanish
Spain
Germany
US

Germany
Germany
Spain
! Denmark
Spanish
canada
UK
i Spanish
i Germany
i Japan
i Spanish
Netherlands
Germany
India
France
80 Denmark
Nordex 80-105 i 2300 90 Germany
Siemens 2300 i 82193 i Germany

i 901100 i Germany
______ -ti----,2;::5:::0::-0 -t-:;:c1;c:O""0::__t-"'1::00::-----'-. -:;:U':::S __ -1
Nordex i 2500 60-80 80 Germany
Ecctecnia '3000 90 100. Spanish

GE Energy 3000 70-85 90/94. US
Vestas -t_
8
",0",-.;.:1 0""5+_-;.9::0:;---_' .:;oD:=.;en;.:.m",a::;:rk:":"""-I
_______ . ______
Scanwlnd 3500 100 Norway

GE Energy 3600 111 US
f-.:::=-::'--'--""------............ --.. .
Siemens 3600 107 Germany
Germany
Multibrid Entwicklungsgesellschaft 5000 I 102m 116m Germany
RE Power Systems 5000 80-120 126 Germany
Turbines within the size range 20-600kW
r------.,-------,-----,.-........... ---,-----r------,------,
!
Manufacturer : PhOne Number
Peak
Turbine
Rating
Hub
height
m
Blade Available in
diameter UK
m
country of
manufacture
lead in time
I-E.I1W_18 _____ ._l+.4.91.9.'_4_8_3_'.9.97_f--'5-.--.-
ACSA
Aerogeneradores :{+34} 9282577{)1 225 31.5 '27 NO SpanIsh
Canarios
.. --+---
Distflbuted Energy i{+1j 8024612955 1nO 19/20/21?? US
Systems I
i{+34) 932257600
lemail sales dept
mtoda@ecoiecnla.
640 45-55 44 NO Spanish

no phone number ' i
Eneroon
Enefoon
available,
emaWonline form
0I1!y
see above
100 19 20??
! ........ 1...
330 50 33 In Germany
1--------+-----+-----+-........... .
Entegrity (+1) 902 388 7171 50 25 15 !VES Canada
nolongerln
rnanufaeture
120 days

Enwia see abO\'e 70 11}..30 17
YES Poland

Eoltec SAS
(+33)
(0)870468432 sell
ithrough (for north
:UK)
i turbineservices.co.
uk Glenl$
Postlethwaite
20 11
YES from Mid France
2009
1--_____ 1"0-'-'19,,0"'08"'5"'6"'16"-_+ ____ + __ -+ ___ -+ ____ +-____ + __ .................. .
funrlander (
+49)(0)266499660 I 30 YES not single German
i I supply' Y
I-------+-' -----1'---\----1----+...:..:..-'-----+-----+ .......... - ... -
Fuhrlander
: see: above 100 yeS not single Germany
supply
'------.. --t-.. - ...... .
Fuhrlander 250
yes minimum Ge
order 10 rmany
f----------j---I---+--.. --J----+-----l---- i
: Fuhriander ;Sge above 600
yes not slngle Germany
supply
C:-c-:----+--t .-i-----,-..--t--------c------I
: Fuji heavy n 4{l 21:.
15 NO :Japan
i industries
f::-::-:----+--,-.............. ---+------!----t----'-----,-----i
Fuji heavy
industries see aoove 100 24 I
22 NO Japan
iGazelle 19141$0012, 20 .... 13-.20 1--- 11 YES UK i:ts
22
1------+,-;;;-;;:=;;;-1---,----.--...... --1---1-------+-------;1-----
!Mitsubishi r;):'S 856 600 45-60 45?? Japan I
: PilCh wind systems (0)302 519
30 30 14 NO Switzerland
----.....,.----+--+--+----+----I----I' ............ J
uncertain -
depends on
Proven
01500 465 570
seH through
reseUers,
www.eaglepower.c
o.uk 01422 523380
15 15 9
NOT
CURRENTLY UK
demand at
Proven.

I ................ ______ -'--_________ .. L _____ ...... L... __ ____ ______ ...L___ . _-""oo"""a,are",n"",Uv", '''",' 1".,j
i Phone Number
Peak
Hub Slade
UK
ii in country of
lead In time Turbine
Rating
height diameter maoufacture
i
IQN m m
i(+49} 72037111
i
NO 110 31 22 Germany
me
(+34) 902-012700
15 (wori<ing
1&-25 7.2 NO Spanish
on 20)
,
: turbowlnds

(+32) 11260136 400 30-50 3.
,
turbowlnds 600 50-60
4"

Deiy,"",
!
52
y.rgnet
3,,!O,
250 55 2632 IYES France
:4-5 months
:from france
Ir contact about UK
webs energies
.
50 24 11.5 ??
i
WES

IYES
:6 months !Tom
"0
31-41 18

!
I
IWES !se. above 250 30-50 30 IYES
28 94 452
20 30 10.4
IYES Australia
!Y"lnd turbine
952 447 6064
INO
i
USA : !ndustrl es Corp 20 26-40 10
(Jacobs)
!
Appendix F - Consultees to the Planning Process
Consultees to the planning process
(Source: PPS22 supplementary planning guidance 2004)
Ministry of Defence: Defence Estates, Kingston Road, Sutton Coldfield,West Midlands,
B757RL
Civil Aviation Authority: Directorate of Airspace Policy, CM House, 45-49 Kingsway,
London WC2B 6TE
National Air Traffic Services: Navigation, Spectrum and Surveillance; Spectrum House,
Gatwick,West Sussex, RH6 OLG
OFCOM:Wind Farm Site Clearances, Operations-Licensing, Desk 02-49, Of com ,
Riverside House, 2a Southwark Bridge Road, London, SE1 9HA
BT Wholesale, Radio Solutions Unit: Post Point 500, Angel Centre, 403 st John Street,
London EC1V 4PL
BBC: BBC Research Department, Spectrum Planning, Kingswood Warren, Tadworth,
Surrey, KT20 6NP
NTL: Crawley Court, Winchester, Hampshire, S021 2QAlTrinity House, Engineering
Department, Trinity House Depot, East Cowes, Isle of Wight, P032 6RE
Department of Transport:Marine Directorate Navigation and Communication,
Official Post Branch, Room 653, Sunley House, 90-93 High Holborn, London WC1 V
6LP
Maritime and Coastguard Agency: Bay 2/25, Spring Place, 105 Commercial Road,
Southampton, S015 1 EG
Communications operators including Crown Castle UK, MLL Telecom, Orange,
Vodafone, Cable & Wireless, 02 and T-Mobile.
____ _
Reports/Papers
BWEA (2005) Blowing Away the Myths. BWEA
BWEA (2000) Noise from wind turbines the facts. BWEA
CAMPAIGN TO PROTECT RURAL ENGLAND (2006) Policy Position Statement - Onshore
Wind Turbines. CPRE Publications
DTI (2007) Centre for Distributed Generation and Sustainable Electrical Energy Draft
Summary Report Transmission Investment, Access and Pricing In Systems with Wind
Generation. DTI
DTI (2001) Efficiency and Performance - Wind Energy Fact Sheet 14. DTI
DTI (2006) Renewable Energy Reform of the Renewables Obligation and Statutory
Consultation on the Renewables Obligation Order 2007. DTI
DTI (2001) Wind farms of the UK, Wind Energy Fact Sheet 5. DTI
DTI/SCOTTISH ENTERPRISE (2006) Doing BUsiness with Wind Turbine Manufacturers:
Becoming Part of Their Supply Chain. DTI
ELECTRICITY ASSOCIATION (2003) Engineering Recommendation G83 connection of small
scale generators. Energy Networks Association
ENERGY SAVING TRUST (2005) CE70, Renewable Energy Sources In Rural Environments.
Energy Saving trust
ENERGY WATCH (2007) Annual Report 2006-2007, Making an Impact. TSO
GREATER LONDON AUTHORITY (2004) Green light to clean power: The Mayors Energy
Strategy. GLA
GREATER LONDON AUTHORITY (2004) The London Plan Spatial Development Strategy for
Greater London. GLA
THE HOUSE OF COMMONS TRADE AND INDUSTRY COMMITTEE (2007) Local Energy-
Turning Consumers Into Producers. TSO
ODPM (2006) Approved Document L 1 A: Conservation of fuel and power (New dwellings)
(2006 edition). NBS
ODPM (2006) Approved Document L 1 B: Conservation of fuel and power (Existing dwellings)
(2006 edition). NBS
ODPM (2006) Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power (New buildings
other than dwellings) (2006 edition). NBS
ODPM (2006) Approved Document L2B: Conservation of fuel and power (Existing buildings
other than dwellings) (2006 edition). NBS
OFGEM (2007) Domestic Retail Market Report - June 2007. OFGEM
OFGEM (2006)OfGEM and Microgeneration: Next Steps. OFGEM
OFGEMIDTI (2007) Review of Distributed Energy Generation. DTI
OSWALD CONSULTANCY LTD (2006) UK Renewable Energy Data Issue 1 Volume 5 Wind.
Renewable Energy Foundation
PEOPLE AND PLANET (2002) Green Power Options. People and Planet
RENEWABLE ENERGY FOUNDATION (2007) Renewable Energy Data Technology
Analyses: Wind 2006. Renewable Energy Foundation
SCOTIISH EXECUTIVE (2006) Matching Renewable Electricity Generation with Demand.
University of Edinburgh
SUSSEX ENERGY GROUP (c2006) Exploring Paths to Sustainable Energy Futures.
University of Sussex
THE ROYAL COMMISSION ON ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (2000) 22nd Report. Energy
- The changing climate. The Royal Commission On Environmental Pollution
UN (1998) Kyoto Protocol To The United Nations Framework Convention On Climate
Change.
WORLD FUTURE COUNCIL (2007) Feed in tariffs: Accelerating the Deployment of
Renewable Energy. World Future Council
(2006) Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Ac t 2006
Books
Ed. Boyle, G. (2004) Renewable Energy. Power for a Sustainable Future. Oxford University
Press
Glpe, P. (1995) Wind Energy Comes of Age. New York, John Wiley & Sons,
Glpe, P. (2004) Wind Power: Renewable Energy for Home. Farm, and Business Wind.
Vermont, Chelsea Green Publishing
Jones, P. (2004) CIBSE Guide F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings. London, CIBSE
Publications
Wizelius, T. (2007) Deve/oplng Wind Power Projects: Theory and Practice. London,
Earthscan
Websltes
http://www.naturalgen.co.uklwlnd.php (Accessed Nov 2007)
http://WWW.bwea.com/ref/econ.html. The economics of wind energy. (Accessed Dec 2007)
http://www.alternative-energy.co.uklSelilng-your_energy.htm (Accessed Dec 2007)
http://www.bettergeneration.co.uk/lntroductlon/seiling-electricity-to-the-grid.htmi
(accessed Dec 2007)
http://www.segen.co.ukleng/wind/selling.htm (accessed Dec 2007)
http://www.bwea.com/ref/generating.html(accessed Dec 2007)
www.renewableenergyaccess.com (accessed Dec 2007) Energy, Ethics and Feed-in Tariffs
www.wind-works.org (accessed Dec 2007)
http://www.countryguardian.netiOperationaISites_August2007Lpdf (Operational wind
capacity over 0.05MW. Data available from the BWEA and Of GEM) August 2007 (accessed
Dec 2007)
www.energysavingtruat.co.uk (accessed Dec 2007)
www.ewea.org (accessed Dec 2007)
www.ofgern.gov,uk (accessed Dec 2007)
References
, UN (1998) Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. United Nations
2 INTERGOVERNMENTAL PANEL ON CLIMATE CHANGE (2007) Fourth Assessment Report, Climate Change
2007: Synthesis report. Summary for policy makers. IPCC
, DTI (2003) Energy White Paper: Our Energy Future - Creating a Low Carbon Economy. TSO p 25
OTI(2007) Energy White Paper: Meeting the Energy Challenge. TSO p145
OTI (2007) Energy White Paper: Meeting the Energy Challenge. TSO p14
'EUROPEAN COMMISSION (1999) Wind Energy - The Facts. European Communities p140
EU ROPEAN COM MISSION (1 999) Wind Energy - The Facts. European Communities p140
, OOPM (2004) Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy. TSO
OOPM (2006) Approved Document L2A: Conservation of fuel and power (New buildings other than dwellings)
(2006 edition). NBS
" OCLG (2006) Building a greener future: Towards zero carbon development. Communities and Local
Government Publications
.. OOPM (2006) Low or zero carbon Energy Sources: StrategiC Guide (1 st edition). NBS P26
.. OOPM (2006) Low or zero carbon Energy Sources: Strategic Guide (1 st edition). NBS P26
13 EUROPEAN COMMISSiON (1999) Wind Energy - The Facts. European Communities P??
" EUROPEAN COMMISSION (1999) Wind Energy - The Facts. European Communities P139
.. EUROPEAN COMMISSION (1999) Wind Energy- The Facts. European Communities PX111
16 OOPM (2004) Planning Po/icy Statement 22: Renewable Energy. TSO P8
17 Appendix B summary of existing installed wind turbines within the UK
18 Appendix A wind turbine sizing
'''www.energysavingtrust.org.uklgenerale..,your_own_enargyltypas_oCrenewablas
.. DTI (2001) The UK Wind Resource Wind Energy fact sheet 8. DTI
www.bwea.comlimageslmiso/noabLc.gif
BERR online wind speed database http://www.berr.gov.uklenergy/sourceslrenewables
lexplalned/windlwindspeed-database/page27326.htmO
- DANISH WIND ENERGY ASSOCIATION (2007) Wind Energy Reference Manual Part 1: Wind Energy
Concepts. Accessed on-line Dec 2007
24 wvvw.almac.co.uklprovenlukwindspeedreading1.htm
- Wizelius. T. (2007) Developing Wind Power Projects: TheOl)l and Practice. London, Earthscan p44
CLOWD (2007) Operational wind capacity over 0.05MW.
http://www.countryguardian.netlOperalionaiSites_August2007L.pdf accessed December 2007
27 Appendix C: Average Capacity Factor Calculation
DTI (2003) Energy White Paper: Our Energy FUfure - Creating a Low Carbon Economy. TSO
" Appendix A: Wind Turbine Sizing
30 ODPM (2004) Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy. TSO
51 DCLG (2007) PPS1 supplement: Planning and climate Change. DCLG
" DCLG (2007) PPS1 supplement: Planning and climate Change. DCLG P19
" DCLG (2007) PPS1 supplement: Planning and climate Change. DCLG P19
34 Appendix F: Consultees to the Planning Process
35 ODPM (2004) Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy A Companion Guide. TSO
36 BERR (2007) Onshore Wind Energy planning Conditions Guidance Note. DTI
37 Swanwick. C. (2002) Landscape Character Assessment, Guidance for England and Scotland. CountrySide
Agency and Scottish Natural heritage
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Guidelines for Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment (2nd Edition). lEMA
59 ROYAL TOWN PlANNING INSTITUTE (2001) Environmentallmpect Regulations Schedule 2.3(i). Royal Town
Planning Institute
40 Appendix E Assessment of Wind Turbine Manufacturers
41 ODPM (1994) Planning Policy Guidance 24: Planning and Noise. HMSO
42 ETSU (1997) The Assessment and rating of noise from wind farms. ETSU
43 www.dti.gov.uklenergy/sources/mnewableslplanninglonshore-wind/noise/pege18728.html. onshore noise,
accessed Dec 2007
44 OOPM (2004) Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy. A Companion Guide. TSO P17l
4S OOPM (2004) Planning Policy Statement 22: Renewable Energy. Supplementary Guidance. TSO p171
46 OOPM (2004) Planning Policy statement 22: Renewable Energy. Supplementary Guidance. TSO
"THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR ENERGY AND TRANSPORT (2002)
Guidelines and Comparison of EUropean Experiences. Spatial Planning Of Wind Turbines. Comile de Uaison
Energies Renouvetables
48 ENERGY SAVING TRUST (2007) Generating the future: An analysis of policy interventions, to achieve
widespread microgeneration penetration. EST
www.es.u.sl.ath.ac.ul<!EandElWeb_silesl03-G4/wind/conlenUpower%20system.htmlaccessed Dec 2007
"DTt (2003) Energy White Paper. Our Energy Future Creating a Low Carbon Economy. TSO quote p48
ECONNECT CONSUL TtNG (2006) Accommodating Distributed Generation. DTI
52 THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION DIRECTORATEGENERAL FOR ENERGY AND TRANSPORT (2002)
Guidelines and Comparison of European Experiences. Spatial Planning Of Wind Turbines. Comitll de Liaison
Energies Renouve/ables
"DTI (1999) New & Renewable Energy Programme A TeChnical Guide To Connection Of Embedded Generators
To The Distribution Network. OTI
" OFGEM (2007) Of GEM Domestic retail maf/(et report June 2007 and accessed Dec 2007
55 The Climate Change and Sustainable Development Act Section 7.
56 Appendix D: Export Tariffs
57 Appendix E: Wind Turbine Manufacturers
58 Appendix A: Wind Turbine Sizing
" www.windprospect.com/construction.htmiaccessed Dec 2007
Peterschmidt. N. (2003) Perspectives of reusing Wind Energy Converters in developing Countries. Germany,
University of Clausthal
6' www.windbrokers,com accessed Dec 2007