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5.4 Traffic Signal At intersection, where there are large numbers of crossing and right-turn traffic, there is a possibility of several accidents as there cant be orderly movements. Controlling theses complex issues by a traffic control police (old practice) is difficult especially at high traffic volume condition. The traffic signals can be of great use here. Traffic signals are control devices which could alternately direct the traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic light signals automatically. Advantages of Traffic Signals Provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic handling capacity of most of the intersections Reduction in certain type of accidents, especially right angled collision Pedestrians can cross the road safely at signalized intersection. The signals allow the crossing of the heavy traffic flow with safety. Automatic traffic signal dispense with police control and work out to be economical when compared to the manual control. When the signal system is properly co-ordinated, there is a reasonable speed along the major road traffic.

Disadvantages of Traffic Signals The rear-end collisions may increase Improper design and location of signals may lead to violations of the control system Failure of the signal due to electric power failure may cause confusion to the road users.

Types of Traffic Signals The signals are classified into the following types: 1) Traffic Control Signals a. Fixed time interval b. Manually operated signal c. Traffic actuated (automatic) signal 2) Pedestrian Signal 1. Traffic Control Signal The traffic control signals have three colored light glows facing each direction of traffic flow. The red is meant for stop, the green indicates go and the amber
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Figure 1: Fixed traffic signal

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or yellow allows the clearance time for the vehicles which enter the intersection area by the end of the green time, to clear off. a. Fixed Time signal (pre-timed signal) At pre-timed traffic signals each signal phase or traffic movement is serviced in a programmed sequence that is repeated throughout the day. The timing of each phase of the cycle is predetermined based on the traffic studies. These are the simplest type of signal and operated by electrically. Pre-timed signals can provide fairly efficient operation during peak traffic periods, assuming signal timing settings reflect current conditions. However, during off-peak times, particularly at night, traffic on the major roadways are often stopping for no reason because of little or no traffic or pedestrians on the cross streets which results in unnecessary delay. With pre-timed signals the only method to avoid this unnecessary delay was to program the signals for flashing operation during the night time hours, generally 12:30 - 6:00 a.m. Night flash operation was once common practice by many cities and municipalities but with advancements in signal technology and detection devices over the years it is rarely used. Advantages Simple in construction Relatively inexpensive

Disadvantages Inflexible and may cause avoidable delay Require careful setting

b. Manually operated signal In this, the traffic police are assigned the duty to watch the traffic demand from suitable observation point during the peak hours on various approaches and to vary the timings of the phases and cycle according to the actual traffic demand. c. Actuated Traffic Signals Actuated signal control differs from pre-timed in that it requires actuation by a vehicle or pedestrian in order for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced. Actuation is achieved by vehicle detection devices and pedestrian push buttons. The most common method of detecting vehicles is to install inductive loop wires in the pavement at or near the painted stop bar. Video detection is also used at select locations. Actuated signals consist of two types: semi-actuated and fully-actuated. Semi-actuated: vehicle loop detectors are installed on the minor street approaches and push buttons are provided for pedestrians wanting to cross the major roadway. The traffic signals remain green on the major roadway until either a cross street vehicle is detected or a pedestrian pushes the button. When this occurs a call is sent to the traffic signal controller and at the
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appropriate time in the cycle main street green will terminate and time its clearance intervals before the minor street is serviced. After the last vehicle passes over the detector loop or the preset maximum green time has been reached, the signals will return to a green state on main street. If the side street is servicing a pedestrian demand, the walk & flashing dont walk signal indications will be displayed, again at the appropriate time in the cycle. At pedestrian actuated signals, the walk indication is displayed for 5-7 seconds. This allows the pedestrian to enter the crosswalk and begin crossing. At the end of the walk signal the flashing dont walk indication is displayed which provides the pedestrian already in the crosswalk sufficient time to safely complete their crossing and clear the intersection before conflicting traffic receives a green signal. Pedestrians who are already in the crosswalk at the start of this interval continue to have the right of way over turning vehicles. Pedestrians who have not begun to cross when this interval begins should wait until the next cycle. Fully-actuated: vehicle detector loops and pedestrian push buttons are installed on all approaches. All signal phases including left turn arrows have preset minimum and maximum greens and will be serviced on demand only. Pedestrians must activate the push buttons in order to receive the walk & flashing dont walk indications. A single press of the button locks the call in the controllers memory that a pedestrian has requested service. Fully-actuated signals are most efficient at isolated locations where coordination with adjacent signals is not a concern and where the intersecting roadways have similar traffic volumes. Advantages of Actuated Signals The various advantages of actuated signals are stated below: They can reduce delay (if properly timed). They are adaptable to short-term fluctuations in traffic flow. Usually increase capacity (by continually reapportioning green time). Provide continuous operation under low volume conditions. Especially effective at multiple phase intersections.

Disadvantages of Actuated Signals The main disadvantages are as following: If traffic demand pattern is very regular, the extra benefit of adding local actuation is minimal, perhaps non-existent. Installation cost is two to three times the cost of a pre-timed signal installation. Actuated controllers are much more complicated than pre-timed controllers, increasing maintenance costs. They require careful inspection & maintenance to ensure proper operation.

2. Pedestrian Signal
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Pedestrian signals are special types of traffic signal indications installed for the exclusive purpose of controlling pedestrian traffic. They are frequently installed at signalized intersections when engineering analysis shows that the vehicular signals cannot adequately accommodate the pedestrians using the intersection. Pedestrian signals have evolved over the years and are now effective, sophisticated traffic controls. Pedestrian signals are installed for a variety of reasons. Frequently they are installed:

When the layout of an intersection is such that vehicular indications are not visible to pedestrians. If pedestrian volumes are very heavy, as in a central business district. When the traffic movements at an intersection are so complex that special efforts have to be made to communicate with pedestrians. If a special pedestrian path has to be defined across a complex intersection. If pedestrians have to be given exclusive use of an intersection in the interest of safety.

WHAT DO THE INDICATIONS MEAN? Pedestrian signals consist of the illuminated words WALK and DON'T WALK, or the illuminated symbols of a walking person and an upraised hand. The meanings of the indications are as follows:

A steady, illuminated WALK display, or a steady illuminated symbol of a walking person, means that a pedestrian may enter the roadway and proceed in the direction of the indication. A flashing, illuminated DON'T WALK display, or a flashing illuminated symbol of an upraised hand, means that a pedestrian may not start to cross the roadway in the direction of the indication, but that any pedestrian who has partly completed his crossing during the steady (flashing) WALK indication may continue across. A steady, illuminated DON'T WALK display, or a steady illuminated symbol of an upraised hand, means that a pedestrian cannot legally enter the roadway.

Traffic Signal System Co-ordination Need for co-ordinated signal Need for co-ordinated control of signals arises on a main traffic route when it is desirable to reduce delays and avoid main traffic from having a stop at every junction. When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a junction, a queue of vehicles is informed behind the stop line. When the signal changes to green, the vehicle starts moving in a platoon. If this platoon is made to meet a green aspect at the next junction no delay is caused to the vehicles. This principle of linking
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adjacent signals so as to secure maximum benefits to the flow of traffic is called co-ordinated control of signals. Objectives: To pass the maximum amount of traffic without enforced halts To have minimum overall delay to traffic streams, both in the main and side roads. To prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from extending and reaching the next intersection.

Types of co-ordinated signal system: There are four general types of co-ordination of signals for road network, as listed below: 1. Simultaneous system (Synchronized system) In this system, all the signals along a given road always show the same indication (green, red etc.) at the same time. As the division of the cycle is also the same at all intersections. The major disadvantages of a simultaneous system are: If it is not conductive to give continuous movement of all vehicles It encourages speeding of drivers between stops The overall speed is often reduced Because the division of the cycle time is the same at all the intersections, efficiency is inevitable at some intersections.

2. Alternate system (Limited progressive system) Here, alternate signals or groups of signals show opposite indications in a route at the same time. This system is also operated by a single controller, but by reversing the red and green indicator connections at successive signal systems. This system generally is considered to be more satisfactory than the simultaneous system. Some of the disadvantages of the system are: The green times for both the main and side streets have to be substantially equal, resulting inefficiency at most of the intersections. Adjustments are difficult for changing traffic conditions In situations where the block lengths are unequal, the system is not well suited.

3. Simple progressive system A time schedule is made to permit, as nearly as possible, a continuous operation of groups of vehicles along the main road at a reasonable speed. The signal phases controlling Go indications along this road are scheduled to work at the predetermined time schedule. This phases and intervals at each signal installation may be different; but each signal unit works as fixed time signal, with equal signal cycle length.
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4. Flexible progressive system Here, it is possible to automatically vary the length of cycle, cycle division and the time schedule at each signalized intersection with the help of a computer. This is the most efficient system of all four types. Warrants for Traffic Control Signal Installation A warrant is a set of criteria which can be used to define the relative need for, and appropriateness of, a particular traffic control device (traffic signal). Warrants are usually expressed in the form of numerical requirements such as the volume of vehicular or pedestrian traffic. A warrant normally carries with it a means of assigning priorities among several alternative choices. In India, IRC has laid down the following warrants, one or more of which must be met with before signals can be installed. Warrant 1: Minimum vehicular volume The traffic volume on the major street and the higher volume minor street for each of any 8 hours of an average day should be equal to the values indicated below. No. of lanes on each approaches Major street 1 2 or more 2 or more 1 Minor street 1 1 2 or more 2 or more Vehicle per Vehicle per hour hour on minor on major street street (one (both approaches) approach only) 650 200 800 200 800 250 650 250

Warrant 2: Interruption of continuous traffic The traffic volume on the major street and the higher volume minor street for each of any 8 hours of an average day should be equal to the values indicated below. No. of lanes on each approaches Major street 1 2 or more 2 or more 1 Minor street 1 1 2 or more 2 or more Vehicle per Vehicle per hour hour on minor on major street street (one (both directions direction only 1000 100 1200 100 1200 150 1000 150

Warrant 3: Minimum Pedestrian Volume For each of any hour of any 8 hours of an average day the following traffic volume must exist:

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(i) The major street, 600 or more vehicles per hour enter the intersection (both approaches) or where there is a raised median island 1.2 m or more in width, 1000 or more vehicles per hour (both directions) enter the intersection. (ii) During the same 8 hours as in (i) above, there are 150 or more pedestrians per hour on the highest volume cross-walking the major street. Warrant 4: Accident Experience The accident experience warrant is satisfied when: (i) Adequate trial of less restrictive remedies with satisfactory observance and enforcement has failed to reduce the accident frequency. (ii) Five or more reported accidents, of types susceptible of correction by traffic signal control have occurred within a period of 12 months, each accident involving personal injury or property damage to an apparent extent of Rs. 2000 or more. (iii) The signal installation will not seriously disrupt traffic flow.

Highway Lighting The general purpose of roadway lighting is to provide improved safety, security, and aesthetics for the various users of the roadway and associated facilities. The rate of highway accidents and facilities that occur during night driving is several times higher than that of during day driving. One of the various causes of increased accident rate during driving is related to the insufficient lighting system. Following are the advantages of having a proper highway lighting system. Lighting enables the driver to recognize the geometry and condition of the roadway at extended distances, thereby simplifying the driving task at night. This, in turn, increases driver visual comfort and reduces driver fatigue, which contributes measurably to highway safety. The speed of the traffic generally improves with better lighting, traffic flow conditions also improve. Favorable headway and lateral displacements are brought about and the ability of the road to control traffic is also vastly improved. A good lighting system will also reduce the crimes at night; promote the aesthetic appearance of the surroundings and also helps in extending the business hours even after the sun-set.

The various factors that influence visibility are: Amount and distribution of light flux from the lamps Size of object
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Brightness of object Brightness of the background Reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface Glare on the eyes of the driver Time available to see an object

Design Factors Considered for Road Lighting Various factors to be considered in the design of road lighting are 1) Lamps 2) Luminaire distribution of light 3) Spacing of lighting units 4) Height and overhang of mounting 5) Lateral placement 6) Lighting layout Lamps The choice of the lamp, its type, size and color depends on several considerations such as initial cost, life, color rendering, brightness required, distribution of light flux on pavement surface, efficiency etc. There is variety of lamps available listed as follows: Tungsten filament: used in minor residential streets and pedestrian walk ways Tubular fluorescent: preferred in shopping centers Sodium vapor discharge: ideal for street lighting High pressure mercury discharge: most efficient and expensive

Luminaire distribution of light To have the best utility of the light source it is necessary to have proper light distribution. The light distribution selected should be the one which would produce maximum uniformity of the pavement brightness. The distribution from the luminaries should cover the pavement between the kerbs and provide adequate lighting on the adjacent area (3 to 5 m beyond the pavement edge). Typical luminaire distributions followed in highways are shown below. As per Indian practice, (IS 1944) an average level of illumination of 30 lux on important roads carrying fast traffic and 15 lux on other main roads, the ratio of minimum to average illumination being 0.4.

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Two-way lateral distribution (narrow roads)

Narrow asymmetric lateral distribution(narrow roads)

Medium width asymmetric lateral distribution(medium width roads)

Wide asymmetric lateral distribution(wide highways)

Normal symmetric lateral distribution (highways and intersection) Spacing of lighting units The spacing of lighting units is often influenced by the electrical distribution of poles, property lines, road layout and type of side features and their illumination. Large lamps with high mountings and wide spacing are preferred from economic point of view. The spacing has also to be satisfactory from the point of view of pedestrian requirements. In general, the spacing should not exceed 55 m, and should preferably be 35-45 m on important traffic routes. Height and Overhang of Mounting The distribution of light, shadow and the glare effect from street lamps depends also on the mounting height. One of the way is to avoid glare is increase the height of the lantern mountings. The other is to locate the lantern in such a way that they are removed from drivers normal line of sight. It is observed that light intensities emitted at angles less than that about 70 degrees from the downward vertical cannot reach drivers eye and cannot cause glare. Usual mounting heights range from 6m to 10 m; higher values are preferred in important urban roads.

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Overhangs on the lighting poles would keep the poles away from the pavement edges, but still allow the lamp to be held above the kerb or towards the pavement. This enables better

Figure 2: overhang, Height of mounting, length of shadow- relation distribution of light on the pavement and less glare on eyes of road users. The effect of mounting height and over hang on the length of shadow is shown in figure. It is desirable to have higher mounting heights and necessary overhang projections.

Lateral Placement The street lighting poles should not be installed close to the pavement edge. If they are too close to the carriageway, free movement of traffic is obstructed, decresing the capacity of the roadway. IRC has specified the horizontal clearance required for lighting poles as given below: For roads with raised curbs: 0.3m (min.) and 0.6 m (desirable) from the edge of the raised kerb For roads without raised curbs: 1.5m (min.) from edge of carriageway and 5 m (min.) from the centre line of the carriageway.

Lighting Layout Different lighting layouts are listed below. In the case of intersections, a detailed traffic volume and flow study should be made before deciding the layout of lights. Single side lighting: economical to install, but suitable only for narrow roads Staggered lighting (both sides): adopted for wider roads with three or more lanes
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Central lighting: adopted for wider roads with three or more lanes

Single Side Lighting

Staggered Lighting

Central Lighting

Intersection

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Design of Highway Lighting System For various types of luminaire distribution, the utilization co-efficient charts are available for determination of average lux of intensity over the roadway surface where lamp lumen, mounting height, width of paved area and spacing between lighting poles are known. Typical utilization coefficient chart is shown in figure. The spacing can be calculated as:

References: 1) Lecture Notes: Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay, Dr. Lalitha Devi, IIT Madras. 2) William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic Engineering. PrenticeHall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998. 3) L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi, 1987. 4) Khanna and Justo, Text book of Highway Engineering, Nemchand Brothers, Roorkee, 2000.

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