Introduction to Mine Backfill Mine backfill is defined as the material or materials used to fill the cavities created by mining

so as to establish and retain safe working conditions, economically. Recently, mine backfill is employed in strategies to reduce surface environmental impacts. Backfill Costs and Benefits Benefits Costs

ECONOM C! ECONOM C! "ackfill allows higher e#traction ratio "ackfill costs money particularly if binders are used "ackfill reduces dilution "ackfill introduces delays in the $ids in pillar recovery mining cycle $dditional manpower and infrastructure $dditional dewatering costs %ilution due to backfill &$'E()! &$'E()! "ackfill improves regional stability in Risk due to bulkhead failure and the mine li*uefaction of tailings "ackfill can reduce risk of Risk due to collapse of consolidated rockbursting backfill walls EN+ RONMEN(! "ackfill provides a means of disposing of waste rock and mill tailings, thereby minimi,ing surface disturbance Mining Methods Employing Mine Backfill Mining Methods Requiring Mining Methods Employed Mining Methods Employed Backfill with or without Backfill without Backfill Conventional Cut and 'ill Mechani,ed Cut and 'ill Captive Cut and 'ill %rift and 'ill .ndercut and 'ill $voca /onghole /ongwall Mining Room and 0illar Open 0it &hrinkage "lock Caving &ub1/evel Caving &*uare &et Resueing EN+ RONMEN(! -roundwater contamination

Conventional Cut and Fill ( verhand cut and fill! Cut and fill stoping is performed in steeply dipping orebodies where the hangingwall or footwall is not sufficiently competent to maintain the stable spans re*uired for open stoping methods. (he method involves the incremental development of a hori,ontal slot shaped e#cavation. 'ill is placed in the stope after each hori,ontal slice is taken. Overhand cut and fill can be either mechani,ed or captive. Mechani"ed cut and fill mining refers to cut and fill stopes that are accessible by rubber tired e*uipment from the regular mine access development. Mechani,ed cut and fill stopes can be very productive with stope widths in e#cess of 23 m in good ground conditions and stope lift heights of 2 to 4 meters. %rilling is typically carried out using 5 or 6 boom drill 7umbos using a breasting pattern. "ackfill is normally a *uick draining hydraulic sandfill with no binder added. &ometimes binder is added at the end of a backfill pour so the surface of the fill has the bearing capacity to support the rubber1tired e*uipment.

(ypical e*uipment used in mechani,ed cut and fill stopes includes ! %rill 8umbos, /9%:s, (rucks, &caling Machines, &cissor /ifts, "olting 8umbos Captive Cut and Fill refers to mining of stopes where e*uipment remains in the stope during the life of the stope. Captive cut and fill is generally used in narrow vein type stopes. (he cost of captive cut and fill is very high relative to other methods. %rilling is typically carried out using 7acklegs ;breasting< or with stopers ;upholes<. Ore is mucked by slushers into steel millholes that are carried up through the fill. "ackfill normally consist of a *uick draining hydraulic sandfill with no binder. (ypical e*uipment used in captive cut and fill stopes includes ! 7acklegs, stopers, slushers, Cavo loaders

#rift and Fill (his techni*ue is similar to conventional overhand cut and fill e#cept that ground conditions do not permit opening up the stope to the full width of the orebody. %epending on the amount of dilution that can be tolerated some binder is re*uired for the initial drift;s< on a level. %rift and fill can be mechani,ed or captive. $ndercut and Fill (his method involves mining se*uentially in hori,ontal lifts beginning at the top of a stope and working downwards. $ binder is added to the backfill to create a stable roof under which to work. (ypically cement is used as a binder. (he lower portion of the fill pour will typically have high cement content ;=2>< and the upper part of the pour would have lower cement content ;61?><. .ndercut and fill can be mechani,ed or captive. %voca (ypically dry waste rock fill added to the top of a longhole stope to limit the length of e#posed wall. (ypes of Mine "ackfill 0roperties of Mine "ackfill Mine Backfill &roperties ntroduction to Mine "ackfill

Mine backfill properties of importance in the design of a backfill system include!

mineralogy specific gravity moisture content percent solids void ratio porosity rheology grain si,e distribution unconfined compressive strength shear strength Mineralogy t is important to understand mineralogy because some minerals ;particularly *uart,< are very abrasive and will cause a lot of wear in the backfill lines some minerals cause break down of the cement over time flat minerals settle slower than rounded particles Specific Gravity &pecific -ravity ;&.-.< is the ratio of mass of fill particles to mass of an e*ual volume of water. $n engineer at a mine site can measure the &.-. of tailings in the mine@s lab using the following techni*ue. $pparatus re*uired! 5?3 ml volumetric flask, digital scale accurate to 3.3= grams &tep =! Measure weight of flask A 5?3 ml water ;B=< &tep 5! Empty flask and add sample of fill material. B5 C weight of dry sample &tep 6! 0artly fill flask and stir continuously for at least ? minutes to ensure complete wetting of all particles. (hen fill flask to 5?3 ml line with water and weigh. B6 C flaskAsampleAwater (hen the &.-. of the sample is given by!

&.-. C B5DEB=1;B61B5<F &pecific -ravity of +arious Rock (ypes

Moisture Content' Moisture content is reported on either a dry weight basis or total weight basis. (his is an important distinction to make. Mineral processors define moisture content on a total weight basis, i.e. Moisture Content ;w< C Mass of waterD;Mass of &olids A Bater< -eotechnical engineers use dry weight basis, i.e. w C Mass of waterDMass of &olids (o avoid confusion, it is recommended that for mine backfill work that the geotechnical engineer@s definition of moisture content be used and that the term Gpercent solidsH be used when discussing the water content of the backfill. (oid Ratio +oid Ratio is defined as the volume of voids ;+v< to the volume of solids ;+s< and is a very sensitive measure of the packing density of a fill.

+oid Ratio ;e<C +vD+s

+oid Ratio can be calculated if you know the &.-., bulk density, and moisture content of the backfill

where s is the bulk density of the soil &orosity 0orosity is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil

Porosity (n) = e/(1+e)

&ercent )olids 0ercent solids C mass of solidsD;mass of solidsAwater<. &mall changes in pulp density can result in a dramatic increase in the line pressure particularly for paste backfills. *rain )i"e (he grain si,e distribution will determine the permeability of the fill. (he higher the HslimesH content, the lower the percolation rate. -rain si,e distribution affects the pumpability of fill. n the case of hydraulic fill, the larger the grain si,e the faster the terminal settling velocity. (he velocity of the slurry in the pipe must e#ceed this settling velocity. -rain si,e distribution affects void ratio and ultimately the strength of the fill. (he lower the void ratio, the higher the strength. $ more uniformly graded fill has a lower void ratio. Unconfined Compressive Strength .nconfined compressive strength is measured on cemented fill by casting cylinders and compressing them much like a concrete cylinder test. &ample diameters are ?31I? mm in the case of sandfill and tailings backfill. &amples si,es up to 633 mm or more are desirable for consolidated rockfill. (he elastic modulus can also be calculated from this test. (he unconfined compressive strength value is usually used as an indirect measurement of the shear strength of the fill. )hear )trength 1measured by direct shear tests or tria#ial testing 1not normally performed Rheology Rheology is the study of the shear strength behavior of li*uids. +iscosity is a measure of the shear strength or the resistance to movement between different layers in a fluid or mi#ture. n concrete terminology this is also known as the workability. (he viscosity of a paste mi#ture is difficult to predict and is influenced by many factors including! pulp density, grain si,e, mineralogy, and grain shape. (he concrete slump test has generally been used as a measure of the viscosity of paste mi#tures. 0aste mi#tures commonly e#hibit slumps of =?153 cm ;J1=3H< on a standard ;=5H< cone. 0aste mi#tures behave as non1Newtonian fluids, that is, they do not e#hibit constant viscosity with variation in flow rate. (he yield stress of a paste is greater than ,ero before flow commences. Research and e#perience to date, indicates that paste backfill can be considered a "ingham plastic fluid, e#hibiting constant viscosity with increased velocity, once the yield stress has been overcome. t can also be a pseudo1plastic fluid, e#hibiting decreasing velocity as velocity increases +ypes of Mine Backfill

(here are 2 types of mine backfill =. %ry 'ills 5. Cemented Rockfill 6. 9ydraulic &andfill 2. 0aste "ackfill #ry Fills' 1generally consists of surface sand, gravel, open pit waste rock, underground waste rock, smelter slag 1generally unclassified e#cept to remove large boulders 1usually transported underground by dropping down a raise from surface directly into a stope or to a level where it is hauled to a stope with an /9% or trucks. 1.sually contains some adsorbed surface moisture. 1&uitable for mechani,ed cut and fill or $voca or other method where structural backfill is not re*uired. Cemented Rockfill -enerally consist of waste rock mi#ed with a cement slurry to improve the bond strength between the rock fragments. Methods of placement involve mi#ing the rock and cement slurry in a hopper before placing in stopes, or percolating a slurry over the rock after it has been placed. (he waste rock can be classified or unclassified. CR' contains a mi#ture of coarse aggregate ;K=?3 mm< and fine aggregate ;K=3 mm fraction<. (he ideal gradation is one, which minimi,es the void space. Cement slurry concentration is appro#imately ??> by wt. ;=.5!= water! cement ratio< &uitable for longhole open stoping, undercut and fill , and other methods where a structural fill is re*uired. ,ydraulic )andfill 9ydraulic sandfill can consist either of classified mill tailings ;Bestmin1Myra 'alls< or naturally occurring sand deposits mined on surface ;%etour /ake Mine<. 9ydraulic sandfill is prepared by dewatering the mill tailings stream to a pulp density of appro#imately J?1I3> solids ;depending on &.-< and then passing it through hydrocyclones to remove the HslimesH and retain the sand fraction for backfill. &limes are removed to improve the percolation rate of the backfill. (he backfill mi#ture is hydraulically pumped from surface through a network of pipes and boreholes to the stope. &and obtained from surface borrow pits will be screened prior to use in a backfill plant to remove oversi,e particles that could plug the backfill line. &andfill can be cemented or uncemented. &uccessful sandfills have permeability coefficients in the range of I#=314 mDs to I.4#=31? mDs corresponding to a medium silt to coarse sand. 9ydraulic placement of sandfill results in a loose fill structure with a void ratio of about 3.I3. n practice, an apparent cohesion often develops in uncemented sandfill which increases the shear strength of the backfill. Often a vertical face of 612 m can be maintained under some mining conditions. Nearby blast vibrations can also act to densify the fill and increase its shear strength (o overcome the lack of true cohesion in the sandfill, cement and other binders are added. Note that backfill strength decreases with water content and the water content needed to transport sandfill is far in e#cess of what is re*uired for cement hydration. 9ence, mine operators are moving towards less water in the fill to decrease cement and binder consumption 'low velocities in e#cess of 5 mDs are re*uired to maintain a homogeneous dispersion of the fill components in the slurry &aste Backfill 0aste backfill is a high1density backfill ;LI3> solids depending on &-<.

n order to pump material at this density, a component of fines is re*uired. $s a general rule, the fines content ;K53 micron< should be a minimum of =?> by weight (he slump of paste backfills is appro#imately in the I1=3 inch range 0aste backfill is pumped by piston type pumps of the same type used to pump concrete. Bhole mill tailings can often be used to make paste backfill. (he final product has a lower void ratio so the backfill is denser. Many mines are moving towards paste backfill because it a lower cement content is re*uired to gain e*uivalent strengths when compared to conventional hydraulic fill.

"ackfill %esign 0ercolation Rate 'or hydraulic backfill, the most important design criteria is percolation rate. $ minimum percolation rate of =3 cm Dhour is a common rule of thumb in many mines. $t this rate, the actual drainage of the fill is good and there is low potential for li*uefaction. f the percolation rate is too slow, it slows down mine productivity. t can create high pressures on bulkheads ;potentially dangerous condition<. 0ercolation rate measurements are normally performed in a lab using a perspe# tube. $ common standard si,e for the tube is J cm in diameter by 63 cm in length. (he test techni*ue involves Eplacing backfill in the tube and allowing it to settle in place. (he bottom of the tube is covered with a woven geote#tile or burlap fabric to retain the backfill but allow free passage of water. $ constant head of water is maintained above the backfill column. Bater percolates through the backfill column and is collected at the bottom at various time intervals.

0ercolation Rate, k C ;M<;/</(t<;9<;$< cmDhr

where

M %t / 9 $

C C C C C

volume of water collected per time interval ;cm< time interval of collection, ;hr< height of emplaced backfill column in tube, ;cm< fi#ed height of water column, ;cm< cross1sectional area of percolation tube, ;cm5<

(he initial percolation rate will be high and will decrease gradually as the water moving through the column densifies the backfill. (he test should be continued until a steady state percolation rate is obtained. 0ercolation (est &etup

"ackfill &trength "ackfill strength is re*uired in longhole stopes to maintain a free standing height of fill in the primary stope while ore in the secondary stope is e#tracted. (he factor of safety against planar failure through the backfill can be calculated according to the following e*uation.

where, CCcohesive strength of fill "C width of fill in stope 9Ctotal e#posed height of stope f C friction angle of fill /Cstrike length of fill in stope g C fill bulk density y C plane failure angle 9e C effective sliding block height

(he stability of a free standing backfill pour can also be determined using e*uations developed from physical model tests. "ased on centrifugal modeling tests conducted by Mitchell ;=N46<, the stability can be related to the unconfined compressive strength of the backfill. (he critical unconfined compressive strength ;.C&< is given by!

UCS = H/(1+(H/L)
where, .C& C unconfined compressive strength, 0a 9 C height of fill e#posure ;m< / C length of fill e#posure or stope width ;m< g C unit weight of fill ;NDm6< $s an e#ample, based on a typical total tailings unit weight of 5=,3N3 NDm6 and an average fill height of J3m, the critical .C& is calculated in the table below. %esign strengths for the fill are provided assuming a safety factor of =.5. E#ample &trengths for "ackfill versus &tope Bidth 'ill E#posure /ength ;m< Critical .C& ;k0a< =3 5=I 53 643 63 ?3J 23 J34

%esign .C& ;k0a< 5J3 2?J J3I I63

(hese design strengths in are appropriate for fill at the bottom the stope where stresses are highest. n practice, the cement content will vary within the stope with the lower portion having the highest cement content and the upper portion having the lowest cement content. $ high strength cap may be placed on the top 3.6m of fill to improve the bearing capacity and to

facilitate vehicle travel. ntroduction to Mine "ackfill (ypes of Mine "ackfill "ackfill 0roperties

Backfill Binders +ypes of Binder (he most common type of binder for mine backfill is ordinary portland cement ( &C! ;(ype or (ype =3< because it is usually the most readily available. Other common binders are typically po,,olans that react with the products of cement hydration to form other cementitious compounds. 0o,,olans can be used to replace 631I?> of the portland cement in a mi#. E#amples include! Fly %sh (&F%!! a very fine ash collected by cyclones and hydrostatic precipitators in coal burning power plants. *ranulated Blast Furnace )lag (BF)!' a product of the steel making industry. t can be used as a partial or total replacement of O0C however lime must be added in the absence of any O0C. thers -ground waste glass, natural po,,olans

,ydraulic Backfill Introduction 9ydraulic backfill, sometimes known as conventional backfill, slurry backfill, or sandfill, is a mi#ture of sand si,ed solid particles, water and binder. (he mi#ture is about J31I?> solids by weight depending on the specific gravity of the solids. (he e#cess water must drain from the fill after placement and pumped from the mine. 9ydraulic backfill is usually pumped using conventional slurry pumps or allowed to flow by gravity through the mine if the mine is located below the backfill plant. 9ydraulic backfill must be pumped with a high velocity in order to maintain a turbulent flow in the pipeline so the solids remain in suspension. 9ydraulic backfill is most commonly prepared from classified mill tailings however there are operations that use sand from alluvial or esker deposits mined on surface. t is fre*uently the case that the tailings do not have sufficient coarse fraction to meet all of the backfill re*uirements so the mine may supplement the backfill with borrow sand or may fill parts of the stopes with waste rock where possible. 9ydraulic backfill is prepared and placed in the following steps! =. %esliming of Mill (ails 5. %ewatering of Mill (ails 6.&torage of Classified (ails

2. Repulping of (ails with Bater ?. $ddition of "inder ;optional< J. (ransport to &tope I. Bater %rains from 'ill #etermining if a #ecant )ystem is Required (imber fill fences can normally be employed successfully provided ade*uate drainage of the fill can be maintained. (ypically, a minimum percolation rate of =3 cmDhr is specified for hydraulic backfill. %epending on the rate of filling and other factors, this percolation rate may or may not be sufficient to drain the stope *uickly enough to. %rainage towers can be avoided if the percolation rate of the fill e#ceeds the rate at which e#cess water develops in the stope. 9ydraulic pouring produces a saturated, settled backfill with an e#cess layer of free water. (he amount of e#cess water depends on the pulp density, the settled porosity and the specific gravity of the tailings. (his *uantity is e#pressed as

where, 9w,+w C height and volume of e#cess water 9w, +w C height and volume of settled backfill -& C specific gravity of tailings 0% C pulp density N C settled porosity Note that in1place porosities are generally found to be between 3.25 and 3.24 for hydraulic backfill and 3.6? to 3.25 for densified backfill. (he linear ;vertical< filling rate is e#pressed as!

where, Bs C solidsDhour poured into stope ;kNDhr< w C unit weight of water ;N.4= kNDm6< $ C area of stope to be filled

n order that e#cess water drain through the fill under the gravitational gradient of unity, thus avoiding decant systems, the percolation rate ;0< must be e*ual to or greater than the rate of

build1up of e#cess water which is given by the product of the previous two e*uations!

where, 0 C is the percolation rate in meters per hour /arge open stopes re*uire only small percolation rates ;0 =.3 cmDhr< for $ C 6333 m5, whereas very high percolation rates are re*uired for small pour areas ;0 ?3 cmDhr for $ C J3 m5<. 9ydraulic "ackfill 0lants

Cemented Rockfill (CRF! Cemented rockfill (CRF! is generally descri.ed as any material greater than sand si"e that is used to .ackfill underground mines/ It is typically used in large .lasthole stopes0 drift and fill0 or undercut and fill stopes where sta.le vertical or hori"ontal fill e1posures are required/ In .lasthole stopes0 a cemented rockfill is typically required for two main purposes' 2/ +o provide region ground support to reduce convergence or mine su.sidence 3/ +o facilitate higher ore e1traction ratios/ % strong fill is required to reduce dilution from the fill as the secondary stope is recovered/ #ilution can com either from .lasting impact or from planar or circular type failure within the fill mass/ In the ground support role0 the stiffness of the fill (4oung5s modulus! is the key design property of interest/ In the pillar recovery role0 the shear strength is of greatest importance/ In practice0 the unia1ial compressive strength ($C)! is used as the design parameter for cemented rockfill since the test is relatively ine1pensive and can .e incorporated into routine quality control programs at the mine/ Fill e1posures are generally of three types (Figure 2! 2/ Free standing fill faces formed .y removing the ad6acent ore .lock7 3/ $ndercut sills in cut and fill mining7 8/ CRF pillars that retain uncemented fill in an ad6acent stope/ )tone (2998! has developed design charts for each of the three cases a.ove using pseudo-8# formulations of Mitchel and Roettger (29:9!/ Binder Content +he strength of CRF is a function of water content0 .inder content0 temperature0 aggregate type0 gradation0 void ratio0 and other factors/ 4u0 (29:9! provides the following relationship .etween the cement content and 3: -day $C) for 2; cm diameter samples

taken at the <idd Creek Mine' for ?KcK5? where, .C& C unconfined compressive strength , M0a c C portland cement content by weight > of 1 2 cm aggregate It is important to note however that great heterogeneity e1ists within CRF particularly if segregation occurs during the placement process/ 4u also reported that tests on 8= cm cylinders yielded strengths of a.out 9=> of the in-situ strength and tests on 2; cm cylinder strengths were a.out ?;> of the in-situ strength/ @ater Cement Ratio % water'cement ratio of 2/3'2 (.y weight! is optimum for CRF/ % higher water content can result in a slurry the percolates too quickly through the rock/ Aower water contents will result in a fill mass that is too dry resulting in incomplete cement hydration and segregation pro.lems/ %ggregate +ype Aike normal concrete0 the strength of CRF is greatly influence .y the strength of individual aggregate particles/ *enerally0 a rock with a $C) of greater than B= M&% and a Aos %ngeles %.rasion values of less than 8= will perform well in cemented rockfill/ &article )i"e #istri.ution In discussions a.out rockfill0 the coarse si"e fraction generally refers to the material from greater than 2= mm to the top si"e of 2==-2;= mm/ +he fine aggregate is considered to .e the material less than 2= mm in si"e/ +he fine aggregate should make up a.out one quarter to one-third of the total aggregate weight/ +he ideal grading that results from minimi"ing the void space is given .y 0;u< C =33;u/uma#<3.?
where, 0;u< C probability of material finer than sieve opening u u C opening si,e , mm

.C& C =.?e3.5?c

uma# C ma#imum particle si,e It is unlikely that an operation could afford to crush and screen the rockfill to achieve the ideal gradation/ Rather0 aggregate from a num.er of different sources should .e .lended to try to approach the ideal gradation as .est as possi.le/ (oid Ratio $nconfined compressive strength of CRF is directly proportional to the .ulk density/ Backfill having a particle specific gravity of 3/B; will have an in-situ .ulk density as rockfill in the order of 3/=; tonnesCm8 when placed .y end dumping or through fill raises/ Material that is pneumatically placed or compacted with rammers will have a density in the range of 3/3; tonnesCm8/ %reas of low density within the fill mass can occur if segregation occurs during placement/ Cemented Rockfill &reparation and &lacement

Cemented Rockfill &reparation +here are many methods in use today for producing cemented rockfill and the choice depends on the unique conditions at each site/ +wo systems that are common are' 2/ )praying cement slurry over rock in truck .o1 3/ Batch mi1ing of cemented rockfill Figure 2 is a simplified flowsheet of a cemented rockfill system that is suited to operations that use waste rock from development work as their aggregate source/ In this system0 cement and or other .inder is pneumatically transported from surface through a pipe to another small silo at a cement slurry mi1ing station/ % preset weight of cement is added to a weigh hopper and the preset amount is delivered to a colloidal mi1er/ @ater is also added to the colloidal mi1er and the slurry is rapidly mi1ed/ +he slurry is then discharged from the colloidal mi1er and sprayed over the rock in a truck5s .o1/ +he .atching process can .e completely automated and a .atch can .e prepared in less than one minute/ +he cemented rockfill is then trucked to a stope where it is end dumped/ Figure 2' )praying Cement )lurry over %ggregate in +ruck Bo1

Cemented rockfill can also .e prepared on surface in a process similar to a concrete .atch plant (Figure 3!/ +he prepared rock is loaded into a weigh hopper with a wheel loader/ Cement and possi.ly fly ash or ground .last furnace slag is weighed into smaller hoppers and then each is discharged into a pan mi1er/ % quantity of water is added and the material is mi1ed/ +he cemented rockfill is then discharged into trucks and taken to the stope/

&aste Backfill 0aste "ackfill 0reparation and 0lacement 0aste backfill is defined as an engineered mi#ture of fine solid particles ;with binder< and water, containing between I5> and 4?> solids by weight. 0articles in a paste mi#ture will not settle out of the mi#ture if allowed to remain stationary in a tank or in a pipeline. t can be placed in stopes with or

without binder addition depending on the strength re*uirements for backfill. mproved pumping technology, environmental concerns, and the need for a low costDhigh strength fill in mines, are driving mine operators to consider paste backfill as a tailings management and mine backfill alternative. (he main advantages and disadvantages of a paste backfill system over a conventional hydraulic backfill plant are generally accepted as! %dvantages of &aste Backfill higher strengths can be achieved with an e*uivalent cement contentO drainage of water and slimes from the fill are minimi,ed, reducing the need for bulkhead construction and e#tensive drainage works. (his feature also reduces maintenance on sumps and mine de1watering pumpsO in some cases, unclassified tailings can be used to make paste rather than 7ust the coarse fraction as is the case for hydraulic backfillO shorter stope cycle times can be achieved because an e*uivalent strength can be achieved in a shorter time with paste backfillO paste backfill systems achieve lower porosities than conventional fill thereby increasing the tonnage of material that can be disposed of undergroundO and, since paste backfill is deposited as a non1segregated mass of backfill ;because cement particles are not displaced by the internal movements of the draining water<, more predictable strength properties for the fill can be achieved. #isadvantages of &aste Backfill paste backfill systems typically have higher capital costs compared to conventional hydraulic backfill plantsO the pumpability of a paste is very sensitive to small changes in water content and grain si,e distributionO and, the distribution network in the mine re*uires a greater level of engineering design to control pipeline pressures.

Characteristics of &aste Backfill (he key characteristics of tailings or other materials being assessed for suitability as paste backfill are! the dewatering characteristics of the material ;in the case of tailings<O the pumpability of paste backfill mi#tureO the strength of the backfill mi#tureO and, the bulk density of the fill. f unclassified mill tailings are to be used as the primary constituent of the paste backfill, it must be dewatered to an acceptable pulp density. %ewatering can be achieved by a variety of means including cycloning, thickening, or filtering. (he rate of dewatering is a function of the specifications of the de1 watering unit, as well as the characteristics of the material ;including grain si,e distribution and specific gravity<. (he pumpability of the paste is dependent on the viscosity of the tailings as well as the type of pump employed and the geometry of the distribution system. n turn, the viscosity of the paste itself is influenced by pulp density, grain si,e distribution ;principally the fines content<, and binder content. ncreasingly, backfill is being used to achieve high ore e#traction ratios in mining operations. 'or such

operations, a structural fill having predictable strength properties is re*uired. (he strength of the final backfill product is a comple# characteristic which is influenced by many parameters including pulp density, binder content, grain si,e distribution, specific gravity, curing time, and curing temperature. (he bulk density of the placed fill is re*uired in order to predict the proportion of the tailings tonnage that can be placed underground versus the proportion that is re*uired to be stored on surface. (he in1situ density of paste backfill is higher than conventional hydraulic fill and this can have positive benefits in terms of the si,e and cost of a surface impoundment. *rain )i"e #istri.ution (he grain si,e distribution of the paste backfill has been shown to be important by studies which indicate that pipeline pressures are sensitive to the percentage of minus 53m m si,e material ;slimes< in the mi#ture. /andriault et al. ;=N4I< conducted a series of pump loop tests that showed the pressure losses in a system at various slime contents ;'igure 5<. $s a general rule, a paste fill should contain a minimum of =?> ;by weight< in the minus 53m m si,e fraction. (he finer material forms an annulus of slower moving material around the pipeline walls. t then acts as a lubricant that surrounds the central plug of coarser particles, allowing them to flow through the pipeline at substantially reduced frictional resistance (elocity &rofile of &aste Flow in &ipe (.ased on @ingrove0 29::!

'igure 2 is a plot of grain si,e distributions from a number of operations employing paste backfill. t indicates that the minus 53m m fraction ranges from a low of =6> at the /ucky 'riday Mine to a high of J4> at the -reens Creek Mine. (he flow characteristics of paste fill are not greatly influenced by the material greater than 53 mm in si,e. 'or e#ample, gravel si,e material from a heavy media separation circuit has been used successfully in a paste fill plant at the -rund Mine in Best -ermany ;"roicher<. &ulp #ensity (he pulp density is defined as the ratio of total weight of solids ;including binder< to the weight of water plus solids. &mall changes in the water content can result in a dramatic increase in line pressure. (his phenomena is illustrated in 'igure ? which shows the influence of pulp density on line pressure losses in a typical system. n laboratory scale testing, the pulp density is carefully controlled by adding metered proportions of water to dry solids. n a paste backfill plant the pulp density must be carefully monitored and controlled. (o achieve this, paste backfill plants commonly use a 0/C control and batch processing to weigh and mi# the paste constituents prior to transport. (iscosity +iscosity is a measure of the resistance to movement between different layers in a fluid or mi#ture. n concrete terminology this is also known as the workability. (he viscosity of a paste mi#ture is difficult to predict and is influenced by many factors including! pulp density, grain si,e, mineralogy, and grain shape. (he concrete slump test has generally been used as a measure of the viscosity of paste mi#tures. 0aste mi#tures commonly e#hibit slumps of =?153 cm ;J14H< on a standard ;=5H< cone. 0aste mi#tures behave as non1Newtonian fluids, that is, they do not e#hibit constant viscosity with variation in flow rate. (he yield stress of a paste is greater than ,ero before flow commences. Research and e#perience to date, indicates that paste backfill can be considered to be a "ingham plastic fluid, e#hibiting constant viscosity with increased velocity, once the yield stress has been overcome. t can also be a pseudo1plastic fluid, e#hibiting decreasing velocity as velocity increases.

Binder Content "inders are used in paste backfill where structural strength is re*uired of the backfill and where resistance to li*uefaction is necessary. 0ortland ;(ype =3< cement is the most common binder used for these purposes. Cement addition rates of 5 to J> are often used to achieve typical strength re*uirements for mine backfill. n addition to cement, blast furnace slag, fly ash, and natural po,,olans can be added to the paste fill to partially replace cement and thereby reduce costs. (he final strength of the cured backfill is influenced by the curing period temperature. 'igure I shows the typical increase in strength that is developed over a period of N3 days. $ mining operation that e#poses a backfilled stope wall shortly after it is poured must use more binder in the fill than if it e#poses the wall several months after pouring. (his is a mine planning issue which can have a serious impact on backfilling costs since the cost of cement represents the single largest cost for most backfill plants. Bhen carrying out laboratory scale testing of paste backfill samples, the curing temperature and humidity should simulate conditions e#pected in the mining operation. 'igure 4 illustrates the significant influence curing temperature will have on the 541day strength of backfill samples. )pecific *ravity of )olids (he specific gravity of the material used to make the paste will influence the pulp density that can be achieved. 'or a given slump, a higher specific gravity will yield a higher pulp density. &orosity (he porosity of the cured backfill product is important in determining the *uantity of backfill that can be placed in a given volume. 0orosity is defined as the volume of voids in a material to the total volume of the material. 0orosity is generally lowest in well1graded mi#tures. (he porosity measured in uncompacted laboratory scale samples will be higher than what is achieved in a stope, since some degree of self1consolidation of the fill occurs as the stope is filled. 0aste "ackfill 0reparation and 0lacement &aste Backfill &reparation and &lacement ntroduction to Mine "ackfill 0aste "ackfill #e-watering %e1watering is normally achieved in three ways! hydrocyclones, thickening, or filtering. 9ydrocyclones are an ine#pensive means of de1watering however they will cause some loss of fines which are necessary to pump the paste. 9ydrocyclones can only be used when there are e#cess fines in the tailings to remove a portion of the fines and thereby increase the filtration rate of the tailings. (his is known as partial classification. t is also possible to use a thickener to de1water slimes from a cyclone overflow and then combine the thickener underflow with the cyclone underflow. "oth conventional and high density thickeners have been used in paste backfill plants to thicken backfill to a pulp density of appro#imately J?> solids prior to filtration. .sing high capacity thickeners to produce a paste directly from a dilute tailings slurry has been investigated and determined to be technically feasible. (o date, however, no plants have been constructed that use this techni*ue. (he Canadian Centre for Mining and Energy (echnology ;C$NME(< is researching a process to produce paste in settling silos that maintain the suspension by in7ecting compressed air into the paste with special no,,les. No operating plants use this techni*ue, however a pilot plant is being constructed. 'iltering is carried out using disc filters, drum filters or belt filters. (he selection of a filter is usually based on a consideration of capital and operating costs. Mi1ing Mi#ing of the components of a paste backfill mi#ture can be either a batch or continuous process. (he

filter cake, cement, water, and aggregate must be accurately weighed and rapidly supplied to the mi#er. t is generally recogni,ed that a batch process is easier to control than a continuous system. &crew type mi#ers are used for continuous systems while high intensity mi#ers of the type used in the concrete industry are used in batch plants. &umping0 +ransport0 and &lacement $fter mi#ing, the paste can be either discharged into a concrete pump hopper or through a borehole to the lower mine workings. (ypically, paste will flow under gravity at an angle greater than 63P , making selection of the backfill plant location very important. n designing a backfill system, the plant should be located where a series boreholes and short lateral runs could carry the paste to all stopes under gravity. 'or such plants, a positive displacement pump would normally be installed for clearing line blockages and for cleaning out the pipeline. n most installations, however, this is not possible and a positive displacement pump operates continuously to transport the paste. &ufficient space should be provided around surface and underground borehole collars to allow a drill to be moved over it to ream the hole should a blockage occur. One mine has reported using liners in the boreholes, however this is not common practice. "orehole and pipeline diameter is a function of the e#pected pressure losses in the system. 0ractical pumping distance ranges up to = km laterally and unlimited distance vertically depending on the pipe pressure rating. 'low velocity in the pipeline is usually less than = meter per second. 'igure N shows typical pressure losses for a medium slump paste in a =?3mm diameter pipeline. (he placement of the pipeline outlet in the stope is important because the paste will not beach out. Rather it will form a moderate angle of repose ;63P <, re*uiring that the outlet be moved periodically depending on the si,e of the stope being filled. Figure 2' +ypical &aste Backfill &lant Flowsheet

Case ,istories (hree case histories that are well documented in the literature are the -rund Mine, the /ouvicourt Mine, and the /ucky 'riday Mine. *rund Mine One of the first reported applications of paste technology in the mining industry was at the -rund Mine in -ermany. $ simplified flowsheet of the -rund Mine backfill plant is shown in 'igure =3. 'lotation tailings were first de1watered using hydrocyclones followed by thickening. (he thickener underflow was pumped to a vacuum belt filter. (he filter cake and aggregate from a heavy media separation circuit were mi#ed continuously to produce a paste with an 44> pulp density. (he paste was pumped 43 meter to a shaft and allowed to flow by gravity down ?33m. &topes were located 233 to 5633 m away from the shaft and so an intermediate pumping station was re*uired for more distant stopes. 0ortland cement

was conveyed pneumatically in a separate pipeline to the backfill site. t was in7ected into the backfill line appro#imately ?3m from the outlet. (he backfill developed a strength of 5 M0a with a cement addition rate of 612>. (he capital cost of the -rund backfill plant was C%N QI.5 million in =N4? partly due to the large amount of research and development re*uired to implement the system. (able = summari,es the key operating parameters for the plant and characteristics of the paste backfill. +a.le 2' )ummary of the *rund &aste Backfill &lant "ackfill &ource "inder 0ulp %ensity 0lant Capacity &i,e %istribution 0lant Capital Cost 0artially Classified (ailingA%M& re7ect 612> Cement 44> J6 tonnesDhr =5> minus mm, 54> minus =33 mm C%N QI.5 million ;=N4?<

+a.le 3' )ummary of the Aouvicourt &aste Backfill &lant "inder 0ulp %ensity Operating &lump 0lant Capacity &.-. of solids &i,e %istribution n1&itu 0orosity "inder $ddition 0lant Capital Cost J3!23 Cement!'ly $sh I4145> 53 cm =44 mtph 6.4 %43C ?3m m, =33> minus 533m m 25> 2> typical C%N QJ.5 million ;=NN2<

Aouvicourt Mine (he /ouvicourt Mine near +al d:Or, Muebec, commissioned a paste backfill plant in $ugust, =NN2. (he capacity of the plant is =44 tph of backfill which is greater than the mill production rate of =6? tph. /aboratory testwork for the plant indicated that an operating range of I4145> solids was re*uired. $n average binder addition rate of 2> was used based on a J3!23 mi#ture of cement!flyash. $ simplified flowsheet for the /ouvicourt backfill plant is presented in 'igure ==. .nclassified mill tailings are thickened in a =?.5?m diameter high density thickener. (he thickener underflow is pumped to a 6,=33 m6 agitated surge tank, e*uivalent to a typical =21hour backfill pour. (he surge capacity was installed so that backfilling could continue during mill shutdowns. (he thickener underflow is then pumped from the surge tank to disc filters. (he filter cake is discharged onto a conveyor belt which transfers the cake to a twin screw mi#er. 'ly ash and cement are also added to the mi#er on individual weigh belts. $ moisture measurement at the mi#er discharge is used to control make1up water addition to achieve the final paste moisture content. $ positive displacement pump, capable of developing 6.? M0a, is used to pump the paste into cased boreholes to the 2I? /evel where connection is made to a series of vertical and lateral runs that cover the mine. (he vertical boreholes were 53 cm in diameter, allowing the paste to flow by gravity. /ateral runs were reduced to =? cm diameter pipe. (he pressure loss in the =? cm portion was =J k0a per meter at a flow velocity of = mDs.

(he total cost of the plant including building, boreholes, e*uipment, and installation was C%N QJ.5 million. (able 5 summari,es the key operating parameters for the plant and characteristics of the paste backfill. Aucky Friday Mine (he /ucky 'riday Mine in daho was the first mine in North $merica to develop a paste backfill system. $ stiff backfill was necessary for the mechani,ed underhand cut and fill stoping techni*ue employed by the mine. (he backfill plant has an average capacity of =62 tonnes per hour. (he paste backfill produced by the plant has a pulp density of 4?> ;wt< and a slump of N.? to =3.? inches. (he cement addition rate is J14>. 0aste backfill is prepared by de1watering flotation tailings from a lead1,inc concentrator. (he tailings are partially classified using a hydrocyclone to increase thickening and filtration rates. (he classified tailings are thickened in a N.=m diameter conventional thickener. (he thickener underflow is pumped at J?> solids to a drum filter that produces a filter cake with =6> moisture. (he filter cake is stacked in a covered bunker and reclaimed with a bucket chain e#cavator when the backfill plant is operating. $ conveyor belt transports the filter cake to a weigh hopper that loads the cake into a mi#er. $ 0/C1 controlled batch process is used to mi# the cement, filter cake and water components. (he paste is pumped to the shaft with a 0ut,meister positive displacement pump. (he paste travels by gravity down the shaft more than =?33m and laterally to the stopes as far as J33m. (he pipeline diameter varies from =33 to =?3 mm. n the =5? mm pipeline, the average velocity is 5.2 mDs and the friction loss is 4 to =3 k0a per meter. (able 6 summari,es some of the key operating parameters for the plant and characteristics of the paste backfill. +a.le 8' )ummary of Aucky Friday Mine &aste Backfill &lant "ackfill &ource "inder 0ulp %ensity Operating &lump 0lant Capacity &i,e %istribution 0artially Classified Mill (ailings J14> Cement 4?> 52 to 5J.? cm =62 tonnesDhour 6J> minus 65? mesh, 2N> minus 533 mesh