Chapter 2

Objectives: 1. Explain why psychologists are concerned with human biology. 2. Explain why, at every level, our existence is both part of a larger system and a combination of smaller systems. 3. Describe the structure of a neuron and the process by which an action potential is triggered. 4. Describe how nerve cells communicate, and discuss the importance of neurotransmitters for human behavior. 5. Discuss the significance of endorphins, and explain how drugs influence neurotransmitters. 6. Identify the major divisions of the nervous system and their primary functions, and describe the neurons that carry information throughout the system. 7. Describe the operation of reflexes in the spinal cord and neural networks in the brain. 8. Identify and explain the methods used in studying the brain. 9. Describe the functions of structures within the brainstem, as well as those of the thalamus and the cerebellum. 10. Describe the functions of the structures in the limbic system. 11. Describe the structure and functions of the cerebral cortex. 12. Discuss how damage to one of several different cortical areas can impair language functioning, and outline the process by which the brain directs reading aloud. 13. Discuss brain plasticity and what it reveals about brain reorganization. 14. Describe research on divided and undivided brains, and discuss what it reveals regarding normal brain functioning. 15. Discuss the brain organization of left-handed people and why left-handedness seems to diminish with age. 16. Discuss the functioning of the endocrine system. 17. Identify two important endocrine glands, and specify their functions. Vocabulary: 1. biological psychology 2. neuron 3. dendrites 4. axon 5. myelin sheath 6. action potential 7. threshold 8. synapse

9. neurotransmitters 10. acetylcholine (Ach) 11. endorphins 12. nervous system 13. central nervous system (CNS) 14. peripheral nervous system (PNS) 15. nerves 16. sensory neurons 17. interneurons 18. motor neurons 19. somatic nervous system 20. autonomic nervous system 21. sympathetic nervous system 22. parasympathetic nervous system 23. reflex 24. neural networks 25. lesion 26. electroencephalogram (EEG) 27. CT (computed tomography) scan 28. PET (positron emission tomography) scan 29. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) 30. brainstem 31. medulla 32. reticular formation 33. thalamus 34. cerebellum 35. limbic system 36. amygdala 37. hypothalamus 38. cerebral cortex 39. glial cells 40. frontal lobes 41. parietal lobes 42. occipital lobes 43. temporal lobes 44. motor cortex 45. sensory cortex 46. association areas 47. aphasia 48. Brocas area 49. Wernickes area

50. plasticity 51. corpus callosum 52. split brain 53. endocrine system 54. hormones 55. adrenal glands 56. pituitary gland Short Answer: 1. In the most basic sense, every idea, mood, memory, and behavior that an individual has ever experienced is a biological phenomenon. 2. The theory that linked our mental abilities to bumps on the skull was phrenology. 3. Researchers who study the links between biology and behavior are called biological psychologists. 4. We are each a system, composed of subsystems that are parts of larger systems. Our bodys neural system is built from billions of nerve cells, or neurons. 5. The extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons are the dendrites. 6. The extensions of a neuron that transmit information to other neurons are the axons; some of these extensions are insulated by a layer of fatty cells called the myelin sheath which helps speed the neurons impulses. 7. Identify the major parts of the neuron diagrammed below: a. dendrites b. cell body, soma, or specifically the nucleus c. axon d. myelin sheath e. nodes of ranvier (not in book) f. terminal fibers or branches g. terminal buds (not in book)

8. The neural impulse, or action potential is a brief electrical charge that travels down a(n) axon. 9. The fluid interior of a resting axon carries mostly negatively (positively/negatively) charged ions, while the fluid outside has mostly positively (positively/negatively) charged ions. This polarization, called theresting potential occurs because the cell membrane is selectively permeable. 10. An action potential occurs when the first part of the axon opens its gates and positively (positively/negatively) charged ions rush in, causing that part of the neuron to become depolarized. 11. During the resting pause following an action potential, called the refractory period, the neuron pumps negatively (positively/negatively) charged ions outside the cell. 12. In order to trigger a neural impulse, excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals must exceed a certain intensity, called the threshold. Increasing a stimulus above this level will not (will/will not) increase the neural impulses intensity. This phenomenon is called an all-or-none response. 13. Outline the sequence of reactions that occur when a neural impulse is generated and transmitted from one neuron to another. A neural impulse is generated by excitatory signals minus inhibitory signals exceeding a certain threshold. The stimuli are received through the dendrites, combined in the cell body, and electrically transmitted in an all-or-none fashion down the length of the axon. When the combined signal reaches the end of the axon, chemical messengers called neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, or gap, between two neurons. Neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of neighboring neurons and have either an excitatory or inhibitory influence on that neurons tendency to generate its own neural impulse. 14. The strength of a stimulus does not (does/does not) affect the speed of a neural impulse. 15. The junction between two neurons is called a synaptic and the gap is called the synaptic cleft (gap). 16. The chemical messengers that convey information across the gaps between neurons are called neurotansmitters. These chemicals unlock tiny channels on receptor sites, allowing electrically charged atoms (ions) to enter the neuron. 17. Neurotransmitters influence neurons either by exciting or inhibiting their readiness to fire. Excess neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron in a process called reuptake. 18. Among the neurotransmitters that researchers have pinpointed are dopamine, which influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; serotonin, which affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; norepinephrinewhich helps control alertness and arousal;

and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter implicated in eating and sleep disorders. 19. A neurotransmitter that is important in muscle contraction is acetylchoine (Ach). The poison curare produces paralysis by blocking the activity of this neurotransmitter. 20. Naturally occurring opiate like neurotransmitters that are present in the brain are called endorphines. When the brain is flooded with drugs such as heroin or morphine, it may stop producing these neurotransmitters. 21. Drugs that produce their effects by mimicking neurotransmitters are called agonists. Drugs that block the effects of neurotransmitters by occupying their receptor sites are called antagonists. 22. The molecular shape of some drugs prevents them from passing through the bloodbrain barrier by which the brain fences out unwanted chemicals. 23. The tremors of Parkinsons disease are due to the death of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine. People with this condition can be helped to regain control over their muscles by taking L-dopa. 24. Taken altogether, the neurons of the body form the nervous system. 25. The brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system. The neurons that link the brain and spinal cord to the bodys sense receptors, muscles, and glands form the peripheral nervous system. 26. Sensory and motor axons are bundled into electrical cables called nerves. 27. Information arriving in the central nervous system from the body travels in sensory neurons. The neurons that enable internal communication within the central nervous system are called interneurons. 28. The central nervous system sends instructions to the bodys tissues by means of motor neurons. 29. The division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits sensory input to the central nervous system and directs the movements of the skeletal muscles is the somatic (or skeletal) nervous system. 30. Involuntary, self-regulating responses those of the glands and muscles of internal organsare controlled by the autonomic nervous system. 31. The body is made ready for action by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. 32. The parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system produces relaxation. 33. Describe and explain the sequence of physical reactions that occur in the body as an emergency is confronted and then passes. The sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system becomes aroused in response to an emergency. The physiological changes that occur include accelerated heartbeat, elevated blood sugar, dilation of arteries, slowing of digestion, and increased perspiration to cool the body. When the emergency

is over, the parasympathetic nervous system produces the opposite physical reactions. 34. Automatic responses to stimuli, called reflexes illustrate the work of the spinal cord. Simple pathways such as these are involved in the knee-jerk response and in the pain reflex. 35. Beginning with the sensory receptors in the skin, trace the course of a spinal reflex as a person reflexively jerks his or her hand away from an unexpectedly hot burner on a stove. From sensory receptors in the skin the message travels via sensory neurons to an interneuron in the spinal cord, which in turn activates a motor neuron. This motor neuron causes the muscles in the hand to contract, and the person jerks his/her hand away from the heat. 36. To perform complex computations, neurons in the brain cluster into work groups called neural networks. 37. Researchers sometimes study brain function by producing lesions or by selectively destroying brain cells. The oldest technique for studying the brain involves clinical observation of patients with brain injuries or diseases. 38. The electroencephalogram (EEG) is a recording of the electrical activity of the whole brain. 39. A computer-generated image of a slice of the brain based on a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles is called a CT scan. 40. The technique depicting the level of activity of brain areas by measuring the brains consumption of glucose is called the PET scan. 41. Briefly explain the purpose of the PET scan. By depicting the brains consumption of radioactively labeled glucose, the PET scan allows researchers to see which brain areas are most active as a person performs various tasks. This provides additional information on the specialized functions of various regions of the brain. 42. A technique that produces clearer images of the brain by using magnetic fields and radio waves is known as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging). By taking pictures less than a second apart, the functional MRIdetects blood rushing to the part of the cortex thought to control the bodily activity being studied. 43. The oldest and innermost region of the brain is the brainstem. 44. At the base of the brainstem, where the spinal cord enters the skull, lies the medulla, which controls breathing and heartbeat. 45. Nerves from each side of the brain cross over to connect with the bodys opposite side in the brainstem.

46. The reticular formation is contained inside the brainstem and helps control arousal. Electrically stimulating this area will produce an alert animal. Lesioning this area will cause an animal to lapse into a coma. 47. At the top of the brainstem sits the thalamus, which serves as the brains sensory switchboard. 48. At the rear of the brainstem lies the cerebellum. It influences one type of nonverbal learning and memory, but its major function is coordination of voluntary movement and balance control. 49. The lower brain functions occur without conscious effort, indicating that our brains process most information outside (inside /outside) of our awareness. 50. Between the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres is the limbic system. One component of this system that processes memory is the hippocampus. 51. Rage or fear will result from stimulation of different regions of the amygdala. 52. Amygdala lesions, produced by psychosurgery techniques, have been used to treat violent humans. This treatment is controversial and seldom (widely/seldom) used today. 53. Below the thalamus is the hypothalamus, which regulates bodily maintenance behaviors such as hunger, thirst, and body temperature (or sex). The hypothalamus also regulates behavior chemically through its influence on the pituitary gland. Olds and Milner discovered that this region also contains pleasure centers, which animals will work hard to have stimulated. 54. Some researchers believe that alcoholism, drug abuse, food binging, and other addictive disorders, may stem from a genetic reward deficiency syndrome in the pleasure systems of the brain. 55. The most complex functions of human behavior are linked to the most developed part of the brain, the cerebral cortex. 56. The non-neural cells that support, protect, and nourish cortical neurons are called glial cells. 57. Compared to the cortexes of lower mammals, the human cortex has a more wrinkled (smoother/more wrinkled) surface. This increases (increases/ decreases) the overall surface area of our brains. 58. List the four lobes of the brain. a. frontal c. occipital b. parietal d. temporal 59. Electrical stimulation of one side of the motor cortex, an arch-shaped region at the back of the frontal lobe, will produce movement on the opposite side of the body. 60. At the front of the parietal lobe lies the sensory cortex, which, when stimulated, elicits a sensation of touch. 61. The more sensitive a body region, the greater the area of sensory cortex devoted to it. 62. Visual information is received in the occipital lobes, whereas auditory information is received in the temporal lobes.

63. Areas of the brain that dont receive sensory information or direct movement but, rather, integrate and interpret information received by other regions are known as association areas. Approximately three-fourths of the human cortex is of this type. Such areas in the frontal lobe are involved in recognizing faces, making judgments, and carrying out plans, and in some aspects of personality. 64. Brain injuries may produce an impairment in language use called aphasia. Studies of people with such impairments have shown that Brocas area is involved in producing speech, Wernickes area is involved in understanding speech, and the angular gyrus is involved in recoding printed words into auditory form. 65. Although the minds subsystems are localized in particular brain regions, the brain acts as a unified whole. 66. The quality of the brain that makes it possible for undamaged brain areas to take over the functions of damaged regions is known as plasticity. 67. Although most severed neurons will not (will/will not) regenerate, neural tissue can reorganize in response to damage. New evidence also reveals the existence of master stem cells in the developing fetal brain that can develop into any type of brain cell. 68. Because damage to it will impair language and understanding, the left hemisphere came to be known as the dominant (major) hemisphere. 69. In treating several patients with severe epilepsy, Vogel and Bogen separated the two hemispheres of the brain by cutting the corpus callosum. When this structure is severed, the result is referred to as a split-brain. 70. In a split-brain patient, only the right hemisphere will be aware of an unseen object held in the left hand. In this case, the person would not be able to name the object. When different words are shown in the left and right visual fields, if the patient fixates on a point on the center line between the fields, the patient will be able to say only the word shown on the right. 71. Explain why a split-brain patient would be able to read aloud the word pencil flashed to his or her right visual field, but would be unable to identify a pencil by touch using only the left hand. The word pencil when flashed to a split-brain patients right visual field would project only to the opposite, or left, hemisphere of the patients brain. Because the left hemisphere contains the language control centers of the brain, the patient would be able to read the word aloud. The left hand is controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain. Because the right hemisphere would not be aware of the word, it would not abe able to guide the left hand in identifying a pencil by touch. 72. Researchers studying undivided brains have (have/have not) found evidence of hemispheric specialization. For example, pictures are recognized more rapidly when they are flashed to the right (right/left) hemisphere, whereas words are recognized faster and more accurately when flashed to the left (right/left) hemisphere.

73. In all cultures of the world, most of the human population is right (right/left) handed. With age, the percentage of left-handers decreases (increases/ decreases). One controversial explanation of this difference is that left (right/left)-handers die at a younger age than their counterparts. 74. Identify several health risks that left-handers are more likely to have experienced. Left-handers are more likely to have experienced premature or stressful births. They also have more headaches and accidents, use more tobacco and alcohol, an dsuffer more immune system problems. 75. The bodys chemical communication network is called the endocrine system. This system transmits information through chemical messengers called hormones at a much slower (faster/slower) rate than the nervous system. 76. In a moment of danger, the adrenal glands release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). 77. The most influential gland is the pituitary which, under the control of the brain area called the hypothalamus helps regulate growth and the release of hormones by other endocrine glands. 78.Write a paragraph describing the feedback system that links the nervous and endocrine systems. The hypothalamus in the brain influences secretions by the pituitary. The pituitary regulates other endocrine glands, which release homones that influence behavior. The hypothalamus monitors these changes in blood chemistry and thereby adjusts its inputs to the pituitary.