BIO LCV: NERVOUS SYSTEM

M. SAUMIER

Overview: Divided into Central Nervous S ste! "Brain and S#inal Cord$ and %eri#&eral Nervous S ste! "A''erent and E''erent divisions (onsistin) o' (ranial and s#inal nerves$. Re(e#tor*+Sensor "A''erent$ division *+Central Nervous S ste! *+Motor "E''erent$ Division*+ So!ati( Nervous S ste! "Voluntar , S-eletal Mus(le$ or *+ Autono!i( Nervous S ste! "Involuntar $ : S !#at&eti( Nervous S ste!, %aras !#at&eti( and Enteri( Nervous S ste! *+ E''e(tor "Mus(les or .lands$ Receptors: Dete(t (&an)es in e/ternal environ!ent "E/terore(e#tors$ #&otore(e#tors in retina o' t&e e e "Ele(tro!a)neti( re(e#tor$ taste 0uds " C&e!ore(e#tor$ In s-in : 1eat, (old, li)&t tou(&, #ressure and #ain re(e#tors$ or internal environ!ent "Interiore(e#tors$ #ro#riore(e#tor "!us(les and tendons stret(&in)$ 0lood #ressure !onitor Microscopy: Nervous tissue is (o!#osed o' 2 !a3or t #es: Neurons "Nerve (ells$ and neuro)lial (ells "or )lial (ells, s!aller and !ore nu!erous, su##ortin) neurons$. T&ere are 4 t #es o' Neuro)lial (ells "5 in CNS and 2 in %NS$. Neuro)lial (ells in CNS are: Astro( tes, Mi(ro)lia, E#end !al (ells and Oli)odendro( tes. In t&e %NS, neuro)lial (ells are Sattelite and S(&6ann (ells. 7. Astro( tes "Star s&a#ed$: Most nu!erous and versatile8 su##ort and an(&or neurons8 (lin) to neurons and nei)&0orin) (a#illaries to #rovide nutrients to neurons8 &el# 'or! t&e Blood-Brain Barrier 0 'or!in) ti)&t 3un(tions 0et6een endot&elial (ells t&at lines t&e (a#illaries8 #rovides #ro#er environ!ent 'or nerve i!#ulse (ondu(tion "!onitor (al(iu! and #otassiu! (on(entrations$8 re!ove e/(ess neurotrans!itter8 )uide neuron9s !i)ration into 'or!in) s na#ses durin) 0rain develo#!ent. 2. Mi(ro)lial (ells: I!!une S ste! t #e o' 'un(tion "s#e(ial !a(ro#&a)e 0e(ause o' t&e Blood*Brain Barrier$8 #&a)o( ti:e !i(ro0es8 re!ove de0ris o' dead (ells8 !i)rates to area o' in3ured neurons. ;. E#end !al (ells: "s<ua!ous or (olu!nar, so!e are (iliated$ Line ventri(les o' t&e 0rain8 #rodu(e (ere0ros#inal 'luid and &el# in t&e (ir(ulation o' t&is 'luid. 5. Oli)odendro( tes: =or!s ! elin s&eat& around a/ons o' neurons in CNS in t&e 6&ite !atter. >. Sattelite (ells: Surround neuron (ell 0odies 6it&in )an)lia, 'un(tion un(lear.

4. S(&6ann (ells: Surround and 'or! ! elin s&eat&s around lar)e neurons in %NS. T&e insulate, in(rease s#eed o' nerve i!#ulse "Saltator Condu(tion$ and are vital to re)eneration o' #eri#&eral nerve #ro(esses. T&e e/#osed outer #ortion o' t&e S(&6ann (ell is (alled neurole!!a. T&e ! elin s&eat&s do not tou(& ea(& ot&er and t&e neuron is e/#osed at t&e Nodes o' Ranvier Neurons: Stru(tural unit8 s#e(iali:ed in nerve i!#ulse (ondu(tion8 e/tre!e lon)etivit , a!nioti( "no (entrioles$ e/(e#t ol'a(tor e#it&eliu! and & #o((a!#us "learnin), !e!or $ &as ste! (ells8 &i)& !eta0oli( a(tivit , &i)& de!and in )lu(ose and o/ )en. Co!#osed o' a (ell 0od , dendrites and a/on. 7. Cell 0od (ontains nu(leus 6it& visi0le nu(leolus and ot&er or)anelles. Rou)& Endo#las!i( Reti(ulu!, (alled Nissl 0odies, is a(tive and 6ell develo#ed to !a-e neurotrans!itters. Most (ell 0odies o' neurons are lo(ated in t&e )ra !atter or nu(lei o' t&e CNS or in )an)lia in %NS. T6o t #es o' #ro(esses e/tend 'ro! t&e (ell 0od (alled dendrites and a/ons. Bundles o' #ro(esses in t&e CNS are (alled tra(ts and in t&e %NS are (alled nerves. 2. Dendrites are in#ut re)ions dete(tin) sti!uli and (ondu(tin) !essa)e to6ards (ell 0od "not as an a(tion #otential 0ut as a )raded #otential$ and are nu!erous in a !ulti#olar neuron.

;. A sin)le a/on ori)inates 'ro! t&e (ell 0od at a (one*s&a#ed area (alled an a/on &illo(- and !a 0ran(& into a/on (ollaterals. A/on ter!inates into ter!inal 0ran(&es or telodendria ea(& endin) into a -no0li-e se(retor "neurotrans!itter$ stru(ture (alled a/onal ter!inals or s na#ti( end 0ul0s or 0outons. A/on )enerates and (ondu(ts nerve i!#ulses a6a 'ro! t&e (ell 0od . A/ons (ontain sa!e or)anelles as (ell 0od and dendrites e/(e#t Nissl 0odies and .ol)i a##aratus and t&ere'ore need (ell 0od 'or !anu'a(turin) neurotrans!itters and #roteins "( tos-eleton, !otor #roteins$ involved in t&e trans#ort o' vesi(les (ontainin) neurotrans!itter to t&e s na#ti( end 0ul0s "antero)rade !ove!ent$. Move!ent o((urs in 0ot& dire(tions, 'or e/a!#le da!a)ed or)anelles are returned to t&e (ell 0od "retro)rade !ove!ent$ and ot&er (lues aid in (o!!uni(ation 6it& t&e (ell 0od to indi(ate &ealt& o' t&e a/on to sti!ulate t&e release o' )ro6t& 'a(tors. Un'ortunatel viruses "#olio, ra0ies, &er#es$ or tetanus to/ins (an use t&e retro)rade !ove!ent to atta(- t&e (ell 0od . A/on (an 0e 6ra##ed 0 ! elin s&eat& 6&i(& insulates t&e neuron. Classification of Neurons: Stru(tural: Multi#olar, Bi#olar, uni#olar. =un(tional: Sensor , Motor, Interneuron. 7. Multi#olar neurons: Most (o!!on, ; or !ore #ro(esses. 2. Bi#olar neurons: 2 #ro(esses8 one a/on and one dendrite. Rare and onl in s#e(ial sense li-e in re(e#tor (ells in retina "rods, (ones$ and ol'a(tor e#it&eliu!.

;. Uni#olar neurons: One #ro(ess t&at leaves (ell 0od and divides into #eri#&eral and (entral #ro(esses. Sin(e 0ot& (ondu(t i!#ulses t&e (an 0e re'erred as a/on 0ut t&e ti# o' t&e #eri#&eral #ro(ess &as re(e#tors 5. Sensor "a''erent$ neurons: Trans!it i!#ulses 'ro! re(e#tors in s-in or vis(era to CNS. Most are uni#olar 0ut so!e are 0i#olar in t&e s#e(ial senses. >. Motor "e''erent$ neurons: Carr i!#ulses a6a 'ro! CNS to t&e e''e(tors. All are !ulti#olar and !ost &ave t&eir (ell 0od in t&e )ra !atter o' t&e CNS "e/(e#t so!e in t&e ANS$. 4. Interneurons "asso(iation neurons$: Lo(ated in 0et6een sensor and !otor neurons to (arr in'or!ation "nerve i!#ulse$ 'or inte)ration. Most nu!erous t #e in NS and !ost are !ulti#olar.

Central Nervous System (CNS): Spinal Cord and Brain:

CNS is surrounded 0 !enin)es: ; la ers: Dura !ater "Tou)& !ot&er, outer, dense irre)ular (onne(tive tissue$, Ara(&noid "deli(ate 6e0 o' (olla)en and elasti( 'i0ers$ and %ia !ater "deli(ate !ot&er, inner, ad&eres to CNS, trans#arent$. T&e e#idural s#a(e is lo(ated 0et6een verte0ral (olu!n?(ranial 0ones and t&e Dura Mater, site o' e#idural 0lo(- "la0or #ain$. T&e su0ara(&noid s#a(e is situated 0et6een t&e ara(&noid and #ia !ater and is 6&ere t&e (ere0ros#inal 'luid "CS=$ (ir(ulates around t&e s#inal (ord and t&e 0rain, site o' s#inal ta# or lu!0ar #un(ture "re!ovin) CS=, intro anti0ioti(s, anest&eti(s, (&e!ot&era# $.

Spinal Cord:
Function: 1i)&6a 'or nerve i!#ulse (ondu(tion: sensor "'ro! %NS to 0rain$ and !otor "0rain to %NS$ in t&e 6&ite !atter and inte)ration o' in(o!in) and out)oin) in'or!ation in )ra !atter "s#inal re'le/$. natomy: Len)t& 'ro! o((i#ital 0one "(raniu!$ to t&e se(ond lu!0ar verte0rae, ends in a &orse tail*li-e o' nerves (alled (auda e<uina. T6o enlar)e!ents: (ervi(al enlar)e!ent "nerves to ar!s$ and lu!0ar enlar)e!ent "nerves to le)s$. En(ased 6it&in a verte0ral (olu!n (o!#osed o' verte0rae (alled 0 re)ions "(ervi(al, t&ora(i(, lu!0ar, sa(ral$, ;7 s#inal se)!ents 6&ere a #air o' s#inal nerves ori)inate 'ro! a dorsal root and ventral root !er)in) at t&e interverte0ral 'ora!ina. Bot& roots (o!e 'ro! t&e s#inal (ord and 'use to 'or! a s#inal nerve 6&i(& is !i/ed "Sensor and !otor$. S#inal nerve (an divide into several ra!i "ra!us$ 6&i(& (an 'or! a net6or- (alled #le/us. T&e dorsal root &as a dorsal root )an)lion 6&ere t&e (ell 0odies o' sensor "a''erent, uni#olar$ neuron are lo(ated. T&e ventral root is (o!#osed o' a/ons 'ro! !otor "!ulti#olar e''erent$ neurons. Cross-section: T6o )rooves "anterior !edian 'issure and #osterior !edian sul(us$, a 1 @ s&a#ed )ra !atter inside 6&ere (ells 0odies o' !otor neurons and interneurons are lo(ated "anterior )ra &orns, #osterior )ra &orns$ and 6&ite !atter outside (o!#osed o' ! elinated and un! elinated a/ons o' as(endin) tra(ts "sensor $ and des(endin) tra(ts "sensor $ "in anterior, lateral, #osterior 6&ite (olu!ns$. A (entral (anal lo(ated in t&e (enter o' t&e )ra !atter 6&ere CS= (ir(ulates.

Spinal Refle!es: %at&6a (alled re'le/ ar(, <ui(- auto!ati( res#onse to sensor i!#ulse (o!in) in via s#inal nerves, inte)ration in )ra !atter. Co!#osed o' sensor re(e#tor, sensor neuron "a/on ter!inates in )ra !atter$, inte)ratin) (enter "s na#ses 0et6een sensor and !otor or interneurons re<uired$, !otor neuron and e''e(tor "!us(le or )land$. So!ati( Re'le/es involve involuntar s-eletal !us(les e). %atellar re'le/ "-nee 3er- re'le/$, 6it&dra6al re'le/ #revents li!0s 'ro! )ettin) serious in3uries.

Brain:
It 0e(o!es one o' t&e lar)est or)an o' t&e 0od "needs 2AB o' o/ )en$, divided into 5 #arts: 7. Brain Stem "Medulla O0lon)ata, #ons, !id0rain$ 2. "iencep#alon "T&ala!us, 1 #ot&ala!us, e#it&ala!us$ ;. Cere$rum "2 (ere0ral &e!is#&eres, (ere0ral (orte/$ 5. Cere$ellum% &% Brain Stem: Medulla O$lon'ata : is lo(ated su#erior to t&e s#inal (ord, (ontains all sensor "as(endin)$ and !otor "des(endin)$ tra(ts "6&ite !atter$ 'ro! s#inal (ord to ot&er #arts o' t&e 0rain. Anterior sur'a(e 0ul)es to 'or! # ra!ids 6&ere !ost tra(ts on t&e ri)&t side (ross over to t&e le't, and t&e tra(ts on t&e le't (ross over to t&e ri)&t in re)ion (alled decussation of pyramids "one side o' t&e 0rain (ontrols t&e ot&er side o' t&e 0od $. Contains nu(lei (ontrolled 0 t&e ANS: Cardiovascular center "&eart rate, stro-e volu!e, dia!eter o' arterioles$, medullary r#yt#micity area "r& t&! o' 0reat&in)$ and ot&er (enters "re'le/es 'or s6allo6in), vo!itin), (ou)&in), snee:in)$. (ons: Brid)e, su#erior to Medulla O0lon)ata, in'erior to Mid0rain and anterior to (ere0ellu!. Tra(ts (onne(t s#inal (ord to 0rain or 0rain #arts to)et&er "rela in'or!ation 0et6een (ere0ral (orte/ and (ere0ellu!$. Nu(lei t&at &el# re)ulate t&e nor!al r& t&! o' 0reat&in) "6it& t&e Medulla$ and nu(lei o' so!e (ranial nerves. Mid$rain: Lo(ated in 0et6een t&e #ons and Dien(e#&alon, (ontains (ere0ral #edun(les , a #air o' !otor "'ro! (ere0ral (orte/ to #ons?s#inal (ord$ and sensor tra(ts "s#inal (ord to t&ala!us$. Nu(lei o' t6o (ranial nerves. In'erior "auditor $ and su#erior "visual$ (olli(uli. Reti(ular =or!ation: T&rou)&out 0rain ste! and dien(e#&alons, di''used net6oro' neurons and (lusters o' (ell 0odies ")ra !atter$. Sensor 'ilter t&at alerts (ere0ral (orte/ o' in(o!in) sensor in'or!ation. 1el#s re)ulate !us(le tone "!otor$. RAS "Reti(ular A(tivatin) S ste!$ re)ulates slee# and arousal ( (le.

2. "iencep#alon:

)#alamus: Lo(ated a0ove t&e !id0rain, E))*s&a#ed, (o!#osed o' a !ass o' nu(lei ")ra !atter$, )ate6a to t&e (ere0ral (orte/: it is t&e !a3or rela station o' sensor in'o 'ro! t&e s#inal (ord, 0rain ste!, (ere0ellu! and #arts o' t&e (ere0ru! to t&e (ere0ral (orte/ "(ons(iousness$. Allo6s 'or (rude re(o)nition o' sensor in'o "#leasant, un#leasant$ li-e #ain, te!#erature, #ressure. %la s role in a6areness "s(reens (alls, sorts and edits in'o$ and a(<uisition o' -no6led)e "learnin), !e!or : (o)nition$. *ypot#alamus: Lo(ated 0elo6 t&ala!us and a0ove t&e #ituitar )land, s!all 0ut ver i!#ortant 3o0 o' 6at(&do) "&o!eostasis$ or !aster )landC *Controls and inte)rates a(tivities o' ANS su(& as &eart rate, 0lood #ressure, !ove!ent o' 'ood t&rou)&out t&e .I tra(t, res#irator rate and de#t&, #u#il si:e and (ontra(tion o' t&e urinar 0ladder "0 (ontrollin) t&e (enters in t&e 0rain ste!$. *Controls t&e release o' &or!ones 'ro! t&e anterior lo0e o' t&e #ituitar )land "(ontrols endo(rine s ste!$ and !a-es and se(retes 2 &or!ones in t&e #osterior lo0e o' t&e #ituitar )land "endo(rine 'un(tion$. *Re)ulates e!otions "and #& si(al e/#ression o' e!otions via ANS$ li-e ra)e, a))ression, #ain and #leasure "6it& li!0i( s ste!$ and 0e&aviors su(& as se/ drive. *Re)ulates 'ood inta-e via (&an)in) )lu(ose or a!ino a(ids (on(entrations in 0lood "'eedin) and satiet (enters$ and drin-in) via a de(rease in 0lood volu!e "t&irst (enter$. *Controls 0od te!#erature "t&er!ostat$ e). S6eatin) or s&iverin). *Re)ulates (ir(adian r& t&!s and state o' (ons(iousness "a6a-e?slee# #attern$. Sti!ulates t&e Reti(ular A(tivatin) S ste! "RAS$ 6&i(& sti!ulates t&e (orti(al a(tivit and t&ere'ore (ons(iousness. Biolo)i(al (lo(-: 1 #ot&ala!i( Su#ra(&ia!ati( Nu(lei "SCN$ uses e/ternal (ues li-e li)&t intensit , s n(&roni:e 6it& environ!ental ( (les. "i' not 25 &ours and 77 !inutes$ +pit#alamus: !ost dorsal #ortion o' dien(e#&alons 'or!s roo' o' t&ird ventri(les (ontainin) a c#oroids ple!us 6&i(& 'or! Cere0ros#inal =luid "CS=$. %ineal )land in(rease se(retion o' !elatonin at ni)&t 'or slee#. "!al'un(tionin): SAD, inso!nia, Det la), de#ression$

. ;. Cere$rum: .ra !atter on t&e outside 'or!in) cere$ral corte! )re6 'aster t&an underneat& 6&ite !atter 'or!in) 'olds ") ri$ and )rooves "dee#: 'issures, s&allo6: sul(i$. T&e lon)itudinal 'issure se#arates t&e (ere0ru! into ri)&t and le't cere$ral #emisp#eres 6&i(& are (onne(ted 0 6&ite !atter (alled t&e corpus collosum. T&e neocorte! (onsists o' 4 la ers o' neurons &avin) lar)e sur'a(e area asso(iated 6it& inter)ration "asso(iation areas$. T&e transverse (ere0ral 'issure se#arates t&e (ere0ru! 'ro! t&e (ere0ellu!. Basal 'an'lia are lo(ated in t&e 6&ite !atter and are res#onsi0le 'or (ontrol o' lar)e su0(ons(ious !ove!ents o' s-eletal !us(les: s6in)in) ar!s durin) 6al-in), ad3ust!ent o' !us(le tone re<uired durin) !ove!ent. Da!a)e to 0asal )an)lia (an result in tre!or, sti''ness and involuntar !ove!ents li-e in %ar-inson9s disease.

Functional reas of t#e Cere$ral Corte!: Ea(& (ere0ral &e!is#&ere is divided into 5 lo0es: 7.=rontal Lo0e "%ri!ar Motor (orte/$ 2. %arietal Lo0e "So!atosensor :sensor (orte/$ ;. Te!#oral Lo0e "Auditor $ 5. O((i#ital Lo0e ""Visual $ T&e (ere0ral (orte/ is divided into t&ree 'un(tional areas: sensor , asso(iation and !otor. Sensory reas lo(ated in #osterior &al' re(eives and inter#rets sensor i!#ulses. %ri!ar So!atosensor Area "7, 2, ;$ re(eives in'o 'ro! tou(&, #ro#rio(e#tion "li!0 #osition$, #ain, te!#erature. %ri!ar Visual Area "7E$ on o((i#ital, re(eives visual in'o "s&a#e, (olor, !ove!ent$. %ri!ar Auditor Area "57,52$ on te!#oral lo0e, re(eives sound "&earin)$ i!#ulses as #it(& and r& t&!. Ferni(-e area: Lo(ated in #osteroior te!#oral lo0e, res#onsi0le 'or t&e a0ilit to (o!#re&end s#ee(&. %ri!ar .ustator Area "5;$ re(eives in'o 'ro! taste 0uds. %ri!ar Ol'a(tor Area "2G$ re(eives i!#ulse 'ro! s!ell. Motor "!us(ular !ove!ent$ areas: Lo(ated on 0ot& &e!is#&eres"le't side (ontrols ri)&t side o' 0od and vi(e versa$, #osterior #ortion o' 'rontal lo0e, !ore (orti(al area is ta-en 'or &i)&er de)ree o' #re(ision o' !ove!ents: 'in)ers, tal-in) "li#s, ton)ue, vo(al (ords$. %ri!ar !otor area "5$: Controls s#e(i'i( !us(les or )rou# o' !us(les. Motor neurons o' t&e sa!e area (an innervate a series o' !us(les t&at 6or- in s ner) to #er'or! a #re(ise se<uen(e o' !ove!ent. %re!otor area "4$: Controls learned !otor s-ills o' a re#etitious or #atterned nature li-e a H!e!or 0an- 'or s-illed !otor a(tivitiesIe): t #in), 6ritin) a 6ord, #la in) !usi(al instru!ent Bro(a9s s#ee(& area "55, 5>$: S#e(ial !otor area t&at (ontrols !us(les involved 6it& )eneratin) s#ee(&, also a(tive 6&en #re#arin) "#lannin)$ s#ee(&. =rontal e e 'ield (ontrols voluntar e e !ove!ent. ssociation areas: "Inte)rative$ Res#onsi0le 'or !e!or , e!otions, reasonin), 6ill, 3ud)!ent, #ersonalit traits, intelli)en(e, (onsist o' !otor and sensor areas and lo(ated on t&e lateral sides o' t&e o((i#ital, #arietal, te!#oral lo0es and anterior to !otor area on 'rontal lo0e. So!atosensor asso(iation area ">, E$ inte)rate and inter#ret so!ati( sensations, stora)e o' !e!ories o' #ast sensor e/#erien(es "re(o)ni:e o03e(t 0 tou(&in) 6it&out seein)$. Visual Asso(iation Area "7G, 7J$ on t&e o((i#ital lo0e, re(o)ni:es and evaluates 6&at is o0served, usin) #resent and #ast visual e/#erien(es. Auditor Asso(iation Area "22$ lo(ated on te!#oral lo0e, res#onsi0le in dis(ri!inatin) sounds, re(o)nition o' i' it is s#ee(&, !usi( or noise, stores !e!ories o' sounds.

Ferni(-e9s area "22, ;J, 5A$ 'or!erl 0elieved to 0e res#onsi0le 'or (o!#re&endin) 6ritten or s#o-en lan)ua)e, no6 0elieved to 0e involved 6it& soundin) out un'a!iliar 6ords. .eneral "(o!!on$ inter#retation area, not 6ell de'ined and area s!aller t&an on(e t&ou)&t, usuall on t&e le't &e!is#&ere onl . Re(eives in'o 'ro! all sensor areas and inte)rates into a sin)le t&ou)&t or understandin). Vis(eral Asso(iation Area: Cons(ious #er(e#tion o' sensations o' or)ans e). =ull 0ladder, u#set sto!a(&. *emisp#ere ,aterali-ation: %& si(all 0ot& &e!is#&eres are s !!etri(al 0ut so!e #eo#le use one &e!is#&ere !ore t&an t&e ot&er. 2?; o' t&e #o#ulation &ave a lar)er area 'or t&e Ferni(-e9s on t&e le't &e!is#&ere. In !ost, t&e le't &e!is#&ere is !ore involved 6it& s#o-en and 6ritten lan)ua)e, !at&e!ati(al, s(ienti'i( s-ills, lo)i( and reasonin). T&e ri)&t &e!is#&ere is !ore i!#ortant in art, #attern #er(e#tion, re(o)nition o' 'a(es and e!otion, Nonver0al t&in-in) "!ental i!a)es o' si)&t, sound, tou(&, taste and s!ell$. Di''eren(es 0et6een &e!is#&eres are less #ronoun(ed in 6o!an. =e!ales &ave a lar)er (or#us (allosu! t&an !ales and !i)&t e/#lain 6& 6e are usuall 0etter at e/#ressin) our e!otions. +motions: ,im$ic System (onsists o' ; #arts in t&e Cere0ral (orte/ 'or!in) a rin) around t&e Brainste!: A! )dala 1 ##o(a!#us Ol'a(tor 0ul0 Inner #ortion involvin) T&ala!us and 1 #ot&ala!us "#ri!ar e!otions8 lau)&in) and (r in)$ and Brainste! "a))ression, 'eedin), se/ualit , nurturin) and 0ondin)$. Memory. learnin': A0ilit to re(all t&ou)&t and in'or!ation, essential 'or learnin), use our e/#erien(e, #art o' our (ons(iousness. Lo(ated in various #arts o' t&e 0rain: asso(iation area o' t&e 'rontal, #arietal, o((i#ital and te!#oral lo0es, #ortion o' li!0i( s ste! "& #o(a!#us$ and dien(e#&alon. T6o sta)es: S&ort*ter! "STM$ and Lon)*ter! "LTM$ !e!ories. STM li!ited to E*G (&un-s o' in'or!ation "#&one nu!0er ou 3ust loo-ed*u#, se<uen(e o' 6ords$ and te!#orar &oldin) 0in "(ra!!in) e/a! !aterial t&at ou 'or)et &o#e'ull a'ter e/a!$. It ta-es ti!e to trans'er STM to LTM 'or !e!or to 0e(o!e #er!anent. LTM involves (ellular !e(&anis!s, &as a li!itless (a#a(it , (ontinuall (&an)in) !e!or 0an-, 0ut t&e a0ilit to store or retrieve in'o de(lines 6it& a)in). T&e trans'er o' in'o 'ro! STM to LTM de#ends on: E!otional state "re<uires &i##o(a!#us$ "learnin) 0est 6&en aroused or stressed 0e(ause o' Nore#ine#&rine$ Re&earsal "re#eat$, Asso(iation "relatin) to old in'o Auto!ati( "un(ons(ious re(ord o' in'o$. =a(t !e!or is stored in (onte/t, asso(iated 6it& t&ou)&ts, a0ilit to 6or- 6it& s !0ols and lan)ua)e. S-ill !e!or is less (ons(ious, involves !otor a(tivities and is a(<uired t&rou)& #ra(ti(e, on(e learned &ard to unlearn "ridin) 0i-e, t in) s&oes$.

S#e(i'i( #ie(es o' !e!ories are stored 6&ere one 6ould need to re(all t&e! e). Visual !e!or are stored in t&e o((i#ital lo0e, !usi(al !e!or on te!#oral lo0e. Me!or is di''i(ult to stud "Creates a #& si(al (&an)e in t&e CNS$, in'o -no6n 6&en learnin): t #e o' RNAs #resent altered, delivered to a/on and dendrites, dendrite9s s&a#e !odi'ied, uni<ue e/tra(ellular #roteins are se(reted at s na#ses in LTM, nu!0er and si:e o' s na#ti( end 0ul0s are in(reased "#res na#ti( neuron$, !ore neurotrans!itters are se(reted, ne6 neurons in & #o(a!#us are 'or!ed. Me!or 'or!ation involves (ir(uits 'or!ed 0et6een t&e (orti(al sensor area, A! )dala and & #o(a!#us, Dien(e#&alon, #re'rontal (orte/ , to 0asal 'ore0rain 0a(- to sensor (orte/ 6&ere !e!or loo# is (losed. Brain /ave and ++0: Re'le(ts (ontinual ele(tri(al a(tivit o' t&e (ere0ral (orte/, a!#litudes re'le(ts nu!0er o' neurons (arr in) i!#ulses "lo6 durin) a6a-e state, &i)& durin) slee#$, translated into uni<ue individual #atterns re(orded as 0rain 6aves. .rou#ed into 5 (ate)ories de#endin) on t&eir 're<uen(ies "&ert: K #ea-s?se(onds$: Al#&a 6aves: re)ular and r& t&!i(, lo6*a!#litude Hidlin) 0rain: (al!, rela/ed state o' 6a-e'ulness. Beta 6aves: irre)ular r& t&!i(, &i)&er 're<uen( : !entall alert, (on(entrated, solvin) a #ro0le!, visual sti!ulation. T&eta 6aves: !ore irre)ular, (o!!on in (&ildren, a0nor!al in a6a-e adults. Delta 6aves: &i)&*a!#litude, durin) slee#, anest&esia, 0rain da!a)ed a6a-e adults. Disorder: E#ile#s , #etit !al, )rand !al? aura. Sleep- wa1e Cycles: State o' #artial un(ons(iousness, de(reased a(tivit o' t&e (ere0ral (orte/, environ!ent !onitorin) "slee#6al-in)$, 0rainste! 'un(tion 'or vital re'le/es, (an 0e aroused 0 sti!ulation. T6o t #es t&at alternate: Non*ra#id e e !ove!ent "NREM$ and Ra#id e e !ove!ent "REM, li-e t&e 0and$ slee#s. Start slee# 6it& )oin) t&rou)& 5 sta)es o' NREM *+ EE. 0e(o!es irre)ular and 0a(-tra(- NREM sta)es to7 *+ REM "a'ter 7 L &our o' slee#$, Drea!in): EE. s&o6 al#&a 6aves "aroused state$, 0rain9s o/ )en de!and )reater t&an 6&en a6a-e, in(reases in 0od te!#erature, &eart and res#irator rates, 0lood #ressure, ere(tion in !an and de(rease in .I tra(t !otilit , ra#id e e !ove!ents under lids, #aral sis o' s-eletal !us(les "li!0s$ so 6e don9t a(t out or drea!s. A'ter REM, des(ent to sta)e 5 o' NREM. Durin) slee#in), alternate 0a(- and 'ort& 0et6een NREM and REM. Ea(& #eriod o' REM in(reases as t&e ni)&t )oes on "'ro! > !inutes to >A !inutes, total L t&e slee# in in'ant and 2>B in adults$ and t&ere'ore t&e lon)est drea! is 0e'ore ou 6a-e*u#. Note: Most ni)&t!ares o((ur durin) sta)e ; and 5 o' NREM. RAS is res#onsi0le 'or a6a-e?(ons(ious state, slee#in) #attern, es#e(iall drea!in) and 6a-in) u#. Sta)e 5 "slo6 @6ave slee#, 6indin) do6n$ is i!#ortant restorative #ro#erties. REM !i)&t 0e i!#ortant o((asion to revie6 "anal :e$ t&e events o' t&e da , la(- o' REM slee# !a-es ou !ood , de#ressed. Al(o&ol and slee# !edi(ations su##ress REM slee#. Slee#in) disorders: Nar(ole#s , Inso!nia, Slee# a#nea. 5% Cere$ellum: Anato! : Cauli'lo6er*li-e, dorsal to #ons, 2 (ere0ellar &e!is#&eres (onne(ted 0 ver!is, t&in outer (orte/ la er o' )ra !atter, internal tree*li-e 6&ite

!atter "ar0or vitae Htree o' li'eI$, Cere0ellar %edun(les (onne(t (ere0ellu! to Brain Ste!, no dire(t (onne(tion to (ere0ral (orte/ . =un(tions: Role in (o)nition, lan)ua)es and #ro0le! solvin). Re(o)ni:e and #redi(t se<uen(es o' events, ad3ust !ulti#le 'or(es a##lied on li!0s, 3oints. Involved in learnin) and re!e!0erin) !otor s-ills "ridin) a 0i-e$ Balan(e and #osture: %rovides su0(ons(ious #re(ise ti!in) and #ro#er #attern o' s-eletal !us(le (ontra(tions 'or (oordination, a)ilit , drivin), ridin) a 0i-e, t #in), #la in) a !usi(al instru!ent. Re(eives in'o 'ro! #ro#riore(e#tors "tension o' tendons and s-eletal !us(les, 3oint #osition$, visual and e<uili0riu! "see notes G$. Co!!uni(ates to (ere0ral !otor (orte/ t&e in'o on (oordination o' a !ove!ent. Inter)rates sensor in'o 'ro! surroundin) needed in &and*e e (oordination I!#eded 6it& al(o&ol. Drun- test o' tou(&in) nose or 6al-in) in a strai)&t line. Neurotransmitters: cetylc#oline "AC&$ E/(itator to s-eletal !us(les. E/(itator or in&i0itor to ot&er sites "%aras !#at&eti( Nervous S ste!$ Norepinep#rine "derived 'ro! t rosine, an a!ino a(id$CNS and %NS "S !#at&eti( Nervous S ste!$ "opamine and Serotonin (derived 'ro! t&e a!ino a(id tr #to#&an$ a''e(t slee#, !ood, attention and learnin). +ndorp#ins natural anal)esi(s

Cere$rospinal Fluid (CSF) Circulation: Li<uid (us&ion, &el#s 'eed 0rain, (arries (&e!i(al si)nals "&or!ones and slee#* and a##etite* indu(in)$ all around t&e CNS "0rain and s#inal (ord$. Cere0ros#inal 'luid &as si!ilar (o!#osition t&an #las!a "0lood$ e/(e#t less #roteins and di''erent ion (on(entrations "!ore sodiu!, (&loride and & dro)en ions, #1$. C&oroid #le/uses (o!#osed o' e#end !al (ells "neuro)lial (ells, ti)&t 3un(tion, ion #u!#s$ lo(ated at roo' "(eilin)$ o' ea(& 5 ventri(les, 'ilter 0lood, 'or! ion )radient 'or os!osis o' 'luids into ventri(les, re!ove 6aste #rodu(ts "CS= re#la(ed ever G &ours$. Move!ent o' CS= t&rou)& all ventri(les (aused 0 (ilia o' e#end !al (ells, t&rou)& (entral (anal o' s#inal (ord, in su0ara(&noid s#a(e all around CNS and returns to 0lood in dural sinuses via ara(&noid villi. Disorder: 1 dro(e#&alus "H6ater on t&e 0rainI$.

utonomic Nervous System ( NS): Involuntar (ontrol o' s!oot&, (ardia( !us(les and )lands to re)ulate 0lood 'lo6, &eart rate, 0lood #ressure, 0od te!#erature, sto!a(& se(retions to !aintain t&e state o'

&o!eostasis. Co!#osed o' t6o divisions: %aras !#at&eti( and S !#at&eti( divisions 6&i(& innervate sa!e or)ans "&eart, lun)s, di)estive s ste!, e/(retor s ste! et($ 0ut do o##osite e''e(ts "s !#at&eti( innervates !ore: s!oot& !us(les o' arteries and veins, )lands "s6eatin)$. =un(tion: %aras !#at&eti( Division: Bod !aintenan(e8 restin), di)estion, eli!ination "'e(es, urine$, de(reases &eart and res#irator rates, 0lood #ressure, #u#il (onstri(ted. S !#at&eti( Division: =i)&t*or =li)&t, a(tivated 6&en e/(ited, e/er(isin), e!0arrass!ent or e!er)en( situation "res#onse to t&reat, #oundin) &eart, ra#id dee# 0reat&in), 0ron(&ioles dilate, liver releases !ore )lu(ose into 0lood 'or !ore ener) , s6eat s-in, dilated #u#ils, .I tra(t !otilit de(reased.

Anato! : Anato!i(al di''eren(es 0et6een t&e t6o divisions: Di''erent ori)ins: %aras !#at&eti( 0e)ins at 0rainste! "Va)us nerve ori)inates 'ro! nu(lei in !edulla$ and sa(ral #ortion o' s#inal (ord, S !#at&eti( e!er)e 'ro! t&ora(i( and #artl lu!0ar re)ions o' s#inal (ord. Di''erent len)t&s o' #re* and #ost)an)lioni( neurons: #aras !#at&eti( &as lon) #re)an)lioni( and s&ort #ost)an)lioni( neurons. S !#at&eti( &as s&ort #re)an)lioni( and lon) #ost)an)lioni( neurons. Lo(ation o' )an)lia: Most #aras !#at&eti( )an)lia are lo(ated near or in e''e(tor or)ans, s !#at&eti( )an)lia lo(ated near s#inal (ord in a s !#at&eti( trun- "on 0ot& sides$. Di''eren(es in neurotrans!itter released: A(et l(&oline "A(&$ is released 0 all #re)an)lioni( neurons and #aras !#at&eti( #ost)an)lioni( neurons. Most s !#at&eti( #ost)an)lioni( neurons release nore#ine#&rine "NE$.

C&a#ter G %art2 "%a)es 2EE*2J2$ %lannin) and Initiatin) Move!ent: Role o' t&e Motor Corte/ Asso(iation Corte/ T&e su##le!entar !otor area and t&e #re!otor (orte/ are involved in t&e #lannin) o' !ove!ents and t&e e/e(ute t&ese #lans t&rou)& t&eir (onne(tions 6it& t&e #ri!ar !otor (orte/. T&ese re)ions 0e(o!e a(tivated 6it& #eo#le i!a)ine or a(tuall #er'or! t&ese a(tions. T&e !otor asso(iation (orte/ is also involved in i!itatin) t&e a(tions o' ot&er #eo#le. T&e su##le!entar !otor area and t&e #re!otor (orte/ re(eive in'or!ation 'ro! asso(iation areas o' t&e #arietal and te!#oral (orte/.

T&e visual asso(iation (orte/ is or)ani:ed in t6o strea!s: dorsal and ventral. o T&e ventral strea! ter!inates in t&e in'erior te!#oral (orte/ is involved and #er(eivin) #arti(ular o03e(ts "6&at strea!$ o T&e dorsal strea!, 6&i(& ter!inates in t&e #osterior #arietal love, is involved in t&e #er(e#tion o' lo(ation "6&ere strea!$ o T&e #arietal lo0e also or)ani:es visuall )uided !ove!ent "&o6 strea!$ o %arietal lov e also re(eives in'or!ation a0out s#atial lo(ation 'ro! so!atosensor , vesti0ular and auditor s ste!s and inte)rates it 6it& in'or!ation 'ro! t&e visual (orte/. o T&e re)ions o' t&e 'rontal (orte/ t&at #lan !ove!ent re(eive in'o a0out !ove!ents 'ro! t&e te!#oral and #arietal lo0e o T&e #at&6a 'ro! #arietal lo0e to 'rontal lo0e is i!#ortant in lo(o!otion and ar! and &and !ove!ents.

T&e Su##le!entar Motor Area o I!#ortant in learnt and #er'or!ed 0e&aviours involvin) se<uential !ove!ent o Da!a)e to t&is re)ion disru#ts 6ell learnt se<uen(es o' res#onses "6&en t&e #er'or!an(e o' one res#onse is t&e si)nal 'or t&e ne/t res#onse$ o C&en 'ound t&at lesions o' t&e su##le!entar !otor (orte/ severel i!#aired !on-e Ms a0ilit to #er'or! a si!#le se<uen(e o' t6o res#onses: #us&in) a lever and t&en turnin) it to t&e le't. o Mus&ia-e, Inase, Tan3i trained !on-e s to #er'or! a set o' res#onses #us&in) ea(& o' ; 0uttons in a (ertain se<uen(e. F&en #er'or!ed 'ro! !e!or , t&e neurons in t&e SMA 6ere a(tivated. T&is 6as not t&e (ase 6&en #er'or!ed 'ro! visual (ues "t&e 0uttons lit u# in t&e order t&e needed to 0e #ressed$ o S&i!a and Tan3i tau)&t !on-e s si/ se<uen(es o' t&ree !otor res#onses. T&e t&en 'ound neurons 6&ose a(tivit en(oded ele!ents o' t&e se<uen(es "I.e. I' t&e se<uen(e 6as #us&, #ull turn di''erent neurons 6ould li)&t u# 'or #us& and ot&ers 6ould li)&t u# 'or #ull$ o S&i!a and Tan3i te!#oraril ina(tivated t&e !on-e s9 neural area 6it& a dru) t&at a(tivated .ABA re(e#tors and in&i0ited t&e neurons and 'ound t&at !on-e s (ould do t&e individual tas-s 6it& visual (ues 0ut not !a-e a se<uen(e.

o 1i-osa-a did a &u!an stud and instead o' t&e dru) used trans(ranial !a)neti( sti!ulation t&e sa!e t&in) o((urred. 1o6ever t&e disru#tion 6as not i!!ediate, t&e #arti(i#ants 3ust did not H-no6I t&e ne/t ste# a'ter (ontinuin) t&e se<uen(e 'or one se(ond. o T&e SMA is involved in #lannin) a(tions yet to come% T&e a(tual e/e(ution is (ontrolled 0 t&e #ri!ar !otor (orte/. o T&e re)ion anterior to t&e SMA is (alled t&e #re*SMA is involved in t&e (ontrol o' s#ontaneous !ove!ents, in t&e #er(e#tion o' (ontrol. o F&en t&e SMA and #reSMA sti!ulated, t&e DESIRE to !ove o((urs, &o6ever sti!ulation o' t&e !otor (orte/ o((urs, involuntar !ove!ent is t&e result. o Lau*'un(tional i!a)in) stud 'ound t&at t&e #re SMA 0e(a!e a(tive 3ust 0e'ore #eo#le #er'or!ed s#ontaneous !ove!ent. "T&e #arti(i#ants !ade rando! !ove!ents 6it& t&eir 'in)ers 6&ile #a in) attention to a red li)&t (lo(-$ T&e !ade t&e !ove!ent A.2 se(onds 0e'ore t&e !ove!ent 0e)an T&e #re*SMA 0e)an to in(rease 2*; se(onds 0e'ore t&at s&o6in) t&at t&e de(ision o((urred 0e'ore t&e #erson 6as a6are o' it.

o T&e !ost i!#ortant in#ut to t&e su##le!entar !otor area (o!es 'ro! t&e #arietal lo0e Sir)u #er'or!ed a si!ilar e/#eri!ent to Lau and investi)ated de(ision !a-in) 6&en t&e #arietal (orte/ &ad lesions. T&e 'ound t&at #eo#le 6it& #artial lesions (ould re#ort 6&en t&e started t&e !ove!ent 0ut 6ere not a6are o' an intention to !ove #rior to !a-in) t&e !ove!ent. T&e in'or!ation 'ro! t&e #arietal lo0e allo6s t&e #re*SMA to reali:e a de(ision &as 0een !ade %eo#le 6it& #re'rontal lesions 6ill rea(t to events 0ut are de'i(it in i!itatin) 0e&aviour so #er&a#s t&is is an i!#ortant area 'or de(ision.

T&e %re!otor (orte/ o Involved in learnin) and e/e(utin) (o!#le/ !ove!ents t&at are )uided 0 sensor in'or!ation o Involved in usin) ar0itrar sti!uli to indi(ate 6&at !ove!ent s&ould 0e !ade

E.). rea(&in) 'or an o03e(t 6e see in a #arti(ular situation involves non*ar0itrar in'or!ation E.). Doin) a #arti(ular !ove!ent 6&en told to 0 a (&oreo)ra#&er is ar0itrar "in'or!ation t&at is not dire(tl related to t&e !ove!ent t&at it si)nals$

o Nurata and 1o''!an trained !on-e s to !ove t&eir &ands to t&e le't or ri)&t in res#onse to a s#atial or nons#atial si)nal. T&e s#atial si)nal re<uired a !on-e to !ove in t&e dire(tion indi(ated 0 si)nal li)&t lo(ated to t&e le't and ri)&t o' its &and. T&e non s#atial si)nal (onsisted o' a #air o' li)&ts, one red and one )reen, lo(ated in t&e !iddle. T&e red li)&t si)nalled a !ove!ent to t&e le't and t&e )reen to t&e ri)&t. T&e investi)ators te!#oraril ina(tivated t&e #re!otor (orte/ and t&e !on-e s (ould still !ove t&eir &ands to6ard a si)nal li)&t lo(ated le't or ri)&t "non ar0itrar si)nal$ 0ut (ould not !a-e an a##ro#riate !ove!ent 6&en t&e red or )reen li)&ts 6ere lit u#.

o 1als0and and =reund 'ound t&at #atients 6it& t&ese lesions (ould learn to !a-e 4 di''erent !ove!ents in res#onse to s#atial (ues 0ut not to ar0itrar (ues. I!itatin) and Co!#re&endin) !ove!ents: Role o' t&e Mirror Neuron S ste!: Ri::olatti #er'or!ed a stud t&at dis(overed t&at neurons in t&e rostral #art o' t&e ventral #re!otor (orte/ in t&e !on-e 0rain "area =>$ 0e(a!e a(tive 6&en !on-e s sa6 #eo#le or ot&er !on-e s #er'or!in) various )ras#in)?rea(&in)?!ani#ulatin) !ove!ents. T&e neurons t&at res#onded to t&is are (alled !irror neurons*neurons t&at are in t&e ventral #re!otor (orte/ and in'erior #arietal lo0ule "#art o' #osterior #arietal lo0e$ t&at res#onds 6&en an individual !a-es a !ove!ent or sees ot&ers !a-in) t&at !ove!ent. Bu((ino as-ed non !usi(ians to 6at(& and t&en i!itate an e/#ert )uitarist. T&e 'ound t&at 0ot& 6at(&in) and #la in) a(tivated !irror neurons Calvo Merino &ad 0allet dan(ers8 (a#oeira dan(ers and non dan(ers 6at(& videos o' (a#oeira and 0allet. All su03e(ts s&o6 a(tivation in !irror neurons 0ut t&e #ro'essions &ad !ore a(tivation. Mirror neurons are also a(tivated 0 sounds t&at indi(ate t&e o((urren(e o' t&e a(tion "No&ler*!on-e s !irror neurons 6ere a(tivated 6it& t&e ani!al &eard sounds su(& as a #eanut 0rea-in)$. Audiovisual neurons res#ond to t&e sounds and to si)&ts o' #arti(ular a(tions.

La&av, Salt:!an and S(&lau) 'ound t&e relation 0 tea(&in) non*!usi(ians &o6 to #la a son). F&en t&e son) 6as #la ed, t&e audiovisual neurons 6ere a(tivated 6it&out t&e! #la in) it. 1aslin)er 'ound t&at t&e intera(tion 6or-ed in t&e ot&er dire(tion is 6ell. T&e s&o6ed #ro'essional #ianists silent videos o' t&e &and #la in) t&e #iano and also !eanin)less &and !ove!ents a0ove t&e #iano. T&e 'ound t&at auditor (orte/ and !irror neuron and visual (orte/ 6as a(tivated 'or #iano #la in) and t&e !eanin)less !ove!ents. Ri::olatti, =o)assi and .allese su))est t&at t&e !irror neuron &el#s us understand ot&ers a(tions. Iaa(o0oni su))ests t&at !irror neurons &el# us understand ot&ers9 intentions. T&is 6as s&o6n 0 s&o6in) (li#s o' an ar! and &and resear(&in) 'or and )ras#in) a !u). T&e (li# 6as s&o6n in isolation or in (onte/t 6it& sna(- ite!s su(& as !u) , !il-, 3a!, (oo-ies et($ or a'ter t&e eatin) 6&ere t&e (oo-ies &ave 0een eaten and t&e 3a! o#ened. T&e 'irst (onte/t su))ests t&at t&e intent is t&at o' drin-in) and t&e se(ond s&o6s an intention o' (leanin). T&ere 6as a di''eren(e in t&e a(tivation 0et6een (onte/ts 6&en t&e !ove!ent o' )ri##in) a !u) o((urred in ea(&.

Control o' Rea(&in) and .ras#in): Conne(tions 0et6een 'rontal and #arietal lo0e (riti(al %arietal rea(& re)ion*a re)ion in t&e !edial #osterior #arietal (orte/ t&at #la s a (riti(al role in #ointin) and rea(&in) 6it& t&e &ands T&e anterior #art o' t&e intra#arietal sul(us "aI%S$ is (riti(al in (ontrollin) &and and 'in)er !ove!ents involvin) in )ras#in) t&e o03e(t. =re &ad #eo#le rea(& 'or o03e(ts o' di''erent s&a#es 6&i(& re<uired di''erent 'i)ure and &and !ove!ents to )ras#. T&e 0rain a(tivit related to )ras#in) 6as deter!ined 0 su0tra(tin) t&e areas #rodu(ed 'or rea(&in) 'or and tou(&in) 'ro! t&e rea(&in) 'or and )ras#in) a(tivation Tuni-, =re and .ra'ton (on'ir!ed t&e i!#ortan(e o' t&e aI%S. T&e su03e(ts &ad to rea(& and )ras# a re(tan)ular o03e(t t&at 6as oriented 6it& its lon) side verti(al or &ori:ontal. On so!e trials, t&e o03e(t rotated 6&i(& !ade t&e su03e(ts &ave to (&an)e t&eir &and #osition 0e'ore t&e )ra00ed it. So!e o' t&e trails involved t&e trans(ranial !a)neti( sti!ulation disru#tin) t&e aI%S. A'ter 4> !s o' t&e rotation t&e a((ura( o' (&an)in) )ri# 0e'ore )ra00in) 6as de(reased. No ot&er sti!ulation o' #ri!ar !otor or #arietal lo0e &ad an e''e(t t&ere T&e aI%S is 'ro! t&e dorsal strea! o' vision.

S&!uelo' and Oo&ar *su03e(ts 6at(&ed videos o' a &and rea(&in) to )ra0 various o03e(ts, so!eti!es 6it& it in t&e ri)&t or le't visual 'ield, so!eti!es t&e o03e(ts and &and lo(ation 6ere s6it(&ed. "su03e(ts 'i/ated on a (entral #oint$ T&is #ro(edure !eans t&at 'or a #arti(ular trial, in'or!ation 6as alternated 0et6een t&e &e!is#&eres 6it& one side 6it& o03e(t in'o and one side 6it& &and in'o. Anal sis o' t&e 0rain a(tivation s&o6ed t&at t&e in'or!ation a0out t&e o03e(t a(tivated ventral strea! and &and in'o a(tivated aI%S.

De'i(its o' S-illed Move!ents: T&e A#ra/ias Da!a)e to t&e 'rontal or #arietal (orte/ on t&e le't side #rodu(es a#ra/ia A#ra/ia*di''i(ult in (arr in) out #ur#ose'ul !ove!ents in t&e a0sen(e o' #aral sis or !us(ular 6ea-ness. A#ra/ias re'ers to t&e ina0ilit to i!itate !ove!ents or #rodu(e t&e! in res#onse to ver0al instru(tion ina0ilit to de!onstrate t&e !ove!ent t&at 6ould 0e !ade in usin) a 'a!iliar tool or utensil. =our t #es: li!0 "#ro0le!s 6it& &ands, ar!s, 'in)ers$, oral"!ove!ents o' !us(les used in s#ee(&$, a#ra/i( "#arti(ular t #e o' 6ritin) de'i(it$, (onstru(tional "dra6in) or (onstru(tin) o03e(ts$

Li!0 A#ra/ia: C&ara(teri:ed 0 !ove!ent o' t&e 6ron) #art o' li!0, in(orre(t !ove!ent o' ri)&t #art or ri)&t !ove!ent in t&e 6ron) se<uen(e. Assessed 0 as-in) #atients to !a-e s#e(i'i( !ove!ents. Fit&out &avin) a real o03e(t to !ani#ulate, a #erson !ust (o!#re&end t&e (o!!and and 0e a0le to i!a)ine t&e arti(le and !a-e t&e #ro#er !ove!ents. So!eti!es, 6it& an a(tual o03e(t, #atients (an (o# t&e &and !ove!ents. Da!a)e to t&e le't #arietal &e!is#&ere (auses a#ra/ia o' 0ot& &ands 0e(ause t&e ri)&t &e!is#&ere is involved 6it& e/tra #ersonal s#a(e and t&e le't is 6it& one9s o6n 0od . C&a!inade, Melt:o'' and De(te *as-ed su03e(ts to 6at(& anot&er #erson #er'or! &and?ar! )estures and t&en i!itate t&e! or !a-e di''erent ones 6it& t&e sa!e ar! or di''erent ar!. T&e #osterior re)ions o' t&e ri)&t &e!is#&ere tra(ed t&e !odel in s#a(e and t&e le't #arietal love or)ani:ed t&e res#onse !ove!ent. T&e 'rontal (orte/ is !ore i!#ortant t&at t&e #arietal lo0e in re(o)ni:in) !eanin). %a::a)lia tested #atients 6it& da!a)e to t&e le't and ot&ers 6it& da!a)e to t&e ri)&t &e!is#&ere.. And 'ound t&at 2?; o' t&e ones 6it& le't &e!is#&ere da!a)e &ad li!0 a#ra/ia. T&e tested t&e! 'or re(o)nition o' &and )estures in 6&i(& a

#erson 6ould #er'or! a )esture (orre(tl or in(orre(tl . A#ra/i( #atients 6it& da!a)e to t&e in'erior 'rontal ) rus 0ut not to t&e #arietal (orte/ (ouldn9t understand t&e !eanin)s o' )estures 6ell. Constru(tional A#ra/ia Caused 0 lesions o' t&e ri)&t &e!is#&ere, #arti(ularl in t&e ri)&t #arietal lo0e %eo#le 6it& t&is disorder )enerall do not &ave #ro0le!s !a-in) !ost t #es o' s-illed &and and ar! !ove!ents su(& as i!itation, usin) o03e(ts or #retendin) to use t&e! T&e &ave trou0le dra6in) #i(tures or asse!0lin) o03e(ts "su(& as le)o$. Involves t&e a0ilit to #er(eive and i!a)ine )eo!etri(al relations.

Basal .an)lia Motor nu(lei in(ludes t&e (audate nu(leus, t&e #uta!en and )lo0us #allidus. Caudate nu(leus*a telen(e#&ali( nu(leus, one o' in#ut nu(lei o' 0asal )an)lia, involved in voluntar !ove!ent %uta!en*telen(e#&ali( nu(leus, one o' t&e in#ut nu(lei o' t&e 0asal )an)lia, involved 6it& (ontrol o' voluntar !ove!ent .lo0us #allidus*a telen(e#&ali( nu(leus, t&e #ri!ar out#ut nu(leus o' 0asal )an)lia, involved in voluntar !ove!ent Re(eives !ost o' t&e in#ut 'ro! all re)ions o' (ere0ral (orte/ "es#e(iall 'ro! #ri!ar !otor and so!atosensor (orte/es$ and t&e su0stantia ni)ra. T&e &ave 2 #ri!ar out#uts*t&e #ri!ar !otor (orte/ and t&e su##le!entar !otor area and t&e #re!otor (orte/ and !otor nu(lei o' t&e 0rain ste! t&at (ontri0ute to ventro!edial #at&6a s. Ventral anterior nu(leus o' t&ala!us*a t&ala!us nu(leus t&at re(eives #ro3e(tions 'ro! t&e 0asal )an)lia and sends #ro3e(tions to t&e !otor (orte/ Ventrolateral nu(leus o' t&ala!us*a t&ala!us nu(leus t&at re(eives #ro3e(tions 'ro! t&e 0asal )an)lia and sends #ro3e(tions to t&e !otor (orte/ T&e 'rontal #arietal and te!#oral (orte/ sends a/ons to t&e (audate nu(leus and t&e #uta!en 6&i(& t&en (onne(t 6it& t&e )lo0us #allidus. T&e )lo0us #allidus sends in'o to t&e !otor (orte/ via t&e ventral anterior and ventrolateral nu(leus o' t&e t&ala!us, T&e 0asal )an)lia (an !onitor so!atosensor in'or!ation and are in'or!ed o' !ove!ents 0ein) #lanned and e/e(uted 0 t&e !otor (orte/

T&e su0stantia ni)ra is i!#ortant in (o!!uni(ation 6it& t&e 0asal )an)lia*t&e de)eneration o' t&e ni)rostriatal 0undle "t&e do#a!iner)i( #at&6a 'ro! t&e su0stantia ni)ra to t&e (audate nu(leus and t&e #uta!en$ (auses %ar-inson9s disease T&e lin-s in t&e loo# o' t&e (orti(al 0asal )an)lia are !ade 0 0ot& e/(itator ")luta!ate se(retin)$ and in&i0itor ")a0a se(retin)$ neurons T&e (audate nu(leus and #uta!en re(eive e/(itator in#ut 'ro! t&e (ere0ral (orte/. T&e send in&i0itor a/ons to t&e e/ternal and internal re)ion o' t&e )lo0us #allidus. ".%i and .%e$ T&e dire(t #at&6a in(ludes .%i. Neurons in t&e .%i send in&i0itor a/ons to t&e ventral anterior and ventrolateral t&ala!us 6&i(& sends e/(itator #ro3e(tions to t&e !otor (orte/. T&e #at&6a t&at in(ludes t&e .%e is -no6n as t&e indire(t #at&6a o Indire(t #at&6a *t&e #at&6a t&at in(ludes t&e (audate nu(leus and #uta!en, t&e e/ternal division o' t&e )lo0us #allidus, t&e su0t&al!i( nu(leus, t&e internal division o' t&e )lo0us #allidus and t&e ventral anterior?ventrolateral t&ala!i( nu(lei: &as an in&i0itor e''e(t on !ove!ent. o Dire(t #at&6a : in(ludes (audate nu(leus, #uta!en, internal division o' t&e )lo0us #allidus and t&e ventral anterior?ventrolateral t&ala!i( nu(lei &as an e/(itator e''e(t on !ove!ent.

Neurons in t&e .%e send in&i0itor in#ut to t&e su0t&al!i( nu(leus 6&i(& sends e/(itator to t&e .%i 6&i(& results in t&e sa!e (ir(uit des(ri0ed 'or t&e .%i 0ut t&e overall e''e(t on t&e !otor (orte/ is IN1IBITORY. T&e .% also sends a/ons to various !otor nu(lei in t&e 0rain ste! t&at (ontri0utes to t&e ventro!edial s ste!.

%ar-inson9s disease: S !#to!s: !us(ular ri)idit , slo6ness o' !ove!ent, a restin) tre!or and #ostural insta0ilit . Da!a)e to t&e ni)rostriaral 0undle (auses t&is 0e(ause nor!al !ove!ent re<uires a 0alan(e 0et6een dire(t and indire(t #at&6a s. T&e (audate nu(leus and #uta!en (onsist o' 2 di''erent :ones 6&i(& re(eive in#ut 'ro! do#a!iner)i( neurons 'ro! su0stantia ni)ra. One o' t&ese :ones (ontains D7 do#a!ine re(e#tors 6&i(& #rodu(e e/(itator e''e(ts. Neurons in t&is :one send in#ut to .%i. Neurons in t&e ot&er :one (ontain D2 re(e#tors 6&i(& send in#ut to .%e 6&i(& #rodu(es in&i0itor e''e(ts. A de(rease in t&is (ir(uit #ro0a0l (auses t&e #oor !us(le ri)idit and #osture (ontrol. T&e standard treat!ent 'or %ar-inson9s is L*DO%A "t&e #re(ursor to do#a!ine$

T&e in(reased a!ount o' do#a!ine lets t&e re!ainin) ni)rostriatal do#a!iner)i( neurons #rodu(e and release !ore do#a!ine 1o6ever t&is (auses d s-inesais and d stonas*involuntar !ove!ents and #ostures are #resu!a0l (aused 0 too !u(& sti!ulation o' t&e do#a!ine re(e#tors in t&e 0asal )an)lia Also t&is treat!ent does not last 'orever

1untin)ton9s disease A 'atal in&erited disorder t&at (auses de)eneration o' t&e (audate nu(leus and #uta!en: (&ara(teri:ed 0 un(ontrolla0le 3er-in) !ove!ents, 6rit&in) !ove!ents and de!entia. Causes de)eneration o' (audate nu(leus and #uta!en es#e(iall o' .ABAer)i( and a(et l(&olier)i( neurons Causes un(ontrolla0le !ove!ents, es#e(iall 3er- li!0 !ove!ents. T&e !ove!ents o' 1untin)ton9s9 disease loo- li-e 'ra)!ents o' #ur#ose'ul !ove!ents 0ut are involuntar . %ro)ressive, eventuall (auses deat& Usuall 0e)ins in ;As o' 5As =irst si)ns o' neural de)eneration o((ur in t&e (audate nu(leus and #uta!en*in t&e !ediu! si:ed s#in in&i0itor neurons 6&ose a/ons travel to t&e .%e. T&e loss o' in&i0ition #rovided 0 t&ese .ABA se(retin) neurons in(reases a(tivit in .%e 6&i(& t&en in&i0its t&e su0t&ala!i( nu(leus. T&us t&e a(tivation in t&e .%i de(reases and e/(essive !ove!ents o((ur. As t&e disease #ro)resses t&e (audate nu(leus and t&e #uta!en de(rease until t&e 0arel e/ist. T&e #atient dies 'ro! (o!#li(ations o' i!!o0ilit . T&ere is no (ure. 1ereditar (aused 0 a do!inant )ene on (&ro!oso!e 5. De'e(t identi'ied as a re#eated se<uen(e o' 0ases t&at (ode 'or a!ino a(id )luta!ine. Lon)er stret(&es o' )luta!ine are 'ound in #eo#le t&at s !#to!s a##ear at in a oun)er a)e.

T&e Cere0ellu! %art o' !otor s ste!

>A 0illion neurons (o!#ared to 22 0illion in t&e (ere0ral (orte/. %ro3e(ts to ever !a3or !otor stru(ture o' t&e 0rain F&en it is da!a)ed, #eo#les !ove!ents 0e(o!e 3er- , errati( and un(oordinated. Consists o' 2 &e!is#&eres t&at (ontain several dee# nu(lei situated 0eneat& t&e 6rin-led and 'olded (ere0ellar (orte/. T&e !edial #art o' t&e (ere0ellu! is #& lo)eneti(all older t&an t&e lateral #art and is in t&e (ontrol o' t&e ventro!edial s ste!. T&e 'lo((ulonodular lo0e, lo(ated at t&e (audal end o' t&e (ere0ellu!, &el#s (ontrol #ostural re'le/. o Re(eives in#ut 'ro! t&e vesti0ular s ste! and #ro3e(ts a/ons to t&e vesti0ular nu(leus

t&e ver!is*lo(ated on t&e !idline, re(eives auditor and visual in'o 'ro! t&e te(tu! and t&e (utaneous and -inaest&eti( in'o 'ro! t&e s#inal (ord and sends out#ut to t&e 'asti)ial nu(leus o t&e 'asti)ial nu(leus: a dee# (ere0ellar nu(leus involved in t&e (ontrol o' !ove!ent 0 t&e reti(ulos#inal and vesti0ulos#inal tra(ts

Neurons in t&e 'asti)ial nu(leus send a/ons to t&e vesti0ular nu(leus and to !otor nu(lei in t&e reti(ular 'or!ation. T&e rest o' t&e (ere0ellar (orte/ re(eives !ost o' its in#ut 'ro! t&e (ere0ral (orte/ in(ludin) t&e #ri!ar !otor (orte/ and t&e asso(iation (orte/. o T&is in#ut is rela ed to t&e (ere0ellar (orte/ t&rou)& t&e #ontine te)!ental reti(ular nu(leus.

T&e inter!ediate :one o' t&e (ere0allar (orte/ #ro3e(ts to t&e inter#osed nu(leus 6&i(& #ro3e(ts to t&e red nu(leus. T&e i!!ediate :one in'luen(es t&e (ontrol o' t&e ru0ros#inal s ste! over !ove!ents o' t&e ar!s and le)s. T&e inter#osed nu(leus also sends out#uts to t&e ventrolateral t&ala!i( nu(leus 6&i(& #ro3e(ts to t&e !otor (orte/. T&e lateral :one o' t&e (ere0ellu! is involved in t&e (ontrol o' inde#endent li!0 !ove!ents es#e(iall in ra#id, s-illed !ove!ents o T&ese !ove!ents are initiated 0 neurons in t&e 'rontal asso(iation (orte/.

o 1o6ever, t&ou)& t&e 'rontal (orte/ #lans and initiates !ove!ents it does not &ave t&e neural (ir(uitr to (al(ulate t&e (o!#le/ se<uen(es needed 'or s-illed !ove!ents. T&e lateral :one o' t&e (ere0ellu! does t&is. Bot& t&e 'rontal asso(iation (orte/ and t&e #ri!ar !otor (orte/ send in'o a0out intended !ove!ent to t&e lateral (ere0ellu! t&rou)& t&e #ontine nu(leus. T&e lateral :one also )ets in'o 'ro! t&e so!atosensor s ste! 6&i(& tells it a0out li!0 #osition and rate o' !ove!ent. F&en t&e (ere0ellu! &as t&e in'o t&at t&e !otor (orte/ &as initiated a !ove!ent, it (o!#utes 6&at t&e !us(les 6ill need to do to #er'or! t&is rea(tion. T&is in'o is sent to t&e dentate nu(leus 6&i(& is anot&er (ere0ellar nu(leus. Neurons t&ere #ass t&e in'o to t&e ventrolateral t&ala!us 6&i(& sends t&e in'o to t&e #ri!ar !otor (orte/. To &u!ans, lesions o' di''erent re)ions o' t&e (ere0ellu! #rodu(e di''erent s !#to!s. o Da!a)e to t&e 'lo((ulondular lo0e or t&e ver!is (auses distur0an(es in #osture and 0alan(e o Da!a)e to t&e inter!ediate :one #rodu(es de'i(its in !ove!ent (ontrolled 0 t&e ru0ros#inal (ord*li!0 ri)idit o Da!a)e to t&e lateral :one results in de(o!#osition o' !ove!ent "i.e. rou)& !ove!ent, se#arate !ove!ents 0 3oints su(& as so!eone tr in) to 0rin) t&eir &and to t&eir !out& 6ill !a-e se#arate !ove!ents 6it& t&e 3oints o' s&oulder, el0o6 and 6rist$ o Da!a)e to t&e lateral :one also i!#air t&e ti!in) o' ra#id 0allisti( "t&ro6in)$ !ove!ents. o Norn&u0er su))ested t&at one o' t&e #ri!ar 'un(tions o' t&e (ere0ellu! is ti!in) t&e duration o' ra#id !ove!ents. o Ti!!ann, Fatts and 1ore: 6&en tossin) a 0all at a tar)et usin) an overar! t&ro6, a #erson raises &is &and a0ove t&e s&oulders, rotates t&e ar! 'or6ard and t&en releases t&e 0all 0 e/tendin) t&e 'in)ers and !ovin) t&e! a#art. T&e resear(&ers 'ound t&at nor!al su03e(ts released t&e 0all 6it&in an 77 !se( 6indo6 6&ile #atients 6it& (ere0ellar lesions did > ti!es 6orse. T&eir 6indo6 6as >> !se( 6ide. T&e (ere0ellu! also inte)rates su((essive se<uen(es o' !ove!ents t&at !ust 0e #er'or!ed one a'ter anot&er. o 1ol!es re#orted t&at t&e #atient (an !ove an una''e(ted ar! su0(ons(iousl 0ut !ust t&in- out t&e !ove!ents o' a''e(ted ar!s.

o T&a(& o0tained e/#eri!ental eviden(e t&at (orro0orates t&is role. 1e 'ound !an neurons in t&e dentate nu(leus s&o6ed res#onse #atterns t&at #redi(ted t&e ne/t !ove!ent in a se<uen(e rat&er t&an t&e one t&at 6as (urrentl ta-in) #la(e. Reti(ular =or!ation Consists o' a lar)e nu!0er o' nu(lei lo(ated in t&e (ore o' t&e !edulla, #ons and !id0rain Controls a(tivit o' t&e )a!!a !otor s ste! and re)ulates !us(le tonus %ons and !edulla (ontain several nu(lei 6it& s#e(i'i( !otor 'un(tions o Control auto!ati( or se!iauto!ati( res#onses su(& as res#iration, snee:in), (ou)&in) and vo!itin) Ventro!edial #at&6a s ori)inate in t&e su#erior (olli(uli, vesti0ular nu(lei and reti(ular 'or!ation. T&e reti(ular 'or!ation #la s a role in (ontrol o' #osture %la s a role in lo(o!otion Sti!ulation o' t&e !esen(e#&ali( lo(o!otor re)ion, lo(ated ventral to t&e in'erior (olli(ulus, (auses a (at to !a-e #a(in) !ove!ents o T&is re)ion does not send 'i0res to t&e s#inal (ord 0ut (ontrols t&e a(tivit o' reti(ulos#inal tra(t neurons. Si)eal and M(.int re(orded in ;> neurons in t&e reti(ular 'or!ation o' unanat&esti(i:ed 'ree !ovin) (ats. ;2 o' t&ese neurons res#onded durin) s#e(i'i( !ove!ents o' t&e &ead, ton)ue, 'a(ial !us(les, ears, 'ore#a6 or s&oulder. T&e s#e(i'i( nature su))ests t&ese neurons #la a role in (ontrollin) !ove!ent.