IB Biology Notes Human Reproduction

The information in this document is meant to cover the IB syllabus for topics 6.6 and 11.4 (HL O L!". The Male and Female Reproductive Systems

Images from http://www.dannynicholson.co.uk/learningzone/ ody/organs/organs!.htm

Reproductive Hormones Reproducti"e hormones are in"ol"ed in the changes of pu erty# and in regulation of the menstrual cycle. In females#

$ollicle %timulating Hormone &$%H' and (uteinizing Hormone &(H' are produced y the anterior pituitary gland. )strogen and progesterone are produced y the o"ary. $%H# (H# estrogen * progesterone work together to control the menstrual cycle. $%H stimulates maturation of an o"um within its follicle. +s the follicle grows# it egins producing estrogen# which inhi its $%H# ut stimulates (H production. )strogen also increases the thickness of the endometrium. (H stimulates o"ulation and formation of the corpus luteum# which produces progesterone. ,rogesterone &-the pregnancy hormone.' maintains the endometrium and inhi its production of $%H * (H# there y inhi iting o"ulation. If fertilization does not occur# the corpus luteum reaks down# and the pituitary gland will start producing $%H again to stimulate another follicle. +t this point# the endometrium is e/pelled from the uterus &menstruation'. )strogen also plays a role in pu erty: it promotes the de"elopment of the female secondary se/ual characteristics.

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In males# $%H promotes spermatogenesis &production of male gametes'. (H &in males# called interstitial cell stimulating hormone or I6%H' stimulates secretion of testosterone. 7estosterone and other hormones collecti"ely known as androgens are produced y the (eydig cells &near lood "essels of the interstitial tissue of the testes'. It stimulates pre8natal de"elopment of the male genitalia# de"elopment of secondary se/ characteristics &during pu erty' and maintenance of the se/ dri"e. 7estosterone also stimulates maturation of sperm from secondary spermatocytes.
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Gonads & Gametogenesis 7he se/ organs# or gonads# are responsi le for production of gametes# or gametogenesis.

Image from http://www. io.miami.edu/dana/!13/gametogenesis.5pg

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IB Biology Notes Human Reproduction

In females# the o"aries produce o"a # or eggs# y the process of oogenesis# a specialized form of meiosis which only results in formation of one haploid cell:

oogenesis egins in utero# efore a female a y is e"en orn a large num er of oogonia are formed y mitosis oogonia undergo cell growth# enlarging and forming primary oocytes primary oocytes egin meiosis ut stop in prophase I# remaining dormant until pu erty egins at onset of pu erty# some follicles will egin to de"elop# in response to $%H# and the primary oocyte inside will complete the 9rst meiotic di"ision two cells of une:ual sizes are formed cytoplasm and organelles are gi"en to one cell &now called a secondary oocyte'; the second is essentially a nucleus in a cell mem rane < this structure is called a polar ody the polar ody e"entually disintegrates and is rea sor ed y the ody the secondary oocyte proceeds to meiosis II# stopping in prophase II meiosis II completes if the cell is fertilized: this forms an o"um and a second polar ody

In males# the testes produce sperm# y the process of spermatogenesis# also a form of meiosis; howe"er each round of spermatogenesis produces four spermatids# or immature sperm. Ovary Structure

Image from http://www.tarleton.edu/=anatomy/o"ary.5pg

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IB Biology Notes Human Reproduction

Image from http://www.proteinatlas.org/histology.php>content4id?01

Testis Structure

Image from http://www.we 8 ooks.com/e(i rary/@edicine/,hysiology/Reproducti"e/testis.5pg

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IB Biology Notes Human Reproduction

Image from http://www.proteinatlas.org/tissue4dictionary/testish!.5pg

%perm are released from the ody within semen# or seminal Auid. It is produced y se"eral glands: %eminal Besicles

two pouches located in the pel"ic region ehind the ladder supply a "iscous# nutrient8rich &citric acid# amino acids# fructose' alkaline secretion that forms a part of the seminal Auid supply a out C1D of the "olume of seminal Auid largest of all male reproducti"e glands &a out the size of a chestnut'; located 5ust eneath the ladder contri utes a out 21D of the seminal Auid it secretes a thin# milky8white alkaline Auid similar to that of the seminal "esicles; neutralizes acidic Auids oth in the male urethra and the female "agina so that the sperm are not damaged pea8sized gland located eneath the prostate gland contri utes a out !1D of the seminal Auid tightly8coiled tu e located on top of the testis &2 m long if stretched out' sperm are stored in the epididymis for a out 0 weeks while they mature# de"elop motility and ecome capa le of fertilization

,rostate Eland

Bul ourethral Eland &6owperFs Eland'

)pididymis

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IB Biology Notes Human Reproduction

Image from http://faculty.southwest.tn.edu/r urkett/repro4!G.5pg

Image from http://distance.stcc.edu/+and,/+,/+,0pages/reprod/spermato.htm

Comparing Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis %imilarities: Both spermatogenesis * oogenesis in"ol"e mitosis and cell growth efore undergoing meiosis. 7he hormones (H and $%H are in"ol"ed in regulation of oth processes.

HiIerences:

%permatogenesis occurs in the testes# while oogenesis occurs in the o"aries. %permatogenesis starts at pu erty# while oogenesis starts during gestation &fetal de"elopment'. %permatogenesis occurs until death# while oogenesis ceases at menopause. %permatogenesis occurs continuously# whole oogenesis is cyclic &menstrual cycle'. @illions of sperm are created daily# while only one o"um &or two' is produced e"ery 0J days. )5aculation of sperm can occur at any time# while o"ulation only occurs once per menstrual cycle. %perm are produced y e:ual di"isions# producing four spermatids# while une:ual di"isions in oogenesis result in the production of only one o"um. %permatogenesis doesnFt produce polar odies# while oogenesis produces 0 or C polar odies. %permatogenesis re:uires testosterone# while oogenesis does not.

Pregnancy 6opulation is the physical contact etween the male and female reproducti"e structures that is needed for sperm to mo"e from the male to the female ut does not necessarily result in fertilization due to the use of a contracepti"e# infertility# or timing.
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$ertilization is the fusion of male and female gametes# forming a zygote.

7he acrosome reaction is when the sperm comes into contact with the coats surrounding the egg# and as the contact takes place the acrosome &an enzyme8 9lled "acuole at the tip of the sperm' ursts open and releases enzymes that digest the 5elly coat of the egg. 7he sperm mem rane then comes in contact with the egg cell mem rane and the two mem ranes fuse# followed y the entry of the sperm nucleus into the cytoplasm of the egg. 7he cortical reaction results as the sperm comes in contact with the egg cell mem rane# triggering changes to the egg cell mem rane making it impossi le for other sperm cells to enter. +fter fertilization# the chromosomes of the male and female gametes line up at the cellFs e:uator in preparation for mitosis. %ince this di"ision is not followed y cell growth# and simply clea"es the cell into two smaller ones# it is called a clea"age di"ision. %e"eral clea"age di"isions occur# resulting in the formation of a solid all of cells# the morula# which in humans reaches the uterus a out 3 days after fertilization. Kne:ual di"isions in the morula occur# resulting in the formation of a Auid89lled space in the middle it is now a hollow all of cells called a lastocyst. 7he lastocyst implants in the endometrium a out L days after conception. Huring 9rst 0 to 3 weeks of de"elopment the em ryo o tains nutrients directly from the endometrium. Howe"er# tissues grow out from the de"eloping em ryo and mingle with the endometrium and form the placenta. @aterials are e/changed etween the maternal and fetal lood in the placenta.

7he placenta is a fetal tissue which in"ades the maternal tissue &the uterus'. It is disk8shaped and grows to a out the size of a dinner plate weighing less than ! kg. HiIusion of material etween the maternal and em ryonic circulatory systems pro"ides nutrients# e/changes respiratory gases# and disposes of meta olic wastes for the em ryo. Blood from the em ryo tra"els to the placenta through arteries of the um ilical cord and returns "ia the um ilical "ein# passing through the li"er of the em ryo.

In addition# the placenta plays an endocrine role in maintaining pregnancy. In early pregnancy# it secretes human chorionic gonadotopin. +fter the reakdown of the corpus luteum# the placenta secretes oth estrogen and progesterone. If the le"els of these hormones are not maintained# the pregnancy will a ort spontaneously ecause the uterus has not maintained fa"oura le conditions for fetal growth. H6E acts like pituitary (H to maintain secretion of progesterone and estrogens y the corpus luteum through the 9rst trimester. In the a sence of this hormonal o"erride# the decline in maternal (H due to inhi ition of the pituitary y progesterone would result in menstruation and spontaneous a ortion of the

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em ryo. (e"els of H6E in the maternal lood are so high that some is e/creted in the urine# where it can e detected in pregnancy tests. $or the ne/t two months# the growing a y is called an em ryo# and is arely discerni le as human. In the third month of pregnancy# the growing a y starts to look more human# and is known as a fetus until its irth. 7he fetus is supported and protected y the amniotic sac and amniotic Auid.

7he fetus Aoats in the amniotic Auid. 7he Auid is constantly circulated y the fetus swallowing and MinhalingM it# and Me/halingM and urinating into it. +mniotic Auid pro"ides cushioning protection to the fetus. It allows for freedom of fetal mo"ement# which permits symmetrical musculoskeletal de"elopment. It maintains a relati"ely constant temperature surrounding the fetus# which protects it from heat loss. It permits proper lung de"elopment# ecause it is inhaled into * e/haled from the lungs.

Birth +ppro/imately CJ weeks after conception# the fetus is ready to lea"e the uterus.

Before irth# progesterone le"els will drop. It will send a signal to the e/tra8em ryonic mem ranes which leads to the secretion of prostaglandins. ,rostaglandins initiate uterine contractions. 6ontraction of the uterus pushes the a yFs head against the cer"i/# causing it to dilate. Ner"e endings in the cer"i/ and uterus tell the rain that contractions are occurring# and the posterior pituitary gland will secrete o/ytocin. N/ytocin# prostaglandins and a positi"e feed ack system cause the uterine contractions to ecome stronger and longer in duration. Ohen the cer"i/ is fully dilated &!1 cm'# stage one of irth# &la our' is complete. (a our can take many hours. %tage two &e/pulsion' occurs as powerful contractions force the a y out of the uterus. %tage two usually lasts no more than one hour. Nnce the a y has een orn# the uterus has nothing to push against this ends the positi"e feed ack loop# and contractions diminish. 7he 9nal stage of irth is e/pulsion of the placenta# caused y a few more uterine contractions.

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in vitro Fertili ation !"#F$ %ome couples are una le to concei"e due to infertility issues such as locked $allopian tu es or a low sperm count. IB$ is one common way that couples with fertility issues are a le to ecome pregnant. + drug is in5ected once a day for three weeks# to stop the womanPs normal menstrual cycle. (arge doses of $%H are in5ected once a day for !18!0 days to stimulate the o"aries to de"elop many follicles. H6E is in5ected C2 hours efore egg collection# to loosen the eggs in their follicles and to make them mature. 7he man pro"ides semen y e5aculating into a container. 7he sperm are processed to concentrate the healthiest ones. 7he eggs are e/tracted from the follicles using a de"ice inserted through the wall of the "agina. )ach egg is mi/ed with sperm in a ,etri dish# which is kept in an incu ator o"ernight. 7he ,etri dishes are checked the ne/t day to see if fertilization has occurred. 7wo or three em ryos are selected and placed# "ia a long plastic tu e into the uterus. + out two weeks after placing the em ryos# a pregnancy test is done to see if any em ryos ha"e implanted. + scan is done a out a month after placing the em ryos# to see if the pregnancy is continuing normally. 7he heart eat should e "isi le.

%thical Concerns Regarding "#F Pros promotes fertility in childless couples suIering due to genetic disease could e reduced if em ryos were screened efore transferring to the uterus.

Cons against religious principles multiple irths are more likely# and carry a greater risk to the mother doctors decide which em ryos are transferred to the uterus so humans are deciding who li"es * dies more em ryos are produced than are normally implanted in one procedure spares may e destroyed if they are not stored for later procedures

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