UCRL-70077Rev.

Annual Report to Congress

1966
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JAN 0 2 1997

Plowshare Division

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Lawrence

Radirtfion

Laborafow-y

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA E

cONGRESS - 1966
(Title: Unclassified)

Plows hare Division

October 31, 1966

DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracj, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, produb, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof.
,

ANNUAL REPORT TO CONGRESS Plowshare Division

- 1966

Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, University of California, Livermore, California

I.

INTRODUCTION

P r o g r e s s in the Plowshare program during 1966 was characterized by the upsurgence of i n t e r p t by industry in the contained applications of nuclear explosions i l stimulation, storage and disposal, recovery of oil f r o m oil shales, and f o r g a s and o
'

mining.

Advances in the excavation a r e a were limited t o improved code calculations

a s no field experiments were conducted.

1 1 . NATURAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT A.
1. General Summary

Gas and Oil Stimulation

Natural gas is produced commercially from underground regions of permeable rock in which t h e g a s h a s been trapped. When a well is drilled into t h e r e s e r v o i r rock,
A single well

._

the g a s normally flows f r e e l y into the well f r o m the pores in the rock.

can drain t h e gas f r o m a l a r g e volume o f r e s e r v o i r rock at a r a t e fast enough to be

e conomicaily worthwhile. In many a r e a s in the western United States and Canada, however, natural gas is

found i n r e s e r v o i r rock of such l o w permeability that it cannot be produced economically from a normal xell. The trapped gas, if it f l o w s at all, does not f l o w freely enough into Nuclear explosions can
In the proposed

the well to give an ecoiiomically attractive rate of production.

be used xo stimulate production of g a s from such tight reservoirs.

W L C . t :

method (Fig. l), nuclear explosions in the r e s e r v o i r rock a r e used to c r e a t e l a r g e zones

&&,*

. .

-2-

("chimneys") of broken and cracked rock into which the gas would flow more freely. The chimney essentially becomes a v e r y l a r g e production well.
A survey of more' than 125 members of the natural gas producing industry

indicated 23 gas fields in the United States and 9 in Canada where production problems a r e attributed t o low permeability of the gas-bearing strata. Figure 2 shows the known gas-bearing r e s e r v o i r s in the Rocky Mountain states with production zones thick enough to warrant consideration for nuclear stimulation. Other suitable a r e a s f o r nuclear stimulation a r e in Western Canada, and in p a r t s of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.

i l l have its first The nuclear stimulation technique w

t e s t in Project Gasbuggy (described below); i f this test and others show t h e technique t o be feasible, our natural gas r e s e r v e s will be increased greatly times t h e i r present .amount.
2.

- perhaps b y ten

Planned Gasbuggy Experiment Project Gasbuggy is a nuclear stimulation experiment planned for a remote portion

of the San Juan Basin in New Mexico, about 70 miles east of Farmington.

The present

plan is to detonate a 24-kiloton nuclear device at a depth of 4200 feet, which is slightly below the Pictured Cliffs Formation, a gas -bearing r e s e r v o i r of low permeability about
300 feet thick a t the s i t e of the experiment.

El P a s o Natural Gas Company and the U. S.

Bureau of Mines will participate in the Gasbuggy experiment; the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory (LRL) will furniqh technical direction. The experiment a s presently conceived is a comprehensive investigation of the effects that a nuclear explosion in a low-permeability r e s e r v o i r w i l l have on g a s production. Because Gasbuggy is a fracture-controlled reservoir, a l l questions

pertaining t o other types of r e s e r v o i r s cannot be answered by this single experiment. The Gasbuggy experiment w i l l permit investigation of two major a r e a s : (1) changes
i n the r e s e r v o i r rock a s a result of the explosion, and (2) contamination of the gas by

radioactive products of the explosion a n d the efficacy of proposed control measures.

a . Effects of Explosion on Reservoir Rock - Before the shot, the r e s e r v o i r rock

will be explored by core drilling at various distances and directions f r o m the planned

I'

-3-

shot location.

This core-drilling information will be supplemented b y (1) extensive

t e s t s on c o r e samples and (2) a comprehensive geophysical and hydrological logging program. Some of the d r i l l holes f o r the preshot exploration will b e used to emplace

instruments f o r measuring the effects of the shot. The amount of g a s in place, its distribution, and the permeability of the formation
will be determined b y a s e r i e s of r e s e r v o i r production t e s t s t o which both standard and

time-dependent computer analysis techniques will be applied. Characteristics of the r e s e r v o i r after the shot will be determined b y a postshot drilling program. The boundaries of the chimney will be delineated, and rock s a m p l e s This information, together with

will b e taken t o study the changes that have occurred.

f the the data taken at the time of the shot, will make possible an improved definition o
fracturing m e c h a n i s h s and t h e i r effectiveness in increasing permeability of t h e r e s e r v o i r rock. Gas production t e s t s and analysis s i m i l a r t o those performed preshot

w i l l establish the productivity change brought about b y the nuclear stimulation.

b.

Effects of Radioactive Contamination of the Gas

After 6 to 12 months, the

short -lived radioactive isotopes will have decayed, leaving krypton-85 and tritium (hydrogen-3) a s the principal radioactive contaminants in the gas. Krypton (which is a

noble o r unreactive gas) w i l l have been produced almost entirely by t h e fission reaction. Tritium, on the other hand, is a product of the fusion reaction; it can be eliminated from the detonation products by choosing an all-fission device (which, of course, would increase the krypton production). Such a choice might place s e v e r e limitations on the

explosives that could be used in future applications. It may develop that the tritium is primarily contained in water vapor which could then be removed at the well head. Another possibility is t o develop techniques f o r

flushing the gas at the well head to remove substantial amount of both t r i t i u m and krypton. nuclear explosive will he selected to allow investigation of both the fission and fusion reactions in the hydrocarbons.

B.
1. General Summary

Storage and Disposal

Increasing use of natural gas has brought a demand for m o r e s t o r a g e capacity than can b e met by conventional storage reservoirs, such as depleted natural g a s fields. P r e s e n t indications are that the demand f o r gas storage capacity will grow b y at l e a s t
177 billion cubic feet p e r y e a r (see Fig. 3).

One promising method for creating new

s t o r a g e capacity is t o produce large underground cavities by nuclear explosions.

A feasibility study h a s shown that a nuclear-explosion-produced chimney (see

Fig. 4) could provide storage f o r up t o 10 million cubic feet of g a s per kiloton of explosive yield. This assumes a gas storage p r e s s u r e equal to hydrostatic p r e s s u r e

at the chimney' s d&th below the surface. Considerably higher p r e s s u r e s than this may
b e possible, thereby providing even greater storage capacity.

A nuclear chimney can be made t o yield its storage g a s over a v e r y wide range of
flow r a t e s with essentially the s a m e equipment.

10 million t o 500 million cubic feet per day from a chimney produced by a 50-kiloton
of usable gas s t o r a g e capacity.

Calculations made f o r flow r a t e s f r o m

explosion indicate that investment costs would be f r o m $2 t o $4 p e r thousand cubic feet These numbers a r e competitive with natural underground g a s storage in depleted gas, oil, or aquifer reservoirs, and two t o ten t i m e s cheaper than other standard storage methods.
2.

Proposed Ketch Experiment The feasibility of storing natural gas in a nuclear chimney will b e tested in the

Ketch prototype experiment, which has been proposed by the Columbia Gas System Service Corporation as the result of a joint design effort with LRL.
A s i t e i n central Pennsylvania has been selected f o r Project Ketch, in which a
L

24-kiloton nuclear explosive set off at a depth of 3300 feet in an impermeable shale is expected t o produce a chimney with a storage volume g r e a t e r than 2 million cubic feet. The experiment w i l l have three main purposes:
(1) To determine the ability of a rubble-filled chimney in a relatively

impermeable material to s t o r e g a s at p r e s s u r e s up t o and above hydrostatic p r e s s u r e .

-5(2) To determine the total volume available for storage, including

the fraction outside the chimney boundaries.

(3) To determine the feasibility and necessity for various methods

of flushing and controlling the gaseous radioactivity present in the chimney.

C.
1.

Oil Shales

General Summary
A recent theoretical study at LRL has examined the problem of retorting broken

oil shale in a chimney created by an underground nuclear explosion,

Calculations were

based on previously developed predictions of the probable s i z e distribution of oil shale i fragments in a chimney. Results of the study suggest that almost all the oil, including that in oil shale chunks a s l a r g e as several feet across, can be removed by retorting slowly at temperatures in the range of 750"F, considerably lower than those used in most previously suggested retorting schemes. The proposed nuclear chimney retorting system uses comparatively low air flow

rates, thus keeping compressor costs at a lower level.

Twelve to eighteen months

would b e required t o retort completely the broken oil shale in a 100-kiloton nuclear chimney (Fig. 5). broken shale. Results of the theoretical study a r e in excellent agreement with experiments
c

It should be possible t o recover 50 t o 70 percent of the oil in the

conducted by the U. S. Bureau of Mines (USBM), in which fragments of oil shale up t o

20 inches a c r o s s were retorted in a 6-foot diameter, 10-foot high vessel.

Calculations

and experimeptal results a r e presented in a recent joint technical report by L R L and USBM.
c
J, T

It is estimated that Colorado's Piceance Basin contains 320 billion b a r r e l s of oil

i n oil shale formations 500 feet o r more thick, with an average oil content of 2 5 gallons

UCRL-14795, J u n e 1966.

3 . C. Carpenter. %Lombard, David B., and 1

Retorting Oil Shale in a Nuclear Chimney,

-6-

p e r ton.

About half of this reserve, or 160 billion barrels, could be recovered if the

nuclear chimney retorting system is successful.

Even g r e a t e r amount of o i l might be

f oil shale are amenable to the s a m e treatment (see Fig. 6 ) . recovered if l o w e r grades o
2.

Proposed Bronco Experiment

A group of about 24 domestic oil companies has been organized by CER-Geonuclear

Corporation t o cooperate with the AEC, USBM, and LRL, in sponsoring Project Bronco, a nuclear explosion experiment in oil shale. The first objective of Bronco is t o

i l shale determine whether an underground nuclear explosion can be used t o prepare o

deposits f o r i n s i t u retorting on a commercial scale. If a retortable volume of broken

i l l b e t e s t e d in a second phase shale is produced by the explosion, retorting techniques w i o f t h e experiment. , Major aspects t o be studied i n the retoring phase would include the
f oil recoverable and the costs of operation. proportion o

The Project Bronco plan is to detonate a 50-kiloton nuclear explosive at a depth of about 3000 feet in oil shale, at a government-owned site in the Piceance Basin. P r e s h o t and postshot investigations a t the Bronco s i t e will b e related mainly t o f r a c t u r ing of the oil shale and to public safety. conducted.

A careful s e i s m i c damage study w i l l be

A typical in situ retorting scheme for oil shale is shown in Fig. 5.

N o time s c a l e has been established for the Bronco experiment, but it could probably

not be prepared f o r detonation before midyear 1968.

Industry and government would

cooperate in conducting the experiment and would s h a r e costs.

D.
1.

Mining

General Summary Economical means must be found for mining increasingly deeper and lower grade

o r e bodies if the United States is to remain self-sufficient i n copper production. Figure 7 illustrates the present domestic copper situation.
A promising technique that

h a s been proposed f o r extracting the copper from such low-grade o r e is t o break up the o r e body with nuclear explosions and t o pass a leach solution through the broken o r e t o remove the copper (see Fig- 8 ) . The g r e a t economic advantage of this in-place

processing is that no effort is spent in transporting the huge quantities of low g r a d e o r e that must be treated.
2.

Nuclear explosives a r e the key to the method.

Proposed Sloop Experiment

A proposal has been submitted by Kennecott Copper Corporation t o conduct a

nuclear in s i t u leaching demonstration experiment in a copper deposit owned by the company n e a r Safford, Arizona, This experiment, Project Sloop, is tentatively Preliminary

designed as a %-kiloton nuclear detonation at a depth of about 1200 feet.

experimental design is being c a r r i e d out by technical personnel f r o m Kennecott Copper Corporation and LRL. Following t h e detonation and formation of a chimney, the rubble will be leached i in place t o determing whether copper can be recovered b y this method.
A pilot scale

precipitation plant will b e constructed on the ground surface t o investigate techniques

of separating the copper f r o m both the leach solution and the radioactive contaminants

that may b e c a r r i e d f r o m the explosion environment during the leaching operation. Interest has been shown in this experiment by a number of other mining companies, and alternate experiment s i t e s a r e available should the propose'd site prove unsuitable f o r any reason. The problem of radioactive contamination of the o r e has been studied, with the general conclusion that it is an entirely manageable problem. of these studies a r e : Some significant r e s u l t s

(1) Concentrations of radioactive isotopes in the leach liquor would b e

low enough that no special shielding f r o m radiation exposure would be needed.
(2) The most troublesome radioactive isotopes would be those of metals,

such a s silver-llOm, zirconium-95, niobium-95, and ruthenium-101;. Fortunately, the relatively nonvolatile radionuclides would b e locked

in the congealed insoluble "puddle glass" at the bottom of t h e cavity, and only a s m a l l percentage would enter the leach liquor. Subsequent

metallurgical processing, o r a newly developed solvent extraction process, removes virtually ali radioactive contaminants from the finished copper.

(3) Harmful radioactive contamination of ground water can be avoided

by careful site selection.

E.
1. Hydrocarbon Experiment

Research and Development

Experiments have been conducted to investigate the production and distribution of volatile radioactivity that might result from detonating a nuclear explosive in a hydrocarbon-rich material, such as petroleum reservoir rock.

In the experiments,

the nuclear device was packed in a measured amount of asphalt as the hydrocarbonrich material.
'

Analysis is not complete, but the results of this experiment a r e expected

t o show whether it is better, f r o m the standpoint of volatile radioactivities, such as i krypton-85 and tritium, to detonate the nuclear explosive for gas stimulation applications in the petroleum r e s e r v o i r material o r close below in the material containing less hydrocarbons.
2.

Hardhat Permeability Studies Permeability of the rock outside the chimney created by the Hardhat underground

nuclear experiment (5.4 kilotons at a depth of 939 feet in granite) has been determined by drilling long holes and pressur'izing them with air. Results (given in Fig. 9) show

that permeability has increased 100-fold or more as far out as 215 feet f r o m the shot point or 165 feet from the vertical axis of the chimney. more. This represents a volume of

some 30 million cubic feet in which the permeability has been increased 100-fold o r It could not be determined how much farther out the zone of high permeability

extended because a collapsed d r i f t prevented further measurements.

3.

Handcar Chimney Studies

A vertical exploratory hole was drilled into the top of the chimney created by the

Hatidcar underground nuclear experiment (12 kilotons at a depth of 1320 feet in dolomite). The top of the chimney was found to be 223 feet above the shot point, about 23% less height than had been expected on the basis of experience from the Hardhat and Shoal shots i n granite. The center of the void space at the top of the chimney, instead of

-9-

being directly above the shot point, is displaced about 20 feet in the direction toward which the dolomite beds dip. This suggests a chimney that is somewhat tilted r a t h e r

than vertical (see Fig. 10). The rubble and void at the top of the chimney is shown in Fig. 11. Pressurization t e s t s indicate a total void volume i n the chimney, including the empty s p a c e s between the rubble particles, of 1, 315,000 cubic feet (* 15%). This An

corresponds t o a radius of 68 f 3 feet for the initial cavity produced by the shot.

optical survey and stereophotographs show that the void space a t the top of the chimney above the rubble is m o r e than half the volume of t h e original cavity, indicating that less bulking occurred than was expected. compared t o that of Hardhat which was 28% in hard rock. The particles at the top of i the rubble a r e relatively small, 82% by volume being l e s s than 1.5 feet in diameter.
4 . Cavity Collapse and Chimney Development

Bulk porosity of the rubble is only about 1470,as

Most proposed underground natural resource development applications depend on the formation of a rubble-filled &iimney and on the physical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of that rubble and the wall rock surrounding the chimney. Studies of the physics and inter-

action of the explosion phenomena with various rock materials and geologic settings a r e needed to understand the controlling factors in producing chimneys with favorable characteristics; i. e. , high porosity and permeability and well-fragmented rubble.
first experiment h a s been performed t o determine how chimneys develop above the

cavity produced by a nuclear detonation in alluvium.

Chimney development studies a r e

needed for other materials that are likely to be encountered in proposed underground applications. Information was obtained on the collapse of the alluvium overlying a nuclear explosion a t a depth of 1125 feet. Collapse data were obtained for points on t h e surface

and beneath the surface down t o a depth of 750 feet. ( A s with most underground shots in alluvium, the collapse of the material overlying the cavity extended all the way t o the surface arid produced a "subsidence crater.
If)

Surface collapse w a s monitored by

photographing a s e r i e s of t a r g e t s resting on the surface above the shot; underground

&ollapse, b y special detectors called "slifer" cables

P a r t i c l e velocity and acceleration

measurements ivere also made

-10-

Figure 12 shows how collapse progresses.

A s expected from e a r l i e r studies,

the collapse w a s massive and rapid once it began; the propagation r a t e of the collapse front w a s 100 to 150 feet p e r second. A t a given depth the collapse was found t o start about 3 seconds e a r l i e r in the center of the chimney than at the edges. continues as collapse progresses upward f r o m the cavity to.the surface. This lag

5.

Effect of W a t e r on Cavity Size

A study conducted at LRL has shown that the water content of a medium affects

the s i z e of cavities produced by nuclear explosions.

An equation was derived that

accurately describes the cavity dimension when the medium density, water content, depth of burst, and explosive energy a r e known.
1

Using this equation, the cavity r a d i i

o f 40 detonations intuff, alluvium, salt, and granite were calculated within the a c c u r a c y
that cavity radius and other variables can be measured in the field. This study also indicated that medium strength properties do not appear to influence the s i z e of the cavity.
6.

Emplacement Hole Re-entry A technique h a s been developed for re-entering the cavity or chimney produced

by a nuclear detonation through the original device emplacement hcle.

This capability

promises t o be extremely useful f r o m both technical and cost considerations in contained applications. Salmon cavity.

ARPA sponsored the first field t e s t of this technique in re-entering the

Results indicate that a savings of about 50% in the cost of d r i l l i n g a With the emplacement hole and

separate hole of the s a m e size and depth is realized.

hardware designed specifically for re-entry purposes, an equivalent or g r e a t e r saving would accrue to future Plowshare programs in which a relatively l a r g e diameter hole
is useful for commercial downhole processing.
is currently being designed for u s e in Gasbuggy,

An emplacement hole r e - e n t r y s y s t e m

7.

Seismic Damage Studies Prediction of architectural clamage f r o m seismic motion is beaornirg important

t o the feasibility of Plowshare projects.

An investigation of representative buildings

in Mercury, Nevada, close t o many nuclear detonations within the Nevada Test Site
was made t o determine:
(1) The validity of peak particle velocity a s a damage criterion. (2) The peak particle velocity that causes minor architectural

damage t o selected masonry structures.

(3) The validity of the Hattiesburg, Mississippi, experience (Salmon

event).
(4) The natural cracking rate for s i m i l a r structures in Nevada.

Selected masonry s t r u c t u r e s in Mercury were inspected for cracking before and after nuclear detonations and during periods of no nuclear test activity. Nuclear t e s t

detonations gave peak particle velocities close t o those experienced during the Salmon event. Findings i n d u d e evidence that peak particle velocities of 0.17 t o 0.32 centimeters

p e r second caused m o r e cracking than normal (4 t o 35 cracks in the 43 buildings); however, c r a c k s at these low levels of motion a r e not more s e v e r e than those occurring naturally. During periods of no nuclear test activity a total of 2 1 / 2 c r a c k s a day occurred naturally in the 4 3 buildings under surveillance, indicating that the nuclear events produced a number of c r a c k s equivalent t o 2 t o 14 days of normal cracking. However, t h e r e a r e indications that for some period of time following a nuclear t e s t the r a t e of naturally occurring cracks is reduced. This implies that the total number of

c r a c k s in a building a t some l a t e r time may be independent of the acceleration of cracking caused by the low velocities cited.

8.

Code Calculations Computer code development in support of the underground applications has

continued from C Y 1965, or was initiated during the year a s follows:

( I ) Studies of the mathematical simulation of in situ retorting of oil shale.
( 2 ) Development and testing of 2 -dimensional mathematical model of

fluid flow i n porous and fractured media.

( 3 ) Effects of heat transfer on fluid flow in a porous medium.

E------

-This

m.

EXCAVATION
A , General

Past r e p o r t s have described experiments necessary t o advance nuclear excavation

technology t o the stage where it can be used in l a r g e construction projects. program has been designed t o answer the following major technical questions: How does c r a t e r s i z e depend on geologic properties ? Can c r a t e r size, s e i s m i c effects, air blast, and radioactivity distribution of low yield experiments be extended to yields i n the megaton range ?
(3) How do n4clear charges in a row interact? Can projects for nuclear

excavation of channels through t e r r a i n varying in rock type and elevation be designed with confidence?

B.

Field Experiments

To answer these questions, a number of experiments a r e required with excavation

explosives of increasingly higher yields.
Two nuclear cratering experiments, Cabriolet

and Flivver, were designed at L R L and fielded in 1966, but they were not executed because of possible conflict with the limited t e s t ban treaty.
1. Cabriolet

Cabriolet is planned as a 2.5-kiloton event in a hard, dry rhyolite rock medium n e a r the anticipated optimum depth of burst. The objectives of Cabriolet a r e t o obtain

b a s i c information on cratering, including experimental data t o t e s t LRL ability t o make theoretical calculations of c r a t e r s in earth materials with which L R L has no p r i o r experience, and t o develop a more complete understanding of the venting process and
the distribution of radioactivity.

Seismic wave propagation an? a i r blast will also be

studied.

2.

Flivver1
Fliwer I is planned b y L R L a s the first in a series oI LDw-yield and relatively

inexpensive nuclear cratering experiments.

The main purpose of the Fliwer s e r i e s

is t o test new concepts in nuclear excavation techniques, which a r e impossible or undesirable t o perform with high explosives. The objective is t o find methods f o r

reducing the maximum salvo yield in channel excavation, examples of which may be "nibbling" (singly detonated rather than simultaneously detonated row charges) and

water vapor enhancement.

Specifically, 5'liwer I is t o be detonated in the Buckboard M e s a basalt at a scaled depth of b u r s t about equal t o that of Danny Boy (0.42 kiloton), which is the only nuclear c r a t e r produced t o &ate in basalt. The following a r e the specific objectives of Flivver I:

(1) To determine the reproducibility and the degree of scattering in

basalt cratering data.

(2) To test the radioactivity release concepts derived from Danny Boy

and Sulky.

(3) To establish the capability of existing computer codes t o predict

nuclear cratering phenomena in a well-characterized hard rock.
C.
1. Device Development

Research and Development

General safety considerations and, more critical currently, limitations imposed by the test ban treaty require that excavation experiments release minimal amounts of radioactivity into the atmosphere. During 1966, effort was expended on the development

of thermonuclear explosives with a minimum of fission and induced radioactivities. Several device tests related to this pvogram were conducted by L R L during 1966. Special emplacement techniques a r e also being studied a s a means of reducing the amount of radioactivity released by nuclear cratering detonations, and extensive coristruction and planning have occurred i n preparation for a n experiment planned for
1967.

. - .. _. ._ - ~-,-

..

-14-

2.

Cratering Calculations

LRL h a s developed a technique for c lculating t h mound nd cavity growth duri

nuclear and high explosive cratering events. The calculations feature a standard numerical approach t o high intensity stress-wave propagation, coupled with a unique model of m a t e r i a l behavior.
t

The properties of the earth materials are determined from

geophysical logging at the s i t e of the event and f r o m laboratory tests of c o r e samples. With t h i s information, the code calculates the boundary of ejected material, the c r a t e r radius, and the mass deposition. Figure 13 depicts the calculations made f o r the Danny

Boy experiment; agreement with the calculated radius and ejecta deposition is quite good.

A next s t e p in the calculation effort is t o determine the bulk volume of material

Stability of the cratered slope

that falls back into the c r a t e r t o obtain c r a t e r depth. w i l l also have to be considered.
3.

A i r Blast Calculations A i r blast f r o m nuclear cratering shots is being studied at L R L b y calculating

both the close-in ?ir shock and the long-range signal refracted in a layered atmosphere.
A code h a s been developed for the refracted signal and verified against observed data

f r o m the Scooter and Sedan events.

The calculated peak o v e r p r e s s u r e agreed within

A two-

10 percent of the measured values in the Scooter high-explosive cratering shot.

dimensional hydrodynamic computer code h a s also been used t o study close-in air blast.
4.

Cloud Diffusion Studies

A computer code has been developed a t L R L f o r predicting the long-term diffusion

L

over varying f e r r a i n of clouds generated by a nuclear explosion.

The code has also been

used t o investigate the influence of weather conditions and geography on the shape, a r e a , and concentration of radioactive material within the cloud. The study indicated that

a i r c r a f t sampling procedures will have t o be changed t o obtain the data necessary t o check any particular diffusion theory when applied to clouds a s l a r g e as those generated
b y underground nuclear explosions, and for duration of about two days.

-15-

I V . . SCIENTIFIC STUDIES
A.

Heavy Element P r o g r a m

Plowshare experiments in the heavy element program during the year were aimed a t learning more about the exact capture path for producing very heavy isotopes, the extent of fission losses in heavier targets, and improvements in design to increase the neutron flux. It has been concluded that neutron capture in protactinium is the most likely source of very heavy isotopes when uranium-238 is the initial target.
On experiments in which plutonium-242 and americium-243 were used a s target

materials, excessive fission losses in the neutron capture sequence prevented the formation of signifidant amounts of very heavy nuclides. In the LASL Cyclamen event,

attainable flux levels were increased by an improvement in device design. T h e r e is now some evidence that increased flux levels may not produce the desired heavy nuclei as easily a s expected, particularly in the A = 259 m a s s chain. Neutron exposure in the uranium-238 target from the Cyclamen event was sufficient t o have made detectable amounts of fermium-259 and/or mendelivium-259. However, none were detected within a wide range of half-life limits. Possible explanations a r e being studied Device

and new theoretical investigations into the half-life problem a r e being started. and should extend the expected heavy element yield well past the A = 259 point.

design changes a r e contemplated that should markedly increase the neutron exposure

FIGURE CAPTIONS Fig. 1. Natural Gas Reservoir Stimulation b y Nuclear Explosion. Nuclear explosions

can be used t o stimulate the production of natural g a s f r o m r e s e r v o i r rock of such low permeability that the gas cannot be produced economically f r o m a normal well. Nuclear explosions would be s e t off in the r e s e r v o i r rock t o

create l a r g e chimneys of broken and cracked rock from which the gas would flow more freely. Three such chimneys a r e showm on the left; on the right is

a closeup of a c r o s s section of one of the chimneys.

Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.

Estimated Natural Gag Reserves in U. S.

\

Recoverable by Nuclear Stimulation.

Actual and, Projected Gas Reservoir Capacity and Demand for Gas Storage in
U. S. from'1965 to 1975.

Fig. 4.

Storage of Natural Gas in Chimney Created by Nuclear Explosion. It has been established that nuclear explosives in an impermeable medium can produce underground chimneys ,useful f o r commercial storage of natural gas. The

chimney shown has a l a r g e volume f o r the purpose of storing natural gas under pressure.

FA&. 5.

In situ Retorting of Oil Shale in Chimney Created by Nuclear Explosion.

The

retorting of broken oil shale in a chimney created by a nuclear explosion is shown.

Oil would be recovered from the oil shale by retorting slowly in the

manner suggested in the upper left. operation is shown a t the lower left.

The surface-to-chimney-to-surface Twelve to eighteen months would be

r e q u i r e d t o r e t o r t completely the broken oil shale in the 100-kiloton nuclear

c

chimney shown. Fig. 6.

U. S. Oil Shale Reserves Showing Reserves Recoverable with Nuclear Explosives

in Piceance Basin, Colorado.

Fig. 7.

E. S. Copper Supply and in s i t u Copper in Leachable Reserves.

-17-

'

FIGURE CAPTIONS (continued)

I

Fig.

8.

In situ Leaching in Nuclear Explosion Area.

This is a proposed technique for

extracting copper from low-grade o r e by breaking up the o r e body with a nuclear explosion (in this case, 75 kilotons

- as shown on the

left) and passing With the o r e

a leaching solution through the broken o r e to remove the copper.

recovery operations c a r r i e d out at the surface (as shown on the right), no expense is involved in transporting huge quantities of low-grade o r e f o r treatment. Fig.
9. Hardhat Permeability Measurements.

Fig. 10. Schematic Section t h r o x h Handcar Chimney One Year after Explosion. Fig. 11. Handcar Apical Void and Top of Rubble Column. Fig. 12. Schematic eection of Subsidence Crater Development. Fig. 13. Calculations f o r Danny Boy Experiment. a r e a necessaryinput t o the code. The grid lines delineate zones that
1

The time history response of each of these The 0.42

zones to the subsequent detonation is determined from the code. kiloton explosive was placed at a dept of 33 meters.

At top, left, the device

h a s been detonated and the surrounding medium vaporized to a radius of 1.3 meters. The pressure in the cavity at this time is 1.6 megabars.

At 45

milliseconds (top, right!, the cavity has expanded t o about 1 1 meters, the cavity pressure has been reduced t o 35 bars, and the ground surface has experienced a compressional shock wave and is moving upward. A t 100 milli-

seconds (bottom left), the cavity has expanded to about 15 m e t e r s above the zero point and t h e cavity pressure is about 15 bars.
I

All the material above the

cavity at t h i s time is essentially in f r e e fall with an average velocity of 40 meters per second, and no additional momentum is realized from the low cavity pressures.
P

Shown at bottom right is the result of performing a free-fall Those zones

throwout calculation on the Danny Boy grid at 100 milliseconds.

which had sufficient velocity to r i s e above the original ground surface were removed from the grid and stacked on the surface. The ballistic trajectory of
The actual c r o s s section

the zone determined i t s final position on the surface,

of the Danny Boy c r a t e r is shown superimposed (bottom, right).

-19-

-22-

..

i_.

~-

--.-.... -23-

. . ... .. . .

-24 -

4.

I964 MEASUREMENTS A VERTICAL

HORIZONTAL 1965 MEASUREMENTS A VERTICAL

0

HORIZONTAL ( )HOLE NUMBERS

1
-

2 t
\ PRE-COLLAPSE C A V I T Y BOUNDARY

- 1
IO+

iZ
I

I
(FT)

AV. R A D I A L DISTANCE FROM SHOT POINT

Fig. 9.

N70E

FRIABLE DOLO
I

Fig. 10.

. 1

..

--

-29-

Subsidence Cmter

Ground surface

li
C a v i t y rodius

Fig. 12.

-30-

DISTRIBUTION L R L Internal D i s t r i b u t i o n
M i c h a e l M. May
C . Frankhauser

W. C l e m e n t s

R. B a t z e l
G. Dorough

P. Stevenson
B. Rubin
J. G o f m a n

J. C a r o t h e r s

C. McDonald
R. H e r b s t
G. W e r t h

J. A l l e n

J. Kahn
G. Higgins

A. H o l z e r
M. Nordyke

J. Toman
J. Knox

H. Tewes
T I D File

f
DISTRIBUTION (continued)

Ext e rndl Distribution W. Slazak Nuclear Cratering Group Livermore, California

John Kelly Division of Peaceful Nuclear Explosives (DPNE) Washington, D. C. John Phillip San Francisco Operations Office Berkeley, California

wf f e d s