Lecture 4 Rock Mass Properties

Brittle and Ductile Behavior of Rock Mass Brittle Failure Behavior

Resistance to load decreases with increases in deformation

Ductile Failure Behavior

Resistance to load sustain with increases in deformation

Little or no permanent deformation before failure Sudden, catastrophic Rock burst in deep hard rock mines Most rock in civil and mining behaves as brittle under the usual confining pressure and temperature Ductility increases with increase in confining pressure and temperature Can occur in weathered rock and heavily jointed rock masses 3

4 Stages of Progressive Fracture Development in Uniaxial Compression Test on Rock

Definition of Failure

Corresponding to any definition of the Youngs Modulus, Poissons Ratio can be calculated as:

v = a + 2 r

a ) a = ( a) r (

Secant Youngs Modulus: slope of a straight line joining the origin and the peak

Tangent Youngs Modulus: slope of the axial stress-strain curve at say 50% of the peak strength Average Youngs Modulus: average slope of the more or less straight line portion of the curve

End Effects of Testing Machine and Influence of Height to Diameter Ratio in Uniaxial Compression Test on Rock

Ideal Condition: Uniform boundary condition Uniform uniaxial stress Uniform displacement

Less Ideal Condition: Prevented from deforming uniformly due to friction between platen and rock specimen

Due to the restraint, shear stresses are developed and axial stress is not principal stress anymore. To minimize this effect, a H/D ratio of at least 2 is used in practice.

Brown and Gonano (1974)

Apparent increase in strength and change of behavior when H/D is decreased from normal 2.0 to 0.25

Brush Platens (assembly of 3.2 mm square hightensile steel pins)

Solid Steel Platens

Influence of Testing Machine Stiffness in Uniaxial Compression Test on Rock :To study the post peak behavior

When the peak strength has been reached in a strainsoftening material, the specimen continues to compress, but the load that it can carry progressively reduces. After that, the machine unloads and its extension reduces.

If the machine stiffness is less than the rock, catastrophic failure occurs because the energy released by the machine (ADEF) is greater than that can be absorbed by the specimen (ADEB)

If the machine stiffness is more than the rock, post-peak behavior can be followed, because the energy released by the machine can be used to deform the specimen along path ABC.

For brittle rock, use of servo-controlled testing machine is needed. Force, pressure, displacement and strain components are pre-set and pre-programmed so that they are varied monotonically increasing with time. The programmed values are compared several thousands of times a second and a servo valves adjust the pressure within the actuator to produce the desired equivalence.

Post peak behavior obtained in limestone by using servo-controlled testing machine

Using the servo-controlled testing machine, Wawersik and Fairhurst (1970) halted the tests on specimens of the same rock at different points on the post-peak curve, and then perform thin sectioning and observe the crack development.

Conclude: Class I stable fracture propagation, local tensile fracture predominantly parallel to the applied stress Class II unstable fracture propagation, local and macroscopic shear fracture

10

Influence of Confining Stresses in Triaxial Compression Test on Rock

With increasing confining stresses: The peak strength increases Transition from brittle to ductile failure Post peak region flatten and widen Residual strength reduces and disappear at very high confining stresses

11

Hoek and Brown (1980a, 1980b) proposed a method for obtaining estimates of the strength of jointed rock masses, based upon an assessment of the interlocking of rock blocks the condition of the surfaces between these blocks.
Further development of failure criteria (Hoek 1983, Hoek and Brown 1988) For very poor quality rock masses (Hoek, Wood and Shah 1992) For a new classification called the Geological Strength Index (Hoek, Kaiser and Bawden 1995, Hoek 1995, Hoek and Brown 1997). Summary of development is given in Hoek and Brown (1997).

12

Generalised Hoek-Brown criterion for jointed rock masses

Empirical Basis Curve Fitting maximum and minimum effective stresses at failure Hoek-Brown constant m for the rock mass s and a are constants which depend upon the rock mass characteristics uniaxial compressive strength of the intact rock pieces Three properties of the rock mass have to be estimated. These are: 1. the uniaxial compressive strength ci of the intact rock pieces, 2. the value of the Hoek-Brown constant mb for the rock mass 3. the value s and a being a function of the Geological Strength Index GSI for the rock mass.
13

Original 1988 Generalised Hoek-Brown criterion for jointed rock masses

= + m c + s
' 1 ' 3 ' 3

2 c

Empirical Basis Curve Fitting

m = mi e

( RMR 100 ) 14

s=e

( RMR 100 ) 6

14

3=0

15

16

Brittle-Ductile Transition Mogi (1966)

1 > 3.4 3 Ductile Behavior 1 < 3.4 3 Brittle Behavior

Equation Applicable to Brittle Behavior Only

17

Relative size of the opening to the jointing system Transition from isotropic intact rock specimen to highly anisotropic rock mass (controlled by joints) to isotropic heavily jointed rock mass 18

Hoek-Brown failure criterion - assumes isotropic rock and rock mass behaviour When the structure being analysed is large and the block size small in comparison, the rock mass can be treated as a Hoek-Brown material. Where the block size is of the same order as that of the structure being analysed or when one of the discontinuity sets is significantly weaker than the others, the Hoek-Brown criterion should not be used. In these cases, the stability of the structure should be analysed by considering failure mechanisms involving the sliding or rotation of blocks and wedges defined by intersecting structural features.

19

Geological strength Index (GSI), Hoek, Kaiser and Bawden (1995)

The strength of a jointed rock mass depends on the properties of the intact rock pieces and also upon the freedom of these pieces to slide and rotate under different stress conditions. This freedom is controlled by the geometrical shape of the intact rock pieces as well as the condition of the surfaces separating the pieces. GSI provides a system for estimating the reduction in rock mass strength for different geological conditions.

20

21

From GSI and mi, calculate the rock mass strength as follows:
GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION 2002

For GSI > 25, i.e. rock masses of good to reasonable quality, the parameter in the original Hoek-Brown criterion can be estimated from:

GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION 2002, Smooth Continuous Transition

For GSI < 25, i.e. rock masses of very poor quality, the parameter in the original Hoek-Brown criterion can be estimated from: GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION 2002
D: factor depends upon the degree of disturbance subjected by blast damage and stress relaxation Varies from 0 for undisturbed in situ rock masses to 1 for very disturbed rock masses Based on back analysis of strength and deformation properties of damaged rock mass

22

GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION 2002

23

GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION 2002

24

Deformation modulus Serafim and Pereira (1983) proposed a relationship between the in situ modulus of deformation and Bieniawskis RMR classification. Based upon back analysis of dam foundation deformations and it has been found to work well for better quality rocks. Based upon practical observations and back analysis of excavation behaviour in poor quality rock masses, the following modification to Serafim and Pereiras equation is proposed for ci < 100
GENERALIZED HOEK-BROWN CRITERION 2002

The deformation of better quality rock masses is controlled by the discontinuities while, for poorer quality rock masses, the deformation of the intact rock pieces contributes to the overall deformation process.
25

Useful guideline for deformation modulus estimation

26

Useful guideline for deformation modulus estimation

Serafim and Pereira (1983)

Bieniawski (1978)

Grimstad and Barton (1993)

Hoek, Kaiser and Bawden (1995)

27

Empirical estimation of rock mass modulus

E. Hoek and M.S. Diederichs International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 43 (2006) 203215

28

Empirical estimation of rock mass modulus

E. Hoek and M.S. Diederichs International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 43 (2006) 203215

Equation (2) can be used where only GSI (or RMR or Q) data are available

Equation (4) can be used where reliable estimates of the intact rock modulus or intact rock strength are available

29

30

31

32

33

Mogis Line defines the ratio of major and minor effective principal stresses at which there is a transition from brittle to ductile failure. This line is simply defined by sig1/sig3 = 3.4 If the principal stress failure envelope lies ABOVE Mogis line, this indicates a brittle failure mode. If the principal stress failure envelope lies BELOW Mogis line, this indicates a ductile failure mode.

34

35

36

Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus and strength of jointed hard rock masses using the GSI system Linkage between descriptive geological terms and measurable field parameters such as joint spacing and joint roughness

Estimation of mean rock mass deformation modulus

37

38 data Based on calibration of published and back analysis of two caverns

Ignoring the effect of intersection angle between joint sets

A Joint Persistent Factor (pi) is proposed to quantify the degree of interlocking

li pi = L 1

li < L li L

si li L

Average joint spacing Accumulated joint length of set i Characteristic length of the rock mass

39

si si = 3 p i
'

Equivalent Spacing for discontinuous joint

Vb =

s1s2 s3 p1 p2 p3 sin 1 sin 2 sin 3

Equivalent Block Volume considering short joints are insignificant to underground excavation

A Joint Condition Factor is used to quantify the joint surface condition

JwJs Jc = JA

Jw = large scale waviness Js = small scale smoothness JA = joint alternation factor

40

41

42

43

Scale Effects in Rock Masses

44

Rock masses are basically inhomogeneous and discontinuous media The variation of the test results with the specimen size is called Scale Effect

Results become independent of specimen size (Representative Elementary Volume)

Increases in sample size affecting results

Cunha, A. P. 1990. Scale effects in rock mechanics

45

Experimental results normalized to 50 mm diameter specimen

Scale Effects on Intact Rock

46

cm

47

Scale Effects on Rock Joints

100 mm 1000 mm

JRCo and Lo (length) refer to 100 mm laboratory scale samples JRCn and Ln refer to in situ block sizes. Displacement needed to reach the peak shear strength is scaled as:

L JRCn p = n 500 Ln

0.33

48

Brittle Behavior Decrease in Peak Shear Strength with increase in sample size

Ductile Behavior

Bandis (1980)

49

i is scale dependent

Application of the compass with base plate method by Richards and Cowland (1982)

i decreases with increases in sampling length

50

Scale Effects on Rock Masses

s=1 for intact rock s=0 as joint intensity increases m and s decrease as joint intensity increases, and block size decreases, and thus a lower strength; indirect way of predicting strength decrease due to scale effects

51

Scale Effect Investigation with the help of In-situ Stress Measurements

600 mm over-core produced stress results close to the overall mean

52

Rock Failure Process Analysis

Modeling and Monitoring
Presented by

Chunan TANG

CRISR

Center for Rock Instability and Seismicity Research, Dalian University University of Technology

In recent years numerical methods have been continued to expand and diversify into the major fields of scientific and engineering studies. They provide a viable alternative to physical models that can be expensive, time consuming, and sometimes, extremely difficult to carry out.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Numerical tools can give an approximate behaviour, in which the boundary and size effects can be taken into account quite realistically.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Progressive failure of rock

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Principle of RFPA
RFPA (Realistic Failure Process Analysis) is a FEM code that can simulate the failure process of brittle materials. The inhomogeneity considered; of brittle material is

The stress analysis is achieved with finite element program; An meso scale elastic damage-based constitutive law is proposed for elements.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

In RFPA, the macroscopic material behaviour is analyzed at the meso-level, in which the information from the meso-scale of the material is incorporated into the numerical model. Input data for the analysis include the strength and stiffness of the constituents of the material. Such properties must be determined from other lower level properties of material.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Description of the Heterogeneity of Material Properties of Rock

The rock is composed of many elements with same size, and mechanical parameters (such as strength) of elements is assigned according to Weibull distribution:
m f (u ) = u0 u u 0
m 1

u exp u 0

0 :

P( )
0.01 0.008 0.006 0.004 0.002 0 0 100

the mean of strength

m: a shape parameter With increase of m, the distribution becomes more concentrated.

m=1 m=1.1 m=1.5 m=2 m=3 m=4 m=5

200 300 400 500

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Numerical specimens with elements distributed according to Weibull distribution

m degree = 1.5 m = 5.0 m =the 10.0 relative The grey in the specimen indicates magnitude of strength of elements.

The numerical specimens become more homogeneous with the increase of Weibull parameter m.
CRISR, Dalian University of Technology RFPA

Elastic damage-based constitutive law of elements

fc0

Mohr-Coulomb criterion is met. Maximum tensile strain criterion is met.

tu t0
fcr - ftr - ft0

c0

Constitutive law of element (compressive stress is positive)

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

RFPA modeling procedure

1. First step of the calculation involves the calculation of the stresses acting on the elements. Under a quasi-statically increasing external displacement or force the stress or strain of the elements are given by the solution of the FEM for mechanical equilibrium at each FEM node. 2. Determining the mechanical property change of the damaged elements according to the constitutive laws and strength criterion described above. If the stress of an element attains its prescribed breakdown strength, the element fails irreversibly, and its elastic constant is changed according to its post-failure law. 3. Additional relaxation steps, in which the new equilibrium state are calculated; these steps may lead to the failure of additional elements. 4. Iterating the procedure leads to fracture propagation.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Experimental and numerical modeling of mining induced strata failure and movement.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Experimental and numerical modeling of mining induced strata failure and movement.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

a) 56% peak load load

b) 65% peak load

c) 92% peak load

d) 98% peak load

e) 100% peak

Post Peak Behaviour f) 96% peak load g) 92% peak load h) 78% peak load I) 75% peak load j) 37% peak load

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

56% peak stress

65% peak stress

92% peak stress

98% peak stress

100% peak stress

96% peak stress

92% peak stress

78% peak stress

75% peak stress

37% peak stress

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

30

AE Rate (counts)

25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40

c a b

d de f gh i j

60

80

100

120

140

Loading Rate (0.002 mm / ste p)

400

300 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40

f d
60

2500

i h j
80 100 120 140

2000 1500

a b

c .

1000 500 0

Loading Rate (0.002 mm / step)

0.0045 0.004 0.0035 0.003 0.0025 0.002 0.0015 0.001 0.0005 0 0 20 0.035

(counts)

3000

AE Accumulation

AE Rate (counts)

350

4000 3500

g e f c . d
60

0.02

0.015 0.01 0.005 0

a b
40

80

100

120

140

Loading Step

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

AE Energy

0.025

Accumulation (J)

0.03

AE Energy (J)

Effect of constraint
c t
Clamping action

Tensile plane Of failure

Idealized deformation, specimen-platen interaction, stress states in the specimen, and failure modes within the specimen: (a) the ratio of platen modulus to specimen modulus Ep/Es>1 (stiff); and (2) the ratio of platen modulus to specimen modulus Ep/Es<1 (soft)

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of end constraint

Ep/Es=0

Ep/Es=0.1

Ep/Es=1

Ep/Es=2

Ep/Es=10

Numerically obtained results for specimens with different loading platens in terms of Youngs modulus.

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of end constraint

30 Stress (MPa) 25
Ep/Es=10

20 15 10 5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Strain (0.0001)

Ep/Es=2 Ep/Es=1 Ep/Es=0.1 Ep/Es=0

Simulated stress-strain curves for specimens with different loading platens in terms of Youngs modulus

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of Slenderness

H/W=3

H/W=2

H/W=1

H/W=0.5

Numerically obtained results for specimens with different ratio of height to width

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of Slenderness
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Strain (0.0001)

Stress (MPa)

H/W=3 H/W=1.5 H/W=1 H/W=0.67 H/W=0.5

Simulated stress-strain curves for specimens with different shape in terms of the ratio of height to width

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of Slenderness
35 Strength (MPa) 33 31 29 27 25 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 Ratio of height to width

Simulated strength reduction with specimen size for specimens with different size in terms of the specimen height or width

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of specimen size

LW=3020 mm2

LW=10067 mm2

LW=12080 mm2

LW=150100 mm2

LW=190127 mm2

Numerical simulation on size effect for five specimens with different size but with the same ratio of height to width: failure modes

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Effect of specimen size

37 35 Strength (M Pa) 33 31 29 27 25 23 0 10000 20000 )
2

30000

Specimen size (mm

Simulated strength reduction with specimen size for specimens with different size

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Brazilian Tests

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Brazilian Tests

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Confinement and shear

3=0
70

3=12
Failure envelope

3=24

0
60

2 4 8

50

40

16

1/MPa

30

20

10

0 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3

1/%

Stress-strain curves of specimens

Simulated failure envelope of model specimens

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of heterogeneity on failure mode

Wing-crack propagation

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of heterogeneity on failure mode

m=1.5

m=3

m=5

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of heterogeneity on failure strength

80

300
70

250 200 150 100 50 0

S tres s (M P a )

m=1.5 m=3 m=6

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 Strain (0.0001)

m =1.1 m =1.5 m =2 m =3 m =5

Influence of material heterogeneity on the stress-strain curves for specimens with different homogeneity indices

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of heterogeneity on failure event pattern

M=5

M=2

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Precursory micro-fractures prior to main failure

m=1.5

m=2

m=3

m=5

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of anisotropic feature on failure mode

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of anisotropic feature on failure mode

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of anisotropic feature on failure mode

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA

Influence of anisotropic feature on failure mode

CRISR, Dalian University of Technology

RFPA