Version 2

STANDARDS/MANUALS/
GUIDELINES FOR
SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT





Civil Works
Structural Design






















Sponsor:

Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
Govt. of India


Lead Organization:

Alternate Hydro Energy Center
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee

May 2011
AHEC/MNRE/SHPStandards/Civil Works for SHP Projects: Guidelines for Structural Design

CONTENTS

ITEMS PAGE NO

CHAPTER-I CIVIL WORKS FOR SHP PROJECTS: GUIDELINES
FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN
1
1 General 1
2 Structures for River-off Type Small Hydro Projects 1
3. Structures for Canal Type Small Hydro Projects 1
4. Basic Data for Structural Design 1
5. References: Appendix I 1

CHAPTER-II DESIGN DETAILS FOR STRUCTURES FOR RIVER
OFF TYPE SHP PROJECTS

3
1. Intake Structures 3
2. Feeder Channel and Power Channel 8
3. Desilting Tank (Settling Basin) 12
4. Forebay Tank 12
5. Penstocks and Their Supports 18
6. Powerhouse Building 23
7. Machine Foundation 27
8. Tailrace Channel 27

CHAPTER-III DESIGN DETAILS FOR STRUCTURES FOR CANAL
TYPE SHP PROJECTS
30
1. Canal Walls 30
2. Powerhouse Building 34
3. Bridge 35

REFERENCES 38
APPENDIX-I 40



1
CHAPTER-I

CIVIL WORKS FOR SHP PROJECTS:
GUIDELINES FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN


INTRODUCTION

1. General

The SHP projects can be of run-off-river type or Canal type. The structures to be
designed will depend upon the type of project. Typical Layout of River- off project
giving necessary structures is shown in fig. 1 and for Canal type project is given in
fig. 2. The structures to be designed will be using either R.C.C. / PCC or steel. The
relevant standards with the latest versions are to be used. Limit state design
philosophy will be used in general, unless otherwise specified. For water retaining
structures No crack basis of Design will be used. Earthquake resistant design for
earthquake prone areas is necessary.

2. Structures for River-off type Small Hydro Projects

(a) Intake Structures.
(b) Feeder and Power Channels.
(c) Cross Drainage works.
(d) Settling Basin - Desilting Tank.
(e) Forebay Tank
(f) Penstock Supports.
(g) Power Housing Building.
(h) Machine Foundations.
(i) Tail Race Channel.

3. Structures for Canal type Small Hydro Projects

(a) Canal
(b) Power House.
(c) Bridge, if any

4. Basic Data for Structural Design

(a) Soil Properties: Angle of Repose (), Coefficient of Friction (), Bearing Capacity,
Density, Details of Soil Strata at various depths. Ground water level
(b) Earthquake related Data: Importance factor, Zone of earthquake.
(c) M 20 Concrete and Fe 415 reinforcement will be used in general for R.C.C. work,
unless otherwise specified, and 1:3:6 Mix will be used for P.C.C.

5. References: Appendix I

(a) Codes
(b) Books

2
6. The detailed design requirements/ details for each structure depending upon type of
Small Hydro Project are given in subsequent chapters.



Fig 1:




Fig 2:
S
CHAPTER II

DESIGN DETAILS FOR STRUCTURES FOR RIVER OFF TYPE SHP PROJECTS

1. INTAKE STRUCTURES: The Intake Structures comprise of following elements:
(see fig. 3)

(a) Trench Weir
(b) Cut off Walls.
(c) Intake Chamber
(d) Abutments.

Trench Weir

This structure is built across the river bed and therefore runs a risk of heavy boulder
striking during floods, even though full pitching is done on both sides up to the top of weir. It
is a normal practice to provide thicker walls. The design is nominal with nominal skin
reinforcement as per IS:3370 Cl. 7.1. A typical section is shown in Fig. 3.

Cut off Walls

In all three cut off walls are to be provided, first on upstream side of Trench weir and
two on downstream side. All these walls are fully buried in the ground and therefore soil
pressure from the either side would almost neutralize. Nominal sections and nominal
reinforcement are therefore provided. Typical details of a cut off wall are given in Fig. 3.

Intake Chamber

A key plan of the intake chamber along with one typical section is shown in fig 4.The
four vertical walls and top and bottom slabs are monolithic. The roof slab has a manhole
opening. The walls and slabs are designed as per available dimensions and boundary
conditions for water pressure / soil pressure for worst conditions on no crack basis. In this
chamber wall A has a large opening almost extending to full width of the chamber where
trench weir joins the chamber. Similarly wall B has an opening for the outlet to feeder
channel. This opening is extending to about little less than half the width of wall B. These
large openings would change the behavior of these walls in particular and hence should be
accounted for in the analysis.

The moments in individual walls are obtained using coefficients from Reynolds
handbook (27). A typical calculation of design moments in wall C is given below:

Wall C: dimensions 2.9 m x 5.85 m
Height of standing water = 4.95m

1
x
= 2.9 m, 1
z
= 5.85 m

giving k =
1
x
1
z
= u.S
max. moment in the wall using Coeff. from Reynolds handbook.
4
Fig: 3

S


Fig 4: Details of Intake Chamber
6
Vertical direction
-ve moment at base = 0.012 x 49.5 x 5.85
2
= 20.3 kN m/ m
-ve moment at top = 0.004 x 49.5 x 5.85
2
= 6.8 kN m/m
+ve moment near centre = 0.004 x 49.5 x 5.85
2
= 6.8 kN m/m

Horizontal direction
-ve moment at edges = 0.05 x 49.5 x 2.9
2
= 29.8 kN m/m
+ve moment at midspan = 0.024 x 49.5 x 2.9
2
= 10.3 kN m/m

Tension in walls A&C = 24 wa
2
= 58.8 kN/m

Abutments

The stability of Abutment has to be checked for both conditions i.e. minimum water
from inside and full earth pressure from out side, as well as maximum water from inside and
earth pressure from outside. Normally Masonry Abutments are provided but if needed R. C.
C. abutments may be provided.

A typical Design calculation with Stability Analysis is given below.

For complete stability Design of Water Retaining Structures including dynamic
effects see Appendix I.

Design of Abutment

Considering 1 m length of the abutment, whose section is shown in fig. 5(a).

(i) Dry earth on outer side and no water on the other side (fig. 5(b)).
(ii) Maximum water pressure from inside and full earth pressure on outside. This is
approximately equal to 50% water pressure from inside with no earth on the outer
side. (Fig. 5(c)).

Case I The forces acting are as shown
density of masonry = 21 kN / m
3

density of soil = 16.85 kN/m
3

Total vertical weigh, W = W
1
+ W
2
+ W
3


= 83.8 + 237.4 + 190.4
= 511.6 kN

Total overturning moment = 205.8 kN m
Restoring moment about B
= (83.8 x 0.3 + 23.74 x 1.733 + 190.4 x 2.87
= 983 kN m
F.O.S. against overturning =
983
205.8
= 4.78

F.O.S. against sliding =
0.45 x 205.8
(100.6-18.5)
= 2.8u
eccentricity where resultant strike the base

7
=
(983-205.8)
511.6
= u.48 m <
b
6
0K

Soil Pressure

=
511.6
4
= ]1 _
6x0.48
4

= 220 and 36.0 kN / m
2


Case II The force acting are as shown

Restoring moment = 848 kN m
Overturning moment = 165.0 kN m

F.O.S. against over turning = 5.14
F.O.S. against sliding = =
0.45 x 321.2
77.5
= 1.86
Distance where resultant strike the base

e = 2 -
(848-165)
321.2

= - 0.086 m <
b
6

There is no uplift under the base.

Fig 5: Stability Analysis of Abutment
8

2. FEEDER CHANNEL AND POWER CHANNEL

(a) Feeder Channel: Feeder channel, if provided below ground level will be
designed as a box section having side walls, base slab and top slab, monolithic.
The side earth pressures, top vertical burden and uplift from below, as well as
water pressure from inside will be considered along with self weights and various
load combinations will be considered to consider worst effects. Typical section for
feeder channel and design form is given in fig. 6.

(b) Power Channel: Power channel is usually of trapezoidal shape with or without
top cover slab. The earth pressure from outside and water pressure from inside
will be considered with worst combinations. Fig 7 shows typical section through
power channel. (uncovered section) and fig 8 shows typical section through power
channel (covered section). If a covered section is to be provided, the top cover
slab will be sloping and in that case the section may be designed as equivalent
rectangular box section.

(c) Cross Drainage Works: Super Passages and Aqueducts have to be designed
during the length of the power channel. For design of Super passage, a rolling
load of boulder has to be considered and top slab will be separate and resting on
existing power channel with dowels to avoid slipping. For design of Aqueduct, the
level of top of abutment should be higher than water level and top of aqueduct
should be designed for pedestrian traffic. The aqueduct is analyzed for both
transverse and longitudinal bending and designed on no crack basis. The
longitudinal analysis may be done by simple beam theory, limiting the maximum
tensile stress to permissible bending stress. The transverse analysis may be done
by moment distribution method and accordingly thickness and reinforcement are
provided. Edge beams are to be provided at supports. The abutments and wing
walls are to be provided at supports.

Typical details of Super passage & Aqueduct are given in fig 9. Fig 10 shows
equivalent section to be adopted for simple beam analysis.

9




1u
Fig 9:

11


Fig 10: Section of Aqueduct
12
3. DESILTING TANK (SETTLING BASIN)

General Arrangement

Desilting tank acts as a settling basin to remove the silt from the water entering the
power channel. It is a R.C.C. rectangular basin open at top and is rectangular in shape with
transitions both at the entrance and exit points. Water from feeder channel enters the tank
through a transition. The splinter walls are provided (see fig. 11) to regulate the flow of water
through the transition floor. Desilting tank is divided in to suitable no. of sections. Each
sections is made in the form of a hopper (figs. 12 & 13). Arrangement is made to flush out
the silt from the bottom of the hopper base through a pipe. This arrangement is operated from
outside the tank.

Design Philosophy

Desilting tank, being a water retaining structure will be designed on no crack basis.
The walls are designed for worst combinations of earth as well as water pressure, while base
slab should also consider uplift.

4. FOREBAY TANK

General Arrangement

Forebay Tank is a water retaining structure normally with two portions, one shallow
and other deeper portion. The water from Desilting Tank enters the shallow portion and goes
to Penstocks from deeper portion. The tank may be constructed above or below ground level
and sometimes partly above ground level (fig 14).

Design Philosophy

It is designed as water retaining structure. Each wall is designed for bending in both
horizontal as well as vertical direction depending upon aspect ratio and support conditions.
Stability of the walls is checked as retaining walls with relevant forces. An expansion joint is
provided for connecting these walls to base slab for which nominal thickness and
reinforcements are provided. The walls are designed for both conditions viz. Tank full with
earth pressure from outside and Tank empty with full earth pressure from outside. While
considering earth pressures both static as well as Dynamic parts are to be considered for
underground tanks. Forces to be considered on various walls are given in figs. 15 & 16.




1S


Fig 11: Typical Details of Desilting Tank





14









Fig 12: Desilting Tank General Arrangement
1S


Fig 13: Details of floor of Desilting Tank
16

Fig 14: General Arrangement of Forebay Tank

17



Fig 15: Forces on Wall A
18


Fig 16: Forces on Wall C.D (Tank Full)

5. PENSTOCKS AND THEIR SUPPORTS

General Arrangement

The Penstocks carry water to Power House Building. The Diameter and thickness of
Penstocks are designed from the considerations of Head of water including water hammer
and weight of water , as well as spacing of Saddle supports. Normally Mild Steel Penstocks
are used. The Penstocks are supported above ground surface on concrete blocks called
Anchors/ Saddle supports. The anchors are provided at all horizontal and vertical bends along
the alignment of the penstock. Saddle supports are provided along the straight length at
regular intervals which will affect the thickness of penstock.

Design Philosophy

The forces acting on the anchor are computed as per IS; 5330 code and combinations
of forces are considered for both expanding and contracting conditions for both Penstock full
and Penstock empty conditions. The design of the anchor is done for over turning, sliding as
well as maximum and minimum base pressures. The design of Saddle supports is also done to
satisfy stability requirements of Overturning, sliding and maximum and minimum base
pressures.

Figs. 17, 18, 19 and 20 give typical details of penstocks, (Plan & longitudinal
section), anchor blocks and saddle supports respectively.
19







Fig 17: Typical Plan Showing Penstock & Anchor Blocks




2u



Fig 18: Typical Longitudinal Section of Penstock
21



Fig 19: Typical Details of Anchor Block
22


Fig 20: Typical Details of Saddle Supports
2S

6. POWER HOUSE BUILDING

General Arrangement

The Power House Building is normally a Reinforced Concrete Framed Structure, with
the columns having isolated or combined footings. The Power House Building houses the
Turbines and Generators. Roofing is normally of corrugated sheets supported on sloping
beams of the frame/ Roof Trusses. Service bay and Control Room portions may have R.C. C.
Slab. Masonry walls/ Concrete Block walls are provided as filler walls to provide the
enclosure. Walls are normally non load bearing elements. An Over head Travelling Crane is
provided in the machine and service bay area, which moves on R.C. Gantry Girders
supported on brackets attached to the columns.

Design Philosophy

The R.C. Frame of the Power House Building is analyzed using Stiffness approach for
various loads and load combinations. Design of individual members is done using Limit State
Design method. Design of C.G.I. sheets and steel Purlins is also done using relevant I.S.
Standards. The gantry girder is designed for moving loads as supplied by crane manufacturer
for vertical as well as transverse direction. The loads should take impact factor in to account.
These loads are transferred on the columns through brackets. The Frame is then analyzed
using the software for various loads and their combinations. The wind effect is also
transferred from Roof and walls. The earthquake effects are also considered in earthquake
prone areas. The members are then designed including Columns and foundations. If part of
the Power House Building is below ground level, the walls are designed as R.C. Retaining
walls.

The floor slabs have a large no. of openings and block outs. It is recommended to
prepare a plan of the slab from E&M point of view to ascertain exact location of concentrate
loads as well as openings. All openings should be suitably reinforce as per relevant IS codes.

Figs. 21, 22 and 23 give typical details of Power House Building.
24




Fig 21: Typical Details of Power House Building Plan of Ground Floor Level- Remove Column names

2S

Fig 22: Section Showing Details of RC Frame

26

Fig 23: Typical Details of Power House Building
27
7. MACHINE FOUNDATIONS

General

Depending upon the type of Turbine, Rated capacity, Operating Speed, Runaway
Speed and using the available data of loads from Turbine, Generator and the soil properties,
the type of Machine foundation is decided. For a Block type foundation under a rotating type
machine, the prime consideration of the foundation design is that Resonance has to be
avoided. This requires that the natural frequency of the foundation should be 20% away from
the generating frequency of the machine. Still further, if one of the natural frequency of the
foundation is lower than the operating frequency, then during start up or shut down of the
machine, the same would be crossed. A proper check has to be made for the buildup of
Amplitudes during the small fraction of time when natural frequency is crossed.

Design Philosophy

The dimensions of the block foundation are chosen and the computations for the
natural frequency and the amplitude are done. The soil pressures are then checked. To
achieve economy, sometimes hollow portions inside the block are filled by boulders.

Figs. 24 and 25 give typical details of machine foundation and tail race channel.

8. TAIL RACE CHANNEL

General

The tail race Channel may consist of some covered portions and some open portions
to finally discharge the water on the downstream of the river.

Design Philosophy

The tail race channel in the covered portion is designed as box section subjected to
various forces. The loads to be considered include U.D.L. from top, wt. of walls and top and
bottom slabs, U.D.L. and triangular earth pressure from outside, water pressure from inside
including wt. of water. Both conditions, channel empty as well as channel full with worst
combination of loads should be considered. The open sections are designed for maximum
earth pressure from outside and the same thickness and reinforcement is usually provided on
both faces of walls and base.







28


Fig 24: Plan of Machine Foundation
29



Fig 25: Typical Sections of Machine Foundation

Su
CHAPTER III

DESIGN DETAILS FOR STRUCTURES FOR CANAL TYPE SHP PROJECTS


1. CANAL WALLS

General

Canal walls may be of following types:
1. Stand alone T shaped.
2. Counter fort type.
3. Trough section.
4. Flared walls.

Load Conditions

1. Canal Empty Outside earth dry/ submerged.
2. Canal Full Outside earth dry (always present)/ submerged.

Earth pressures should be active with surcharge (if any). Passive earth pressures are to
be used where warranted. Account should be taken for submerged earth where necessary.
Dynamic earth pressures should be considered where necessary as per IS: 1893 Cl. 8.2. Water
pressure should include free board to accommodate worst condition during floods. Uplift
pressure will be considered if water level exists below base of wall. Secondary effects Viz.
Temperature, shrinkage, creep will be taken care by minimum reinforcement clause of
relevant IS code.

The expressions to be used for earth pressures in various conditions are given below.

Loads:

Earth Pressure (Dry Earth)

P = C
P
wh
Where C
P
=
1-sn
1+sn
= Angle of repose
w = density of earth
with surcharge angle of

C
P
= Coso
Cos6-Cos
2
6-Cos
2

Cos6+Cos
2
6+Cos
2

Pressure due to uniform surcharge where applicable
Passive earth pressure to be used where warranted

Dynamic Earth Pressure IS 1893 Cl. 8.1


Earth Pressure (Submerged Earth)
S1

Ref. JK & OPJ Vol I.
P = w
1
h + (w-w
1
)
1-sn
1+sn
b
w
1
= wt. of water/ m
3

= value of (Submerged)

C
p
=
1-sn
1+sn
,

=
2
3


See figure below-

Dynamic effect IS 1893 Cl 8.2



FIG. 26

Water Pressure

P = w
1
h w
1
= density of water

Note Include free board in h to accommodate worst condition during floods.

Self Weight

Concrete (reinforced) = 25 kN/m
3

Concrete (PCC) = 24 kN/m
3

Water = 10 kN/m
3


Compacted earth as per soil report or 18 kN/m
3
(assumed)
Earthquake effect on self wt. IS 1893

Design Philosophy

Stand alone T- shaped Check for stability
Sliding - = 0.5, minimum FOS = 1.2, provide shear key if necessary.
S2
Overturning- Minimum FOS = 1.5, Resultant within middle third- no uplift,
Maximum base pressure Allowable (soil report ), for seismic load combination allow
increase by 33.3 %, Structural design of vertical slab, heel and toe for moment and shear.

Counter fort type check for stability, structural design for vertical slab, heel, toe,
front counter fort, back counter fort.

Trough Section Base Slab continuous

Monolithic construction of slab and side walls, Filters to release uplift effect (50 %
only), Base slab design for moment + l force.

Trough Section- Base Slab Discontinuous

Walls treated as stand alone, Central portion of base treated separately, Provide wall
projection out side for economy.

Flared Walls

Wall slope from vertical to 1H: 1V- Design as stand alone, walls will be constructed
in lifts of app. 1-2m, before constructing the next lift, compacted back fill will be placed
behind the portion constructed.

Wall slope from 1 H: 1 V to 1.5 H: 1 V- Walls will be constructed with compacted
back fill used as form work.

In each of above two cases (from vertical to 1.5 H: 1 V) the wall will be designed for
all forces including earth pressure and self weight.

Wall slope from 1.5 H: 1 V or flatter than this- Wall assumed to rest on earth, provide
minimum thickness (500 mm) and minimum nominal reinforcement.

Typical design details from M 20 concrete and Fe 415 reinforcement are given below:

Materials used

Reinforced concrete M20
Plain concrete (PCC) M10
Steel Reinforcement F
e
415

Materials quality IS 456/IS 3370/IS1786

Design on no crock basis (IS-3370) if the tension face is generally in contact of water.
Permissible stresses
ct
= 170 kg/ cm
2


Total depth D = _
Mx6
bx
ct




cb
= 700 N/ cm
2


st
= 15 kN/cm
2

SS
m = 13.33
N = 0.384
j = 0.872
Q = 1.172
Compute A
st
with
st
as 15 kN/cm
2


Design on crack basis (IS: 3370) if tension face is not in contact of water.

Permissible stresses


cb
= 7 N/mm
2


st
= 190 N/mm
2

m = 13.33
N = -0.329
j = 0.890
Q = 1.025

Effective depth d = _
M
b

Compute A
st
with
st
as 190 N / mm
2


Minimum value of total thickness (D) adopted 500 mm for requirement of durability
unless decided otherwise.

Check for shear IS: 456 Cl. 47.2 (WSD)

Tc
max
= 1.8 N/mm
2


Development length / splices/ detailing as relevant IS Code

For Beams

Minimum tension reinforcement IS:456 Cl. 26.5.1.1
Minimum shear reinforcement IS:456 Cl.26.5.1.6
Side face reinforcement IS:456 Cl.25.5.1.3

For Walls/ Slabs

Minimum reinforcement IS:456 Cl. 26.5.2.1

For members designed on no crack basis (IS-3370), the minimum reinforcement in
vertical and horizontal direction on each face governed by IS:3370 Cl. 7.1


Min. Reinforcement for TOR Steel

IS:456 0.12% on each face and each direction
IS:3370-For D>450 mm, 0.16% in each direction divided equally on two faces.
IS:3370 (draft) 0.35% of 250 mm on one face
0.35% of 100 mm on one face
S4

Where thickness of wall varies, the min. reinforcement based on percentage of wall
thickness shall be varied by curtailment or changing the spacing/ dia as appropriate.


2. POWER HOUSE BUILDING

General

Types of Structures are as given below:

1. Main Area- Isolated R. C. Columns, with filler walls, Raft Foundation ( in general ),
R. C. Gantry Girder, Steel Roof Truss- I.S. rolled sections/ steel tubular sections with
welded connections, CGI sheets.

Alternatively- R.C. rigid Gable Frames with vertical columns, horizontal intermediate
beams and top inclined ( gable )beams, steel Purlins and CGI sheets

2. Service Area- R.C. slab, beams, columns, appropriate foundation.

Loads

1. Dead load including truss, purlins, roof sheeting.
2. Live Load
3. Wind load- Wind direction parallel and perpendicular to ridge with normal
permeability.
4. Earthquake load
5. Snow load ( where applicable )
6. Earth / Hydrostatic Pressure.

Load Combinations

DL + LL
DL WL
DL EQ
DL + LL/ Snow WL
DL + LL/ Snow EQ

Add Secondary effects as appropriate

Design Philosophy

Steel Truss is analyzed as normal Practice ( pin-joints ) using software, members and
joints (welded joints) as per relevant IS codes.

Isolated R. C. Columns taken as bottom fixed and top free (normally), with effective
length 1.25 L, Loads and moments coming from Crane added.

Rigid Frame analysis is done using Stiffness approach.

SS
Design of members is done using Limit State Design concept

Expressions for limit state design as per IS:456:2000 are given below

Material used

Reinforced concrete M20
Plain/Lean Concrete M10
Steel Reinforcement Fe415

Materials Quality - IS:456:2000
Modulus of elasticity effect of creep to be considered where necessary

Design of individual members of reinforced concrete structure will be carried out
using limit state design concept (IS:456-2000). Design Aids SP-16 will be used wherever
necessary.

Maximum depth of neutral axis is taken as 0.48d where d is the effective depth of the
section
Limiting moment with respect to concrete is taken as

M
lim
= 0.36
ck
b x z = 0.36
ck
bx
m
(d-0.42 x
m
)
= 0.138
ck
b d
2

Limiting moment with respect to steel is taken as

M
lim
= 0.87
y
A
t
(d-0.42 x
m
)

Gantry Girder is analyzed as a continuous beam supported on Column brackets using
the available data (Maximum Capacity of crane, Total Crane Girder weight, Weight of
Trolley and Crab, Minimum clearance of Crab from center line of Rail , and Impact factor )

Machine Foundation is designed as Block and/ or Raft, considering uplift ( if present )
using the available data.

3. Bridge

GENERAL: Relevant IRC Codes

IRC-5- 1998
IRC-6- 2000
IRC-21-2000
IRC-83-1987
Standard Plans for Highway Bridges- RCC Slab Superstructure,
MOST Publication 1991
Geometrical Features

Single Lane 5 m wide carriageway
Two Lane 7.5m wide carriageway
Footpath/ Kerb as specified.
Live Loads : One lane of IRC class 70 R or two lanes of IRC class A on
S6
Carriage way, whichever governs ( for two lane bridge )
One lane of class A considered to occupy 2.3 m , the remaining
carriageway width shall be loaded with 5 kN/m
2
(for single lane bridge).

Footpath load of 4 kN/sq m for super structure having foot path of kerb 0.6 m or
more.

Wearing coat _ As applicable

Condition of exposure IRC-21

Design Details

The strength of RCC structural members assessed by commonly employed Elastic
theory (Cl. 304.21 IRC 21).

Material commonly used : Concrete M 25 grade and Fe 415 reinforcement.

Structural Forms: If the span of the bridge is less than 10 m , The solid slab type
bridge is most appropriate option., analysis to be done by effective width method ( IRC 21).

For spans more than 10 m, T- beam bridge will be economical. It consists of three
structural elements Longitudinal Girders, Cross beams and slab. The slab is having two way
action generally and may be designed using Pigeuds Curves. The load distribution among
longitudinal girders may be obtained by Courbans method subject to fulfillment of
assumptions. Standard software may also be used for analysis.

Bearings: Bearings are provided in bridges to transmit the load from super structure to
sub structure in such a manner that bearing stress induced in the sub structure are within
permissible limits and also to allow for certain movements of the super structure. Fixed
bearing permits rotation only, while expansion bearing permits rotation as well as translation.

Bearing for slab bridges- For high level bridges with slab spans, no special bearings
are usually provided. A thick layer of kraft paper is inserted between the slab and the sub
structure at supports. This arrangement is sufficient to allow for small longitudinal
movements. To take care of rotations, each bearing area should be beveled or rounded at the
edge.

Typical details of Slab type bridge are given in fig. 27.
S7


Fig 27: Typical Details of Solid Slab Bridge
S8
REFERENCES

A. CODES OF PRACTICES

1. IS: 456-2000- Code of Practice for Plain and Reinforced Concrete, BIS New Delhi.
2. IS: 800-1984 (Reaffirmed- 2003)- Code of Practice for General Construction in Steel,
BIS, New Delhi.
3. IS: 875 (pts I-V)- 1987- Codes of Practices for Loading Standards, BIS, New Delhi.
4. IS: 1786-1985- Code of Practice for Specifications of High strength Deformed bars,
BIS, New Delhi.
5. IS : 1893-2002- Code of Practice for Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of
Structures, BIS, New Delhi.
6. IS: 4326-1993 (Reaffirmed- 2003) Code of Practice for Earthquake Resistant Design
and Construction of Buildings, BIS, New Delhi.
7. IS: 3370 (pts I-IV) -1967 (Reaffirmed- 2004) - Code of Practice for Design of Water
Retaining Structures, BIS, New Delhi.
8. National Building Code of India 2005, BIS, New Delhi.
9. IS: 5330-1984, Code of Practice for Anchor Blocks, BIS, New Delhi.
10. IS: 2970 (pts I IV)- Code of Practice for Design of Machine Foundations, BIS, New
Delhi.
11. IS: 3177-1977- Code of Practice for Electrically Operated Over Head Cranes, BIS,
New Delhi.
12. IS: 6531-1992- Criteria for Hydraulic Design of Canal Head Regulators, BIS, New
Delhi.
13. IS; 7114-1973 Criteria for Hydraulic Design of Cross Regulators for Canals, BIS,
New Delhi.
14. IS: 11570-1985- Criteria for Hydraulic Design of Canal Intake Structures, BIS, New
Delhi.
15. IS:- 12169-1987- Criteria for Design of Small Embankment Dams, BIS, New Delhi.
16. IS: 6512-1984 Criteria for Design of Solid Gravity Dams, BIS, New Delhi.
17. IS: 4247-1992- Code of Practice for Structural Design of Surface Hydro- Electric
Power Stations, BIS, New Delhi.
18. IS: 7207-1992- Criteria for Design of Generator Foundations for Hydro- Electric
Power Stations, BIS, New Delhi.
19. IRC-5-1998- Code of Practice for General Features of Design of Road Bridges, Indian
Road Congress, New Delhi.
20. IRC-6 -2000- Code of Practice for Loads and Stresses for Road Bridges, Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi.
21. IS: 807-1978- Code of Practice for Design, Manufacture, Erection and Testing of
Cranes and Hoists, BIS, New Delhi.
22. IS: 3443-1980- Code of Practice for Crane Rail Sections, BIS, New Delhi.
23. IS: 4573-1982-Code of Practice for Power Driven Mobile Cranes, BIS, New Delhi.
24. IRC-21-2000 Code of Practice for Road Bridges- Section III- Cement Concrete (
Plain & Reinforced ), Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
25. IRC-83-1987-Part II Code of Practice for Road Bridges, Section IX, Bearings, part
II Elastomer bearings, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
26. IRC-83-2002- Part III Code of Practice for Road Bridges- Section IX POT,POT-
CVME, PTFE,PIN and Metallic guide Bearings, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.

B. BOOKS
S9

27. Reinforced Concrete Designers Hand Book by C. E. Reynolds & J. C. Steedman
28. Dynamics in Civil Engineering: Analysis & Design by Alexander Major.
29. Hydro Power Structures by R.S. Varshney.
30. The Structural Design of a Hydel Power Station by P. S. Nigam.
31. Plain and Reinforced Concrete , Vol. II by Jai Krishna and O. P. Jain
32. Introduction to Soil Mechanics and Shallow Foundations by Samuel E. French.
33. Hand Book of Machine Foundations by P. Srinivasulu and C. V. Vaidyanathan.
34. Design of Structures and Foundations for Vibrating Machines, by Arya, ONeil and
Pincus.
35. Dynamics of Bases and Foundations by D.D. Barkan.




4u
APPENDIX-I
STABILITY DESIGN

1. Stability Design

A concrete dam or other water retaining structure is subject to both de-stabilizing
forces and stabilizing forces. De-stabilizing forces are those forces which tend to
overturn a structure or cause the structure to slide along its base or along other
potential failure planes. Stabilizing forces are those forces which resist the effects of
the de-stabilizing forces. The purpose of stability design is to ensure that the
stabilizing (resisting) forces exceed the de-stabilizing forces by a suitable margin (or
factor) of safety.

1.1 Methods of Analysis

The rigid body method of analysis is the most common method used for stability
evaluation of concrete and masonry dams. This method examines the static
equilibrium of a unit slice through the dam or considers a monolithic block where
voids or water passages are present. The factors of safety against sliding, overturning
or compression failure of concrete or bed rock are then evaluated. The analyses are
applied to a block defined by potential failure planes, typically.

Planes of weakness in the foundation
Concrete foundation interface
Construction joints.

This method is applicable to dams having long central sections and short abutments.
In the case of high dams in narrow gorges this inherently two dimensions approach
will not address the load sharing between adjacent blocks of significantly differing
heights. In such cases more elaborate three dimensional analyses are required, USBR
(1976).

For low dams, heights less than 12 m, that pose minimal risk to public safety, Minor-
Low Hazard dams as per the Indian Dam Guidelines (CWC). It is satisfactory to
evaluate earthquake effects using the pseudo-static method.

For such dams resonance is not likely to occur during earthquakes. Therefore, uniform
accelerations from base to crest may be assumed; they are equal to the estimated site
earthquake acceleration for the Design Basis Earthquake (DBE). The vertical
acceleration is assumed to be 50 percent of the horizontal acceleration. These
accelerations can be used to compute inertia loads for pseudo-static analyses.

In pseudo-static analyses, both vertical and horizontal earthquake loads should be
applied in the direction that produces the least stable structure. For the full reservoir
condition, this will be a foundation movement in the upstream direction and a
foundation movement downward. The upstream movement increases the downstream
force of the water and silt loads and produces a downstream inertial force from the
mass concrete in the dam. The downward movement decreases the effective weight of
the water above a sloping face and of the concrete in the dam. Both increasing the
horizontal loads in a downstream direction and decreasing the effective weights tend
41
to decrease the stability of the structure. The internal friction of silt may provide
considerable damping as has been suggested in the literature. However, until more
exact data are determined, it is assumed that the dynamic effect of saturated slit is
equivalent to that of water only (cited from USBR Design of Small Dams)

This method of analysis applies to all hydraulic structures subject to hydrostatic or
hydrodynamic loads, such as dams, spillways, intakes and powerhouses. For
powerhouses remote from dams, hydraulic thrust from penstock (with expansion
joint) and flotation forces are the only hydraulic forces present.

1.2 Forces

Forces acting on a dam or hydraulic structure include some or all of the followings:

Horizontal De-stabilizing Forces:

Water pressure on the upstream face.
Silt pressure (natural deposits or backfill) on upstream face.
Inertia force on the dam during an earthquake.
Inertia force of reservoir acting on the upstream face during an earthquake.
Inertia force of silt (natural deposits or backfill) acting on the upstream face.

Horizontal Stabilizing Forces:

Water pressure of the tail race on the downstream face.

Normal or Vertical Stabilization Forces:

Dead load of concrete (or masonry).
Dead load of permanent ancillary structures and equipment.
Vertical water load on the dam structure or in water passages.
Vertical water load on any inclined surface on the upstream face.
Vertical silt load on any inclined surface on the upstream face.

Uplift Forces (de-stabilizing):

Uplift pressure acting on the concrete rock surface or any other potential
failure surface.
Upward inertia force on the dam during an earthquake.

The above environmental and applied forces are resisted by friction and reaction force
components. The applied forces act either as static or dynamic loads on the dam (or
other hydraulic structure).




Fig. 2.3.1 shows the loads acting on a typical dam section (see next page).
42


Fig 2.3.1: Forces Acting on a Gravity Dam

1.2.1 Static forces

1.2.1.1 Dead load of concrete

Dead load of concrete ( ) Ac W
C C
. =
Where
C
= unit weight of concrete (kN/m
3
)
and A
c
= area of concrete area (m
3
/m)
In absence of test results on project materials assume
C
= 23.5 kN/m
3
for
concrete

C
= 17.6 kN/m
3
for
masonry

The resultant dead load force acts through the centroid of the cross-section
area.

Where the cross-section area is complex it is often more convenient to compute
structure dead load piece-wise by dividing the cross-section area into geometrically
simple areas: rectangles and triangles.




4S
1.2.2.2 Static Water Pressure


Water pressure at a point (p) = h w
Total pressure on a plane surface ) 0 . 1 (
2
) (
2 1

+
= w
p p
P
Total pressure force goes through the centroid of the distribution diagram
Where h
1
, h
2
, and are as shown and
3
/ 8 . 9 m kN
w
=

1.2.1.3 Silt Pressure

Silt pressure at a point ( ) ( )
S s
p sin 1 =
Where:
=
S
submerged unit weight of sediment (7 kN/m
3
)
= friction angle (20)
Assume hydrostatic pressure distribution for silt.


1.2.1.4 Backfill Pressure

Backfill (soil) pressure similar to silt pressure, is likely to result by accumulation of
bed load against the upstream face of low overflow weirs. Such pressures are termed
active soil pressures and can be determined from the following formula:

H =
2
2
1
h K
A

Where:
H = horizontal thrust (m)
K
A
= coefficient of active soil pressure

sin 1
sin 1

= friction angle
= buoyant weight of soil (
W S
) (kN/m
3
)
h = height of fill (m)



44
1.2.1.5 Uplift Pressure

Uplift pressure distribution is shown in the following sketch. Two cases are
illustrated, as below:

- Case 1: No drainage or drainage holes blocked
- Case 2: With functioning drainage holes, 67% drainage efficiency is assumed



1.2.2 Dynamic Forces:

Dynamic forces result from earthquake acceleration. For minor low hazard dams the
pseudo-static analysis is acceptable.

1.2.2.1 Dynamic Water Pressure

The hydrodynamic pressures exerted on the dame face during earthquakes should be
included in the analyses. For small low hazard dams the pseudo static method is
considered appropriate. However for medium and large dams more refined dynamic
methods should be used for analysis. Details on the pseudo static method are given
below in the following paragraphs.

In 1952, Zanger presented formulas for computing the hydrodynamic pressures
exerted on vertical and sloping faces by horizontal earthquake effects. These formulas
derived by electric analogy and based on the assumption that water is incompressible,
are applicable to very stiff small concrete gravity dams. For low dams, the error
involved in computing the earthquake force on the water because of this simplifying
assumption is probably less than 1 percent.

The effect of horizontal inertia on the concrete should be applied at the center of
gravity of the mass, regardless of the shape of the cross section. For dams with
4S
vertical or sloping upstream faces, the increase in water pressure, P
e
, in pounds per
square foot at any elevation due to horizontal earthquake is given by the following
equation:

=
2
1
2 2
2
1
h
y
h
y
h
y
h
y
hC a P
m w e

H
e
= 0.726 P
e
y
M
e
= 0.299 P
e
y
2


Where:

P
e
= hydrodynamic pressure at depth y from reservoir surface (kPa)
a = peak horizontal ground acceleration in gs
h = water depth measured form surface of reservoir to the foundation
level at the
section being considered (m)
y = water depth measured from the reservoir surface to the elevation of
section
under study (m)
C
m
= maximum value of a dimensions less coefficient which varies with
slope of
the upstream face of the dam (see Figure 2.3.2)
H
e
= horizontal dynamic force (kN)
M
e
= overturning moment at the section under consideration (kN.m).

3
/ 8 . 9 m kN
w
=


Fig. 2.3.2: Pressure Coefficient C (from USBR Design of Small Dams)

46
For dams with a combination vertical and sloping face, the procedure to be used is
governed by the relation of the height of the vertical portion to the total height of the
dam, as follows:

If the height of the vertical portion of the upstream face of the dam is equal to or
greater than one-half of the total height of the dam, analyze as if vertical
throughout.
If the height of the vertical portion of the upstream face of the dam is less than
one-half of the total height of the dam, use the pressures on a sloping line
connecting the point of intersection of the upstream face of the dam and reservoir
surface with the point of intersection of the upstream face of the dam and the
foundation.

On sloping faces of dams, the weight of the water above the slope should be modified
by the appropriate acceleration factor. The weight of the concrete also should be
modified by this acceleration factor.

1.2.2.2 Dynamic Silt Pressure

The dynamic pressure due to silt is computed in the same manner as for water. Note
that the submerged weight of silt should be applied.

1.2.2.3 Dynamic Backfill Pressure

Bed load accumulation behind low overflow dams can be assumed to reach crest level
within a few years of operation. The method given in USACE (2005) is
recommended. See Appendix 1 of this section for details.

1.2.2.4 Inertia Forces on Dam due to Earthquake

This inertia forces due to an earthquake are computed as the product of mass
earthquake acceleration. Usually earthquake acceleration is considered in two
components, horizontal and vertical. For stability analysis it is customary to assume
the vertical acceleration to be 50% of the horizontal component.

1.3 Loading combinations

The stability of a dam, intake or spillway should be examined for the following load
combinations. These loading conditions are classified into the following categories.

Usual loads refer to loads and load conditions, which are related to the
function of a structure and can be expected to occur frequently during the
service life of the structure.
Unusual loads refer to operating loads and loads conditions that are of
infrequent occurrence.
Extreme loads refer to events which are highly improbable and can be
regarded as emergency conditions (USACE 2005).

The following load combinations should be considered for Minor-Low Hazard dams:

47
Case 1: Usual End of Construction
Dam self weight only
Case 2: Usual Normal Operation
Loads experienced during normal reservoirs operation with foundation
drains operable.
Case 3: Unusual Drains blocked
Loads experienced during normal reservoir operation with drains
blocked.
Case 2 & 3 are identical for design without drains.

Case 4: Unusual Design Flood
Hydrostatic loads associated with occurrence of the design flood
For Minor-Low Hazard Dams the spillway design flood (SDF) would
the 1 in 100 year flood.
Case 5: Unusual Operating Basis Earthquake
Normal operating condition plus effects of operating basis earthquake.
For Minor-Low Hazard category dams an earthquake having a return
period of 100 years should be used.
Case 6: Post Earthquake Analysis
This analysis would be required if the earthquake analysis, Case 5 indicated
formation of a crack in the concrete rock foundations interface.

Extreme load cases do not need to be analyzed for Minor-Low Hazard Dams.

(Some years ago the Canadian Electrical Association and EPRI reviewed the
approaches to earthquake analyses for concrete dams and recommended that the
pseudo-static method be applied to small-low hazard dams, that the pseudo-dynamic
method be applied for medium-significant hazard dams and that a full dynamic
analysis be applied to Major-High Hazard dams. As SHP dams generally fall into the
Minor-Low Hazard category only this approach has been considered. This
recommendation should be reviewed to confirm that it is appropriate for Indian
conditions.)

2.0 Acceptance Criteria

The stability of a block is evaluated in terms of the following acceptance criteria:

The factor of safety against sliding.
Factor of safety against flotation.
Location of resultant.
Allowable bearing and concrete stresses.

2.1 Factor of Safety for Sliding

A factor of safety is required in sliding analyses to provide a suitable margin of safety
between the loads that can cause instability and the strength of the materials along
potential failure planes that can be mobilized to prevent instability. The factor of
safety for sliding is defined by Equation (1).
48
T
cL N
FS
S
+
=
tan
Equation (1)
Where

N = Force acting normal to the sliding failure plane under the structural wedge.
= Angle of internal friction of the foundation material under the structural
wedge.
(peak friction)
C = Cohesive strength of the foundation material under the structural wedge.
L = Length of the structural wedge in contact with the foundation.
T = Shear force acting parallel to the base of the structural wedge.


Table 1: Required Factor of Safety for Sliding

Load Categories

Site Information
Category
Usual Unusual Extreme
With tests 2.0 1.5 1.1
Without tests 3.0 2.0 1.3

2.2 Factor of Safety for Flotation

A factor of safety is required for flotation to provide a suitable margin of safety
between the loads that can cause instability and the weights of materials that resist
flotation. The flotation factor of safety is defined by Equation (2). The required
factors of safety for flotation are presented in Table 3-4.

G
c s
f
W U
S W W
FS

+ +
= Equation (2)
Where
W
s
= weight of the structure, including weights of the fixed equipment and
soil above the top surface of the structure. The moist or saturated
unit weight should be used for soil above the groundwater table and
the submerged unit weight should be used for soil below the
groundwater table.
W
C
= weight of the water contained within the structure
S = surcharge loads
U = uplift forces acting on the base of the structure
W
G
= weight of water above top surface of the structure.


Table 2: Required Factors of Safety for Flotation All Structures

Load Condition Categories
Site Information
Category
Usual Unusual Extreme
All Categories 1.25 1.15 1.05
49
2.3 Location of Resultant

The factor of safety approach established for sliding and flotation is not appropriate
for use in the evaluation of rotational modes of failure. Rotational behavior is
evaluated by determining the location of the resultant of all applied forces with
respect to the potential failure plane. This location can be determined through static
analysis. Limits on the location of the resultant of the resultant are given in Table 3.
The entire base must be in compression for the usual load condition, to maintain full
contact between the structure and the foundation, so there is no chance for higher
uplift pressures to develop in a crack. This helps ensure linear behavior for common
loading conditions. For the unusual load case, higher uplift pressures may develop in
a relatively short crack, but this would cause only minor nonlinear behavior.

It is nonetheless recommended that design for unusual loading condition also respect
the no tension criteria, as practical.

Table 4 Requirements for Location of the Resultant All Structures

Load Condition Categories
Site Information
Category
Usual Unusual Extreme
All Categories Within middle third Within middle half Resultant within
Base

2.4 Allowable Bearing Capacity and Concrete Compressive Stresses.

The resulting load distribution on the base of a dam or sliding surface can be
determined, as indicated below:


Su

Where:
N = Force acting normal to sliding surface
L = Width of block (see sketch)
e = Eccentricity of resultant
fb = Bearing pressure on foundation at toe
fc = Major principal concrete stress
= Slope of downstream face of dam

Allowable bearing pressures for rock or alluvial foundation should be determined in
consultation with an experienced geotechnical engineer or engineering geologist.

Within the dam, tensile stresses may be accepted as long as the respective limits
0.10f
C
and 0.05 f
C
, within the mass concrete and at lift joints are not exceeded.
Compressive stress at the toe of a dam should not exceed 0.45 fc.

Where:
f
C
= compressive strength of concrete.

(Check. This should be consistent with Indian practice!)


3.0 References

Indian Standards cited:

IS/CED46 National Building Code of India 2005

CWC Dam Safety Guidelines
See www.rajirrigation.gov.in/safety.htm

Other References

USBR 1976 Design of Gravity Dams
USBR 1987 Design of Small Dams
Zanger (1952) Hydraulic Pressures on Dams due to Horizontal Earthquake
Effects.
USBR. Engineering Monograph No. 11.
USACE (2005) Stability Analysis of Concrete Structures
Engineering Manual No. 1110 2 2100