Line of Force - The lines that can be produced by a permanent magnet or a use of a sheet of paper and iron filings

are called "magnetic lines of force". These lines are imaginary lines, but the concept is convenient for describing a magnetic field. A magnetic field has an intensity of so may lines per square inch. These lines have a definite direction and always form closed loops and return back onto themselves.

Electromagnetism The term electromagnetism is defined as the production of a magnetic field by current flowing in a conductor. We will need to understand electromagnetism in greater detail to understand how it can be used to do work.
Current (I) - The flow of electrons. Measured in amperes. Voltage - Electromotive force or difference in electrical potential. Expressed in volts.

RESISTANCE After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Define resistance and how we measure it. Discuss the similarities between resistance in a wire and the resistance in a water hose.

There is another important property that can be measured in electrical systems. This is resistance, which is measured in units called ohms. Resistance is a term that describes the forces that oppose the flow of electron current in a conductor. All materials naturally contain some resistance to the flow of electron current. We have not found a way to make conductors that do not have some resistance.

If we use our water analogy to help picture res

ALTERNATING CURRENT After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Define what AC stands for and what it means. Explain how AC is created and delivered to different places. Discuss the differences between AC and DC.

AC is short for alternating current. This means that the direction of current flowing in a circuit is constantly being reversed back and forth. This is done with any type of AC current/voltage source.

DIRECT CURRENT After reading this section you will be able to do the following:

Explain what DC stands for and what it means. Define what a good source of DC would be.

Now that we have a fairly good understanding of basic electricity terms and concepts, let's take a closer look at some more details of the electrical current itself. The battery we have been using for a current/voltage source generates direct current, which simply means the current flows in only one direction.

As long as electrons are flowing through the atoms of the circuit, work is being done. We can see that work is being done in this circuit because it lights the light bulb. The actual amount of electrons that are flowing is determined by the type and size of the battery as well as by the size and

type of the light bulb. We could reverse the polarity of the battery by switching the contacts (wires), and the current would flow in the opposite direction and the bulb would still light. Either way the battery is connected to the circuit, current can only flow in one direction. Direct current (DC) can also be generated by means other than batteries. Solar cells, fuel cells, and even some types of generators can provide DC current. Review 1. DC, or direct current means the electrical current is flowing in only one direction in a circuit. 2. Batteries are a good source of direct current (DC).

Magnetic Poles - Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole.

Magnetic Field Characteristics Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet As discussed previously, a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of space. The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph below. A magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and sprinkling the paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of magnetic force produced by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the magnetic field exits the material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole along the length of the magnet. It should be noted that the magnetic lines of force exist in three dimensions but are only seen in two dimensions in the image.

It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where the exit poles are concentrated is called the magnet's north pole and the area where the entrance poles are concentrated is called the magnet's south pole. Magnetic Fields in Magnets Magnets come in a common is the magnet has north and magnet is curved so the lines of force flow from However, since the more direct path exists poles, the magnetic and around Horseshoe and Ring variety of shapes and one of the more horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe south poles just like a bar magnet but the poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic pole to pole just like in the bar magnet. poles are located closer together and a for the lines of flux to travel between the field is concentrated between the poles.

If a bar magnet magnet or if a ring, the lines of enter the air. magnetic field is probably has understand that within a magnetism for

was placed across the end of a horseshoe magnet was formed in the shape of a magnetic force would not even need to The value of such a magnet where the completely contained with the material limited use. However, it is important to the magnetic field can flow in loop material. (See section on circular more information).

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number of important properties, which include:

They seek the path of least resistance between opposite magnetic poles. In a single bar magnet as shown to the right, they attempt to form closed loops from pole to pole. They never cross one another. They all have the same strength. Their density decreases (they spread out) when they move from an area of higher permeability to an area of lower permeability. Their density decreases with increasing distance from the poles. They are considered to have direction as if flowing, though no actual movement occurs. They flow from the south pole to the north pole within a material and north pole to south pole in air.

Magnetic flux leakage methods

As with MPI, the ferromagnetic specimen is magnetised by one of the methods listed, and depending upon the level of induced density, magnetic flux leakage due to both near- and far-surface flaws is detected by the voltage induced in a detector coil or Hall effect element, which is traversed over the surface of the specimen. Unlike MPI, the method is not limited to surface-brea or near-surface flaws, but actually becomes increasingly sensitive to far-surface flaws with increasing levels of magnetisation. the output from the detector can be amplified, filtered, digitised, etc and stored to produce automated inspection systems. Th method is widely used on bar and tube stock with both rotating specimens and rotating probes. Multi-element and differential probes are also used, and inspection speeds can be very high. One technique, known as magnetography, utilises a special form magnetic tape applied to the surface of a specimen during magnetisation, allowing flux leakage fields to be picked up and stor on the tape. The tape can then be removed from the specimen for processing and analysis of the signals.

The method is also finding increasing use in the petrochemical industries for providing high-speed inspections of storage tank floors, as well as carbon steel pipes. These systems utilise either permanent or electromagnets to provide localised near-magn saturation coupled with induction coil or Hall effect sensor arrays for detecting anomalous flux leakage caused by the presence corrosion defects (both near and far surface). Many of these systems rely upon the use of an adjustable threshold or amplitu gate to provide the detection of corrosion in real-time, while some of the more advanced systems, through the use of both advanced electronics and signal processing are able to provide corrosion maps of inspected areas similar to the C-scan representation of ultrasonic data.

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