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Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 1 of 8
oxen /ɑksIn/ /In/
children /tʃIldrIn/ /rIn/, plus change of first vowel from /ɑj/ to /I/
mice /mɑjs/ Change of vowel from /æw/ to /ɑj/, like goose, foot
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 2 of 8
These regular, productive affixes are usually found the most frequently in any given language. They apply to all
new words and are usually learned first by children and adults acquiring a language.
Less productive affixes are often historical relics, and over time they tend to get displaced by regular, more
productive morphemes. They appear in only to limited, arbitrary sets of words. The word oxen contains the
only remaining instance of the plural allomorph /In/ which appear in dozens of frequently used words
throughout the Middle Ages.
Different Kinds of Morphemes
Free Morphemes:
Words that are not divisible into smaller, meaningful parts and can appear unaccompanied by any
other morpheme
Bound Morphemes:
Pieces of words that are not divisible into smaller, meaningful parts but never appear except in the
company of one or more other morphemes
Lexical Morphemes:
Words or pieces of words that (a) denote people, places, things, qualities, activities, etc. or (b) change
an activity into a thing, a thing to an activity, a quality to a state, etc.
Grammatical Morphemes:
Words or pieces of words that (a) encode information about categories such as number (singular vs.
plural), gender, verb tense (past, present, future), verb aspect (whether an activity or state is complete
or ongoing), and all the ‘little words’ like a, the, in, for, and, not, of. Words that tend not to be in
dictionaries, and even when they are, their definitions are difficult to pin down. Grammatical
morphemes tend to be compressed in quick speech: can /kən/, will /‐l/, not /‐nt/, of /ə/.
Open‐Class Morphemes:
These are free, lexical morphemes of which are, in principle, potentially infinite in number in any
language. Speakers can and do make them up with great frequency, a point from which they may or
may not propagate throughout the speech community
Different varieties of English in particular is acquring new nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs at the
rate of a several dozen every year. A good source (and hours of entertainment) is at
www.urbandictionary.com: cyberchondriac, fauxhawk, frenemy, freaktard, afterclap, ‘rents, pisshap
Closed‐Class Morphemes:
These are bound morphemes, both lexical and grammatical, as well as free grammatical morphemes.
Languages have only so many of them, and they tend to acquire new ones only over the course of
decades and centuries: it took roughly one thousand years for will to become a grammatical word.
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 3 of 8
LEXICAL GRAMMATICAL
FREE Person: Getty, friend, pet, neighbor, parent a, against, although, and, around, be, before,
Place: Paris, classroom, elsewhere, home between, but, by, can, could, except, for, from,
Thing: bagel, money, strife, alcohol, have, he, her, her, him, his, his, I, in, it, may, me,
Quality: French, cute, hot, bald, faint might, mine, must, my, nor, not, of, or, our, ours,
Activity: read, live, die, give, try, scrape shall, she, since, the, their, their, them, they,
etc.. through, to, we, while, will, with, would, you, your,
etc…
TOTALLY OPEN ALMOST TOTALLY CLOSED
BOUND Stems: /‐z/ in riots, kids, days, roses
/‐z/ in bakes, causes, pays, defends
/dIsIƷ-/ in decision
/dIsajs‐/ in decisive /‐z/ in David’s, Rich’s, the professor’s
/prəv‐/ in provide, provision /‐d/ in baked, caused, paid, defended
/tʃIld‐/ in children
/Iŋ/ in baking, causing, paying, defending
etc…
/‐ər/ in quicker, dirtier, earlier
MOSTLY CLOSED
/‐Ist/ in quickest, dirtiest, earliest
Affixes /‐In/ in oxen
/‐rIn/ in children, brethren
/pri‐/ in pre‐dawn, premature, pre‐approve
/un‐/ in untrue, undo /‐In/ in chosen, broken, taken, etc.
/‐fəkIn‐/ in abso‐fuckin‐lutely
/‐Ik/ in comic, scenic, alcoholic
/‐ɑjd/ in decide, provide, deride
/‐mənt/ in retirement, pavement
MOSTLY CLOSED ALMOST TOTALLY CLOSED
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 4 of 8
There’s Regularity … and Then There’s Not
Morphemes are realized as strings of phonemes, each of which has to fit in with a language’s patterns of
allophonic variation. This is evident with prefixes like in‐, where the nasal in the prefix assimilates to the point
of articulation of any following consonants:
Positive Initial Consonant Negative Shape of prefix
efficient inefficient /In‐/
logical [l] illogical /Il‐/
relevant [r] irrelevant /Ir‐/
possible [p] impossible /Im‐/
capable [k] incapable /In‐/ or /Iŋ‐/*
*Hint: /ŋ/ is not an independent phoneme in English in quite the same way as the other nasals.
For relatively obscure reasons, the same patterns do not apply to in’s companion prefix un‐. Also for no
transparent reason, the existence of words with the in‐ prefix sometimes blocks the use of perfectly good
words using un‐ instead, and vice‐versa.
reasonable unreasonable *urreasonable *irreasonable
punished unpunished *umpunished *impunished
cool uncool ?? /uŋcool/ *incool
ethical unethical ?? inethical
true untrue *intrue
substantiated unsubstantiated insubstantiated
accessible Inaccessible unaccessible
Most languages have morphological patterns that defy the regularity that might exist elsewhere. English has
very transparent, regular affixes for the plural of nouns (/‐z/) and the past tense of verbs (/‐d/) alongside very
frequent, totally irregular patterns:
Singular Noun Plural Noun Present‐Tense Verb Past Tense
man men *mans swim swam *swimmed
goose geese *gooses take took *taked
mouse mice *mouses read (/rid/) read (/rɛd/) *readed
sheep sheep *sheeps buy *bought *buyed
Not only do these words not follow the regular patterns, it’s also difficult to even identify the morphemes that
mean /PLURAL/ and /PAST/. These morphemes have fused with the roots of the respective words.
English and its sister and cousin languages are replete with this kind of morphology. Not so with the
remarkable transparency of Turkish, which is part of an unrelated family of languages.
Avrupa Europe
Avrupalı European
Avrupalılaş become European
Avrupalılaştır Europeanize
Avrupalılaştırama cannot Europeanize
Avrupalılaştıramadık whom he could not Europeanize
Avrupalılaştıramadıklar those whom he could not Europeanize
Avrupalılaştıramadıklarımız those whom we could not Europeanize
Avrupalılaştıramadıklarımızdan one of those whom we could not Europeanize
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 5 of 8
Practice
Transcribe the words below into phonemic representations using IPA symbols. In other words, mentality and triumphed should both have /t/,
notwithstanding any assimilations.
Then break the words down into their smallest meaningful parts and enjoy the fun. Mark each morpheme, to the greatest extent possible, as:
F (Free) B (Bound) L (Lexical) G (Grammatical)
GUIDELINES
For something to be a morpheme, it must be transparently related to identifiable parts of other words, appearing there with roughly the
same meaning or function.
For instance, denial arguably consists of deny plus the suffix –al, which functions to turn an activity (a verb) into a thing (a noun). So a denial
is an act of denying. We see –al doing the same job in words like dismissal, acquittal, survival.
But –al can’t be shown to be a morpheme in the word vial, for instance, because the root of the word – which would have to be vie – is not
transparently related to what a vial is. In other words, a small container – vial – has nothing in common with the verb vie, which has the
meaning of ‘compete, strive.’
If you can identify genuine patterns like –al in denial, don’t be scared of the same sequence of phonemes appearing to serve other
functions, like critical, magical, sexual. Many affixes in English have overlapping phonological forms.
Also, don’t be scared of bound lexical morphemes like /sekʃu‐/ in sexual.
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 6 of 8
Note: Writing out double consonants isn’t conventional, but it helps when you’re dividing words up into morphemes.
Fly flɑj
Desks dɛsks
Untie əntɑj
Unite junɑjt
Immoral Immorəl
IllɑdƷIkəl
Illogical
Insensitive InsɛnsItIv
Triumphed trɑjəmft
Delight dIlɑjt
Justice dƷəstIs
Payment pemənt
Suite swit
Fastest fæstIst
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 7 of 8
Misinformation mIsInfərmeʃən
Disobey dIsobe
Mentality mɛntælIti
Premature primatʃʊr
Revamp rivæmp
Revise rIvɑjz
Revision rIvIƷən
Non‐English Practice:
Amharic (a Semitic language, related to Hebrew and Arabic, spoken in Ethiopia and Eritrea as well as emigrant communities) from Hudson Ch. 4
Identify and characterize the allomorphs of (a) the
verb stems, where applicable and (b) the suffixes
meaning ‘he,’ ‘she,’ ‘we,’ and ‘they.’
[ɨ] is a high central unrounded vowel.
[k’] is a glottalized voiceless velar stop
Ling 170D | Intro to Linguistics with Dr. Getty | Fall 2009 | Week 5 part 2 | Page 8 of 8