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Reading Comprehension
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On the GMAT CAT, expect to see three to four Reading Comprehension passages with approximately three to four questions for each passage !owe"er, you#ll only see one question at a time on the screen $n nearly e"ery passage you encounter, the author will %e trying to con"ey a specific point $n general, the strategy for the Reading Comprehension passage goes li&e this' get the general topic, find the specific focus of the passage, and finally, get the author#s reason for writing the passage

This chapter is broken into 3 parts: $ ( Tactics for Analy)ing a Reading Comprehension *assage $$ + Most Common ,uestion Types $$$ - .tep Method of Attac&ing Reading Comprehension *assages and .ample /ssay

$ ( Tactics for Analy)ing a Reading Comprehension *assage

A The writer#s purpose and "oice 0 Finding the essay#s main point C Finding the purpose of each paragraph 1 1etermining the scope of the argument / 1etermining the structure 2$gnore this section if you ha"e limited time to prepare3 F 1on#t read, s&im

A The writer#s purpose and "oice

$t would %e nice if the authors of the reading passages came right out and specifically said what they were writing a%out, what they ha"e to say, and how they intend to accomplish their goal That, howe"er, is not the style of scholarly writing They will not %e hitting you o"er the head with their points, so you ha"e to read %etween the lines and loo& for them "ery carefully

4hat is the %est method to detect the author#s point5 The author will frequently change his tone when descri%ing the main point of the passage 6otice when the author shifts his "oice from an o%7ecti"e, factual description to his su%7ecti"e "iewpoint Attac&ing a passage is what critical reading is all a%out' stepping %ac& from the factual content, figuring out the author#s "iews on a topic and how he arri"ed at them, and loo&ing for the e"idence that must %e pro"ided Always %e on the loo&out for sentences in which the author#s "oice is coming through and try to s&ip past the sentences that are purely factual or simply there for support

Try to find the author#s purpose and "oice in the following passage' One of the most persistently trou%ling parts of national domestic policy is the de"elopment and use of water resources 0ecause the technology of water management in"ol"es similar construction s&ills, whether the tas& is the %uilding of an ocean 7etty for protection of shipping or the construction of a ri"er dam for flood control and irrigation, the issues of water policy ha"e mingled pro%lems of na"igation and agriculture A further inherent complexity of water policy is the frequent conflict %etween flood control and irrigation and %etween requirements for a%undance and those for scarcity of water 0oth pro%lems exist in America, often in the same ri"er %asins8 the one is most typically the pro%lem of the lower part of the %asin and the other the pro%lem of the upper part 6e"ertheless, the most startling fact a%out the history of water pro7ects in the 9nited .tates is the degree to which their shortcomings ha"e %een associated with administrati"e failures Again and again these shortcomings ha"e pro"ed to %e the consequences of inadequate study of water flow, of soil, of factors other than construction technology, and of faulty organi)ation $n :;<;, the .enate .elect Committee on 6ational 4ater resources found that twenty different national commissions or committees charged with examining these pro%lems and see&ing solutions had emphasi)ed with remar&a%le consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water What is the author's voice and purpose? There is one point in the essay where the author lets his guard down, and his word choice re"eals his position The sentence, =The most startling fact shortcomings= at the %eginning of paragraph two mar&s a shift in tone .cholars will choose their words carefully, and the use of =startling=, a rather strong word, should send a clear message to the reader a%out the author#s attitude toward his su%7ect matter That is followed %y an exasperated =again and again=, suggesting agencies are refusing to learn from experience This is his axe to grind $ndeed, his point is the incompetence of go"ernment administrations in charge of water management $n this second paragraph, we disco"er the author#s purpose' the author %elie"es water resources are managed incompetently, and he#s writing to call attention to the pro%lem !e then suggests a solution in the last sentence' =Committees charged with examining these

pro%lems and see&ing solutions had emphasi)ed with remar&a%le consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water = The %ottom line' the author wants =coordination among agencies dealing with water = That is his purpose, and that is why his "oice changes the way it does through the passage .trategy' As you identify the author#s "iewpoints, %e sure not to =argue with= the author $f your personal understanding or "iew of the issue happens to contradict that of the author, &eep your theories to yourself The >er%al section is not the place 2sa"e your analysis for the A4A /ssay section? Analysis of $ssue question3 The questions test your command of the author#s "iews and how he structures them, not your own Occasionally, you will %e as&ed a%out a flaw in the author#s reasoning, %ut those questions are rare

0 Finding the essay#s main point

$f you can find the author#s "oice and purpose, you are in excellent shape to find the essay#s main point The author has a personal point of "iew that is nearly always in7ected into the essay The purpose of the essay is to persuade you of the author#s point of "iew .ometimes the author ma&es it easy to identify his point of "iew %y tagging it with strong ad7ecti"es@ad"er%s 2 vital, remarkable, spectacular, etc 3 4atch the author#s "oice !owe"er, often the essay writers are less straightforward in expressing their "iewpoints Main points are arguments and not o%7ecti"ely factual The main point of an essay would not %e World War I was fought from 1914 to 19198 that is merely a fact $nstead, the claim World War I was extended b !ritain's needless and poorl conceived intervention would %e a main idea of an essay 2note the strong words3 That is a contro"ersial position that a +<A?word passage might discuss /"en science articles that might appear o%7ecti"e will ha"e su%7ecti"e "iewpoints in7ected %y the author to express a point For these persuasi"e essays, you will most li&ely get the question' =4hat is the essay#s main idea5= .trategy' .ince the CAT pic&s questions %ased on your a%ility le"el, and =main point= questions are relati"ely easy, the main point questions appear more often on the tests of lower scorers

Essays without a point .ometimes an essay has no ma7or point These essays read li&e a story or a factual, dispassionate account These essays will ha"e no %u))words that indicate the author is expressing an opinion' no ama"ing, impressive, disappointing, remarkable, invalid, etc These essays tend to %e rare, and if you thin& you ha"e a =pointless essay=, you may simply ha"e failed to identify the author#s point of "iew 1ou%le chec& $n the e"ent you do ha"e a pointless essay, you should loo& for structure and factual details that might %e %rought up in the questions Bou are more li&ely to %e as&ed detail 2recall3 questions on pointless essays Ma&e sure you ma&e a good mental road map so that you may identify where certain facts are located in the essay

C Finding the purpose of each paragraph

The paragraph is the main structural unit of any passage To find a paragraph#s purpose, as& yourself o 4hy did the author include this paragraph5 o 4hat shift did the author ha"e in mind when mo"ing on to this paragraph5 o 4hat %earing does this paragraph ha"e on the author#s main idea5 This process allows you to create a =mental road map= of the passage Bou are ta&ing the test on a computer screen Bou cannot la%el the paragraphs $nstead, remem%er the structure as you proceed and@or use scrap paper to draw a rough diagram of the essay as you go .ome students feel comforta%le drawing the diagram There are two purposes to creating a map of the essay' :3 it will help you %etter understand the essay and C3 it will help you locate specific details later if you get a specific detail question Det#s loo& at the earlier essay' One of the most persistently trou%ling parts of national domestic policy is the de"elopment and use of water resources 0ecause the technology of water management in"ol"es similar construction s&ills, whether the tas& is the %uilding of an ocean 7etty for protection of shipping or the construction of a ri"er dam for flood control and irrigation, the issues of water policy ha"e mingled pro%lems of na"igation and agriculture A further inherent complexity of water policy is the frequent conflict %etween flood control and irrigation, %etween requirements for a%undance and those for scarcity of water 0oth pro%lems exist in America, often in the same ri"er %asins8 the one is most typically the pro%lem of the lower part of the %asin and the other the pro%lem of the upper part EEThis paragraph is a discussion of the conflicts o"er scarce water resources 2flood control "s irrigation, lower part "s higher part of %asin3 FF Then there are the pro%lems of cities located along the ma7or American ri"ers, not infrequently directly on the "ery flood plains of highly erratic streams $n the arid parts of the land, it has recently %ecome clear that climate "aries o"er time, with irregular periods of serious drought followed %y wet periods mar&ed %y occasional floods The pro%lems of land and water, then, are inherently difficult For this reason alone, shortcomings and failures ha"e pro%a%ly %een ine"ita%le Moreo"er, in the scale of the underta&ings that ha"e %een attempted in"ol"ing on occasion no less than the re"ersal of stream flow and the altering of the natural features of whole ri"er %asins, it is ine"ita%le EEClimate "aries creating inherent conflict in how to use a water supply that constantly changes FF 6e"ertheless, the most startling fact a%out the history of water pro7ects in the 9nited .tates is the degree to which their shortcomings ha"e %een associated with administrati"e failures

Again and again these shortcomings ha"e pro"ed to %e the consequences of inadequate study of water flow, of soils, of factors other than construction technology and of faulty organi)ation $n :;<;, the .enate .elect Committee on 6ational 4ater resources found that twenty different national commissions or committees charged with examining these pro%lems and see&ing solutions had emphasi)ed with remar&a%le consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water EEThe ma7or pro%lem with water policy is administrati"e failures Coordination is needed %etween agencies FF 1raw the roadmap' *aragraph : This paragraph is a discussion of the conflicts o"er scarce water resources 2flood control "s irrigation, lower part "s higher part of %asin3 *aragraph C 0ecause climate "aries, it creates inherent conflict in how to use a water supply that constantly changes *aragraph + The ma7or pro%lem with water policy is administrati"e failures Coordination is needed %etween agencies $f you see how the essay is set up, you will %etter understand the essay and more quic&ly find answers

1 1etermining the scope of the argument 2this section is a repeat

from the Critical Reasoning .ection3 4hen it comes to determining the scope of a passage, you need to understand what we mean %y =scope = Thin& of scope as a narrowing of the topic $f you#"e found the main point, you must also identify what is in the range of the argument .cope is related to more than 7ust the general topic %eing discussed8 it is the narrowing of the topic $s the article a%out graduate school admissions, M0A admissions, or helping international students get into the %usiness school program of their choice5 /ach step represents a narrowing of the scope .cope is one of the most important concepts for doing well on the "er%al section, particularly for high scorers 4hy5 *ut yourself in the position of the test question writers They must write difficult questions Only one of the fi"e choices is correct8 the rest are =7un&= answers They ha"e to write questions that a certain num%er of students will get wrong, and they ha"e to ma&e up =7un&= answers to fool people The issue of scope sol"es %oth pro%lems for test question writers' it allows them to easily generate wrong answers, and it ma&es the questions harder %ecause scope is a challenging issue Most Critical Reasoning or Reading Comprehension questions ha"e =7un&= answers that are outside of the question#s scope .ome common examples of scope 7un& answers are choices that are too narrow, too %road, or literally ha"e nothing to do with the author#s points Also, watch for and eliminate choices that are too extreme to match the argument#s scope8 they#re usually signaled %y such words as all, alwa s, never, none, and so on Choices that are in some way qualified are often correct for arguments that are moderate in tone and contain such words as usuall , sometimes, probabl # all always never only

words that signal answers that are too strong and therefore usually outside the scope of an argument

Example: $ome scientists believe that carbon dioxide% induced global warming ma increase the number of hurricanes in the future and their severit # 4hat if someone inferred from that statement that All of this season's severe hurricanes were caused b global warming# That statement would %e outside of the scope of the original argument The inference made is outside the scope of the argument The argument is not that strong 4hat a%out this statement' Some of this season's storms ma have been caused and exacerbated b global warming# This statement is more measured and is within the scope of the original argument o $n general, these phrases indicate statements that are outside of the scope of an argument' always, never, none. 9sually, arguments aren#t that strong, so answers with extreme language are usually outside the scope of the argument o These phrases tend to indicate that a phrase is within the scope of an argument' usually, sometimes, probably .trategy: $f the question as&s =which of the following is 6OT an assumption of the argument= or =which of the following does 6OT descri%e an argument made in the passage a%o"e=, the answer will often %e the one with extreme language !ere is a critical reasoning question that illustrates scope &partment building owners argue that rent control should be abolished# &lthough the acknowledge that the would increase rents in the short term, owners argue that in the long term the rent increases would lead to greater profitabilit # 'igher profits would lead to increased apartment construction# Increased apartment construction would then lead to a greater suppl of residences and lower prices as the potential apartment residents have a better selection# (hus, abolishing rent control would ultimatel reduce prices# Name an assumption ma e by the owners. 2!int' this is a difficult question, %ut you may eliminate - of the < answers as outside the scope of the argument3

a3 Current residents of rent?controlled apartments would %e a%le to find new apartments once their rents increased %3 The fundamental "alue of any society is to house its citi)ens c3 Only current apartment owners would profit significantly from mar&et deregulation d3 6ew apartment construction will generate a great num%er of 7o%s e3 The increase in the num%er of apartments a"aila%le would exceed the num%er of new potential apartment residents 4hich possi%le answers are outside of the scope5 The scope is the argument that deregulation will increase supply and lower prices =6ame an assumption= means find a direct assumption of that supply@demand argument a3 )urrent residents of rent control apartments would be able to find new apartments once their rent increased??is this outside of the scope5 4ell, this sentence expresses a nice sentiment for the welfare of renters, %ut it has nothing to do with our argument, which is a%out a supply@demand dynamic %3 (he fundamental value of an societ is to house its citi"ens# $s this outside of the scope5 Again, nice sentiment, %ut this does not directly tie into the argument c3 *nl current apartment owners would profit significantl from market deregulation $s this outside of the scope5 The profita%ility of the apartment owners is not directly rele"ant $f the profita%ility of the apartments increases, it would help increase supply %ecause other companies would %e drawn into the mar&et, thus increasing supply $ndeed this loo&s good and as if it is an assumption, %ut =Only current apartment owners= is too limiting !ow a%out newer apartment owners5 The profits made %y =only current owners= is not the issue at hand8 it is the price of apartments Again, as pre"iously mentioned, answer choices that use words such as =only= tend to %e outside the scope of the question !ere =only= is too restricti"e and allows you to eliminate this answer choice d3 +ew apartment construction will generate a great number of ,obs This is clearly outside of the scope e3 (he increase in the number of apartments available would exceed the number of new potential apartment residents AhaG This is an argument a%out supply and demand, and this is an answer a%out supply and demand This is clearly within the scope of the argument, and it is the correct answer $f demand rose with new apartment construction, then prices would not decline, in"alidating their argument

/ 1etermining structure 2this is a difficult and in?depth section

ha"e limited time to prepare, s&ip to .ection (' 1on#t read, s&im3

$f you

The essays on the are organi)ed using a "ariety of structures $f you identify the structures, you can more easily identify the author#s point $n this section, we go through fi"e forms of essay structure that you are li&ely to encounter !. "hronological #attern 4hen the focus of a text is a change, a transformation, or a sequence of actions unfolding o"er time, then chronological order is the pattern of choice for that text Consider the following sentence' When the plague entered northern -rance in .ul , 1/40, it settled first in +ormand and, checked b winter, gave 1icard a deceptive interim until the next summer# The sentence emphasi)es the interruption in the spread of plague, a concept lin&ed to chronology The plague entered 6orthern France in Huly, :+-I, settled first in 6ormandy, was chec&ed %y winter, and ga"e *icardy a decepti"e interim until the next summer $. %patial #attern This pattern organi)es information %y location, orientation or configuration Consider the following passage' !ut if the 2omans couldn't, or didn't care to, con3uer the 4ermans, the latter e3uall could not then con3uer the 2omans# (he standoff deflected 4erman expansion toward the east5 b the third centur it had pushed as far as the 6nieper# $tretching now from the +orth $ea to southern 2ussia and from $candinavia to the 2oman frontier, )ommon 4ermanic inevitabl evolved from a fairl uniform tongue into three distinct, though still closel related, languages# +orth 4ermanic 7ancestor of the $candinavian tongues8 covered most of +orwa and $weden5 9ast 4ermanic 7which included 4othic and several other extinct dialects8 covered 9astern 9urope and southern 2ussia# West 4ermanic, ancestor of all the other modern 4ermanic tongues, including 9nglish, was spoken from the coasts of the +orth $ea and western !altic south to the 2oman frontier# 6ote the pre"alence of phrases that denote geographic expansion of the Germans or their containment in territories held %y the Romans 6ote also the predicta%ility of this passage' it descri%es the north?south and the east?west %oundaries of the spread of the German languages 2the geographic whole3 and then differentiates three parts of the whole according to directions' the Far 6orth, the east, and the west !ere, the spatial pattern is in ser"ice' the author states a relationship, in this case, a correspondence %etween geographic and linguistic expansion 3. &ierarchical #attern *assages organi)ed %y hierarchy, a ran&ed series, create an order where no natural relationship 2such as chronological or spatial relationship3 exists For example, if no natural chronological or spatial characteristic is a critical aspect of the matter descri%ed, then the text may designate a grouping according to a

system of some sort Di&e chronological and spatial order, a hierarchical pattern mo"es in a linear direction, and for this reason, it creates a pattern of expectation for the reader Once you ha"e identified the principle of order 2for example, lesser to greater, least familiar to most familiar, colder to hotter3, you can anticipate and assimilate later information and understand the general framewor& Consider the wor&ing out of a hierarchy in support of a thesis in this passage' 0ecause of their extra"agance, "iolence, and "ainglory, tournaments were continually %eing denounced %y popes and &ings, from whom they drained money This was in "ain 4hen the 1ominicans denounced them as a pagan circus, no one listened 4hen the formida%le .t 0ernard thundered that anyone &illed in a tournament would go to !ell, he spo&e for once to deaf ears 1eath in a tournament was officially considered the sin of suicide %y the Church, %esides 7eopardi)ing family and tenantry without cause, %ut e"en threats of excommunication had no effect According to the thesis, the denunciation of tournaments %y popes and &ings failed The 1ominicans denounced them, %ut no one listened8 .t 0ernard thundered %ut spo&e to deaf ears8 the Church threatened excommunication, to no effect Bou percei"e a hierarchical order in the increasing degree of se"erity of these denunciations, and that regularity gi"es pattern to the passage '. (eneral)to)%pecific #attern This pattern is especially useful in argumentation Argumentati"e writing ma&es a general argument, de"elops it %y a grouping of specific examples that gi"e e"idence for the claim, and concludes %y restating the general argument !ere is the pattern' o (eneral %tatement, followed %y o e"idence o e"idence o more e"idence Consider the following passage' Throughout the se"enteenth century, the French medical profession had what we should call a thoroughly %ad press8 Moliere Ja satiric dramatistK conferred upon its mem%ers an inglorious morality, the satirists did their worst with them, and, in pri"ate correspondence, the physician was almost always presented as a cross %etween a murderer and a %uffoon This passage starts with a general claim of the widespread negati"e "iew of the medical profession in France in the :Lth century The general claim rests on three factual pieces of e"idence that are stated after the initial claim' Moliere attac&ed the profession in his farces8 satirists sa"agely attac&ed it8 persons in pri"ate life attac&ed it

*. %pecific)to)(eneral #attern The specific?to?general pattern presents a series of related examples whose relationship is unclear until the passage draws them to a conclusion or general claim !ere is the pattern' o example o example o example o (eneral statement

Consider this passage' Frogs react quic&ly and effecti"ely to %ugs that fly past them This %y no means implies that they ha"e a concept of %ug $ndeed, we can %e pretty sure that they do not, or at %est, that their concept of %ug %oth under? and o"er?generali)es to a rather gross extent For instance, they will o"ergenerali)e %y snapping at %ug?si)ed pellets that are flipped past them, %ut will undergenerali)e %y totally ignoring motionless %ugs e"en when no other food source is a"aila%le The most parsimonious explanation of their %eha"ior is that networ&s of cells that respond to rapid mo"ement and small rounded o%7ects are directly lin&ed to the snapping reflex and that there is nothing more sophisticated than this inside the frog#s %rain $n this passage, statements that descri%e %eha"ior of frogs in certain instances are the categories' frogs react quic&ly and effecti"ely to %ugs, they snap at %ug?si)e pellets, they totally ignore motionless %ugs The general claim that accounts for all these specific %eha"iors is phrased at the end of the paragraph

F 1on#t read, s&im

The test grades you on the a%ility to answer questions, not whether or not you understand e"ery nuance in the text 1o not try to memori)e information Ma&e a slight mental note of something that seems important Focus instead on the structure, the argument, and what the writer is trying to say 1raw a mental road map so that if you are as&ed a question on the detail later, you may quic&ly locate the information +,TE-N+T./E %T-+TE(0) %#EE1 -E+1.N(: A common strategy to read quic&er is to focus on the first sentence of paragraphs Thin& a%out it, each essay is well written and well written paragraphs are usually summari)ed in the first sentence Thus, you can theoretically O6DB read the first sentence and ignore the %alance of each paragraph .ince you aren#t graded on reading the essay 27ust getting the questions right3 there is no reason that you ha"e to read the entire essay Bou can construct a mental road map of the essay %y simply reading the first sentence of each paragraph This will sa"e you time and gi"e you more time to focus on the questions themsel"es $n sum, there are six different strategies to analy)ing reading comprehension sections

A 0 C 1 / F

$dentify the writer#s purpose and "oice Find the essay#s main point Find the purpose of each paragraph 1etermine the scope of the argument 1etermine the structure 1on#t Read, .&im

$$ Three Most Common ,uestion Types

A Recall questions 0 .ynthesis C Comprehension

A Recall ,uestions
Recall questions as& you to recall %y name &ey organi)ing terms 2features, causes, and characteristics3, special disciplinary terms, technical terms, metaphors and similes, sym%ols, and@or quantities $t#s fairly simple to identify a recall question from its stem' o According to the passage@author o The author states that o The author mentions which one of the following as Often, these questions pro"ide "ery direct clues a%out where an answer may %e found, such as line references or some text that lin&s up with the passage structure Bou may recall that we ad"ised you to s&im o"er details in Reading Comprehension passages and to focus on the topic, scope, and purpose This appears to %e a contradiction with these highly specific detail questions The fact is most of the details that appear in a typical passage aren#t tested in the questions Of the few that are, you#ll either o o o Remem%er them from your reading8 0e gi"en a line reference to %ring you right to them8 or .imply ha"e to find them on your own in order to trac& down the answer

$f your mental road map and understanding of the purpose of each paragraph are %oth clear in your mind, it shouldn#t ta&e long to locate the rele"ant detail and then choose an answer 1espite this question type, the winning strategy is still to note the purpose of details in each paragraph#s argument, %ut not to attempt to memori)e the details themsel"es Consider the following passage'

/ntire disciplines contain scientists who participate in communities of colleagues Crudely stated, what enli"ens this system is recognition?incenti"es from within the discipline Recognition facilitates access to funding, %ut the primary currency is said to %e social and intellectual rather than financial .cientists are fa"ored with honors and awards, which are em%lematic affirmations and increments of status within their specialties Of these, eponymy??i e , the designation, in this case of an entire science or a particular inno"ation %y reference to the disco"erer#s name??is the most enduring, the most distinguished, and therefore, the most co"eted form of recognition The recall 2uestion asks: 4hich of the following %est descri%es what animates the system of rewards in scientific research5 A3 financial rewards 03 honors and awards specific to excellence in the science C3 social and intellectual recognition 13 competition for original disco"ery /3 exchange of original information

The recall question as&s only that you retrie"e factual data stated flatly in the passage $n this case, the correct answer is 2C3 Recall questions can almost always %e answered %y a direct quote' =Recognition facilitates access to funding, %ut the primary currency is said to %e social and intellectual rather than financial = The primary currency is =social and intellectual = That is the answer .trategy :' Recall questions tend to occur more at the lower s&ill le"els 0ecause the test is a CAT, lower s&ill le"el students will tend to encounter them more .trategy C' $f the passage puts a highly unusual phrase in quotes or emphasi)es some unusual 7argon, ma&e a mental note of it %ecause there is a good chance that an important piece of 7argon or new phrase may %e used in a question $n this case, when you are reading the essay, you can expect a question a%out =eponymy=

0 .ynthesis ,uestions
.ynthesis questions as& that you identify the whole o%7ect, system, organism, process, or idea and@or esta%lish the relationship of the whole to its parts Consider the following passage' These stages reflect the system of color discrimination common to all primates Roughly, four paired sets of neurons respond to light of different wa"elengths, the pair that responds to light@dar& distinctions %eing phylogenetically the oldest The pair that responds to red@green is perhaps the second oldest, and so on

$n other words, the distinctions that ha"e %een longest within the power of our remote ancestors to ma&e are the most li&ely to %e represented in language, while more recent ones are progressi"ely less li&ely, and those that depend on cultural rather than %iological factors 2the %rowns, pin&s, and so on3 are rarer still The synthesis question as&s the following' $n this passage, color discrimination is descri%ed as' A3 deri"ing from the "isual properties of o%7ects 03 deri"ing from cultural factors to a lesser extent than from %iological factors C3 occurring in fixed order corresponding to phylogenetic order of de"elopment of sets of neurons 13 deri"ing from %iological factors to a lesser extent than from cultural factors /3 occurring first at random in response to en"ironmental circumstances, then in increasingly predicta%le stages Although 203 may %e deri"ed from the passage, the most %roadly correct answer is 2C3 2C3 ma&es a general claim a%out the whole' that the system of color discrimination 2whole3 proceeds in stages 2parts3 according to a particular order 2phylogeneticage3 2A3 is incorrect The passage flatly declares that color discrimination does not deri"e from specific o%7ects 203 is correct %ut too narrow 213 is flatly contradicted %y the information in the passage The conditions of 2/3 are not mentioned at all in the passage

". "omprehension 3uestions

Comprehension questions deri"e from the full factual, organi)ational, and argumentati"e field of the passage These questions draw on all your resources of analysis and understanding and as& that you restate, interpret, or deduce logically consistent statements from the thesis or general claim of a passage They typically loo& li&e this' o $t can %e inferred from the passage that o The passage@author suggests thatM o The passage@author implies that o The passage supports which one of the following statements regarding $n answering the comprehension question, you must determine the thesis or general claim of the passage Frequently, %ut not always, this will %e the first or the last sentence of the passage $t will ad"ance a %road claim relati"e to the parts@whole or reasons gi"en as e"idence in the passage Bou must also loo& closely at the conditions expressed in the word choice of the thesis or general claim /xtracting "alid inferences from Reading Comprehension passages requires the a%ility to recogni)e that information in the passage can %e expressed in different ways The a%ility to %ridge the gap %etween the way information is presented in the passage and the way it#s presented in the correct answer choice is "ital $n fact, comprehension questions often %oil down to an exercise in =translation = Consider the general claim of this passage' This is the no%le lie, which *lato %roaches through the mouth of .ocrates in the third %oo& of the 2epublic =!ow, then,= .ocrates as&s, =might we contri"e one of those opportune falsehoods of which we were 7ust now spea&ing, so as %y one no%le lie to

persuade the rulers themsel"es, %ut failing that the rest of the city5= *lato assumes that the rulers, %eing philosophers, may gulp at their own propaganda %ut that the masses might e"entually %e %rought to swallow it May we infer that *lato appro"es of .ocrates# proposal5 May we infer that .ocrates %ears male"olence toward the populace5 May we infer that .ocrates was extremely reluctant to use terror as an instrument of persuasion5 6one of these inferences is supported %y the statements gi"en !owe"er, we may infer that .ocrates has spo&en of se"eral opportune falsehoods %efore the time of this telling 4e may infer, on the %asis of *lato#s inference, that %ecause the rulers are philosophers, they may gulp at their own propaganda A close reading will support each of these inferences .trategy :' Comprehension questions don#t focus on indi"idual issues 4hen a question as&s, =4hat is the main point of the passage5=, the answer will not %e a small detail .trategy C' 0e alert for partially correct answers Occasionally you will encounter an instance in which two or more answers to a question are correct 4hen you do, loo& for the most %roadly and comprehensi"ely accurate answer, the one that accounts correctly for the greatest num%er of aspects or features or parts or qualities named in the reading passage For example, an answer may %e correct %ut too narrow8 the %est answer will %e %oth correct and %roadly inclusi"e within the scope of the question

$$$ - .tep Method of Attac&ing Reading Comprehension *assages and .ample /ssay
$n the a%o"e section we ga"e you the six strategies to analy)e a Reading Comprehension text and what the common questions are 6ow you need to &now how to apply them when you get to a passage'

1. 2. 3. 4.

1issect the introductory paragraph Create a mental road map Once you finish the essay, stop to summari)e the entire passage Tac&le the questions !. 1issect the intro uctory paragraph. Read the introductory paragraph in an acti"e manner Thin& through the concepts while you are reading the text 4hat is the author#s point5 4hat is he trying to pro"e5 $. "reate a mental roa map. 1iagram the organi)ation of the passage 4hat are the purposes of the different paragraphs5 4hat is the content of the different paragraphs5 Bou are not graded on reading the essay, %ut answering the questions Bour goal here is to simply get an idea of roughly how the essay wor&s Bou do not need a perfect understanding of the essay and do not ha"e enough time to read it completely $nstead, attac& each paragraph %y reading the first

sentence and quic&ly s&imming the rest 4hen you#"e read all of the paragraphs, you can get an idea a%out the essay#s organi)ation 3. %top to summari4e the essay. 0efore answering the questions, ta&e a few seconds to summari)e your mental road map and the point of the essay '. Tackle the 2uestions. Answer the questions %ased on your mental road map of the passage Docate the answer to each question within the paragraph that relates to the question !ere you may ha"e to read more thoroughly than when you were s&imming in step C a%o"e

To see how these techni2ues work, try the sample essay below: One of the most persistently trou%ling parts of national domestic policy is the de"elopment and use of water resources 0ecause the technology of water management in"ol"es similar construction s&ills, whether the tas& is the %uilding of an ocean 7etty for protection of shipping or the construction of a ri"er dam for flood control and irrigation, the issues of water policy ha"e mingled pro%lems of na"igation and agriculture A further inherent complexity of water policy is the frequent conflict %etween flood control and irrigation and %etween requirements for a%undance and those for scarcity of water 0oth pro%lems exist in America, often in the same ri"er %asins8 the one is most typically the pro%lem of the lower part of the %asin and the other the pro%lem of the upper part Then there are the pro%lems of cities located along the ma7or American ri"ers, not infrequently directly on the "ery flood plains of highly erratic streams $n the arid parts of the land it has recently %ecome clear that climate "aries o"er time, with irregular periods of serious drought followed %y wet periods mar&ed %y occasional floods The pro%lems of land and water, then, are inherently difficult For this reason alone, shortcomings and failures ha"e pro%a%ly %een ine"ita%le Moreo"er, in the scale of the underta&ings that ha"e %een attempted in"ol"ing on occasion no less than the re"ersal of stream flow and the altering of the natural features of whole ri"er %asins, it is ine"ita%le 6e"ertheless, the most startling fact a%out the history of water pro7ects in the 9nited .tates is the degree to which their shortcomings ha"e %een associated with administrati"e failures Again and again these shortcomings ha"e pro"ed to %e the consequences of inadequate study of water flow' of soil, of factors other than construction technology and of faulty organi)ation $n :;<;, the .enate .elect Committee on 6ational 4ater resources found that twenty different national commissions or committees charged with examining these pro%lems and see&ing solutions had emphasi)ed with remar&a%le consistency the need for coordination among agencies dealing with water

Det#s ta&e a second to follow the set strategy

!. 1issect the first paragraph. One of the most persistently trou%ling parts of national domestic policy is the de"elopment and use of water resources 0ecause the technology of water management in"ol"es similar construction s&ills, whether the tas& is the %uilding of an ocean 7etty for protection of shipping or the construction of a ri"er dam for flood control and irrigation, the issues of water policy ha"e mingled pro%lems of na"igation and agriculture A further inherent complexity of water policy is the frequent conflict %etween flood control and irrigation %etween requirements for a%undance and those for scarcity of water 0oth pro%lems exist in America, often in the same ri"er %asins8 the one is most typically the pro%lem of the lower part of the %asin and the other the pro%lem of the upper part

The main point is that there are pro%lems with water management that result from conflicts of interest %etween flood control, irrigation, na"igation and the upper@lower parts of the %asin $. "reate a mental roa map. *aragraph : is a%out the pro%lems with water management that result from conflicts of interest %etween flood control, irrigation, na"igation and the upper@lower parts of the %asin *aragraph C descri%es the effects of floods, streams and other natural "ariances that add another le"el of complexity to the issue *aragraph + descri%es how the attempts to deal with these conflicts ha"e %een incompetently managed 6ote the use of strong phrase =startling = $t appears that the author#s main point is in paragraph + 3. %top to summari4e the essay Clearly, the author#s main intention of writing this essay is to re"eal the incompetence of agencies managing water The first two paragraphs descri%e the scale of the pro%lem8 the final paragraph descri%es the pro%lems faced in attempting to sol"e it '. Tackle the 2uestions. !. +ccor ing to the passage, the shortcomings of water pro5ects in the 6.%. are primarily the conse2uences of7 a3 conflict %etween flood control and irrigation %3 inadequate study and faulty coordination among agencies c3 *ro%lems of land and water d3 inadequate construction technology e3 the scale of the pro7ects

/xplanation' The passage ma&es it clear that the primary cause of the shortcomings of water pro7ects in the 9 . is 203 inadequate study and faulty coordination among agencies The

passage does not refer to conflicts %etween flood control, pro%lems of land and water, inadequate construction technology, or the scale of pro7ects The correct answer is 203 !a"ing the discipline to stic& to the - point strategy pays off here 4e identified that the main point of the passage was incompetent agencies in step + 4e used our &nowledge that the author will use strong language =startling incompetence= to identify his main point The author#s purpose here is to point out %ad management

$. 8f the issues name below, which is more typically the problem of the upper part of a river basin7 a3 na"igation %3 shipping c3 flood control d3 drought followed %y wet period e3 scarcity

This is a simple recall question The passage ma&es it clear that in the lower part of the %asin, flooding is the pro%lem8 in the upper part, scarcity is the pro%lem .carcity is the only pro%lem identified with the upper part of a %asin 2A3, 203, 2C3, and 213 are irrele"ant to this question and, as a result, are incorrect 2/3 is the correct answer

3. 9hich of the following is not a problem associate with the evelopment of water resources7 a3 a conflict %etween flood control and irrigation %3 pro%lems of na"igation and agriculture c3 location of cities on flood plains d3 inadequate design technology e3 "ariations in climate

The passage ma&es it plain that 2A3, conflict of purpose8 203, practical pro%lems of use8 2C3, "ulnera%ility of cities on flood plains8 and 2/3, climatic "ariations, impede the de"elopment of water resources 1esign technology is not one of the impediments identified %y this passage The correct answer is 213

'. 9hich statement below may be inferre from the information given in this passage7 a3 The intersection of pro%lems of climate, geography, purpose,

technology, and administration complicates the de"elopment of water pro7ects %3 $nno"ati"e design and construction technology eliminate conflict in demand for flood control and for irrigation c3 $n the design of a water pro7ect, upper and lower parts of a ri"er %asin must %e regarded as identical entities d3 $n the design of a water pro7ect, predominant pro%lems deri"e from the presence of erratic streams e3 $rregularity of climate is the most critical impediment to the de"elopment of water pro7ects

The passage ma&es it clear that pro%lems of climate, geography, purpose, and technology complicate the de"elopment of water pro7ects, %ut the most serious impediment is inadequate study and faulty coordination The inference in 203 is wholly unsupported %y the passage 2C3 directly contradicts the ma7or scientific argument of the passage The inferences in 213 and 2/3 are not supported %y information in the passage This question is easy to get %ecause all of the concepts are co"ered in the road map The correct answer is 2A3

Re"iew
!. 1issect the intro uctory paragraph. Read the introductory paragraph in an acti"e manner Thin& through the concepts while you are reading the text 4hat is the author#s point5 4hat is he trying to pro"e5 $. "reate a mental roa map. 1iagram the organi)ation of the passage 3. %top to summari4e the essay. 0efore answering the questions, ta&e a few seconds to summari)e your mental road map '. Tackle the 2uestions. Answer the questions %ased on your mental road map of the passage

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