Ancient Rome From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Ancient Rome Portal The

Roman Empire reached its greatest e tent in the year !!"# Area under Roman control Roman Repu$lic Roman Empire Western Empire Eastern Empire %nheriting countries of the &y'antine EmpireAncient Rome (as a civili'ation that gre( from a small agricultural community founded on the %talian Peninsula in the )th century &* to a large empire straddling the +editerranean ,ea#-!. %n its t(elve centuries of e istence, Roman civili'ation shifted from a monarchy, to a repu$lic $ased on a com$ination of oligarchy and democracy, to an increasingly autocratic empire# %t came to dominate Western Europe and the area surrounding the +editerranean ,ea through con/uest and assimilation# The Roman empire (ent into decline in the 0th century A1# Plagued $y internal insta$ility and attacked $y various migrating peoples, the (estern part of the empire, including 2ispania, 3aul, and %taly, $roke up into independent kingdoms in the 0th century# The eastern part of the empire, governed from *onstantinople, survived this crisis, and (ould live on for another millennium, until its last remains (ere finally anne ed $y the emerging 4ttoman Empire# This eastern, medieval stage of the Empire is usually referred to as the &y'antine Empire $y historians# Roman civili'ation is often grouped into 5classical anti/uity5 (ith ancient 3reece, a civili'ation that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome# Ancient Rome contri$uted greatly to the development of la(, (ar, art, literature, architecture, technology and language in the Western (orld, and its history continues to have a ma6or influence on the (orld today# *ontents -hide. ! 2istory !#! +onarchy !#7 Repu$lic !#8 Empire 7 ,ociety 7#! 3overnment 7#7 9a( 7#8 Economy 7#: *lass structure 7#0 Family 7#" Education 8 *ulture 8#! 9anguage 8#7 Religion 8#8 Art, music and literature 8#: 3ames and activities : Technology :#! Engineering :#7 Architecture :#8 Roads :#: A/ueducts :#0 ,e(ers 0 +ilitary " ,cholarly studies ; ,ee also

< =otes ) References !> Further reading !! E ternal links

2istory Further information: 2istory of Rome and Timeline of ancient Rome +onarchy +ain article: Roman ?ingdom According to legend, Rome (as founded in ;08 &* $y Romulus and Remus, (ho (ere raised $y a she@ (olf#According to legend, Rome (as founded on April 7!, ;08 &* $y t(in descendants of the Tro6an prince Aeneas, Romulus and Remus#-7. The 9atin ?ing =umitor of Al$a 9onga (as e6ected from his throne $y his cruel $rother Amulius and =umitorAs daughter, Rhea ,ilvia, gave $irth to Romulus and Remus#-8.-:. Rhea ,ilvia (as a Bestal Birgin (ho (as raped $y +ars, making the t(ins half@divine# The ne( king feared that Romulus and Remus (ould take $ack the throne, so they (ere to $e dro(ned# -:. A she@(olf Cor a shepherdAs (ife in some accountsD saved and raised them, and (hen they (ere old enough, they returned the throne of Al$a 9onga to =umitor#-0.-". The t(ins then founded their o(n city, $ut Romulus killed Remus in a /uarrel over (hich one of them (as to reign as the ?ing of Rome# Romulus $ecame the source of the cityAs name#-;. As the city (as $ereft of (omen, legend says that the 9atins invited the ,a$ines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the 9atins and the ,a$ines#-<. The city of Rome gre( from settlements around a ford on the river Ti$er, a crossroads of traffic and trade#-0. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome (as pro$a$ly founded sometime in the <th century &*, though it may go $ack as far as the !>th century &*, $y mem$ers of the 9atin tri$e of %taly, on the top of the Palatine 2ill#-).-!>. The Etruscans, (ho had previously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have esta$lished political control in the region $y the late ;th century &*, forming the aristocratic and monarchial elite# The Etruscans apparently lost po(er in the area $y the late "th century &*, and at this point, the original 9atin and ,a$ine tri$es reinvented their government $y creating a repu$lic, (ith much greater restraints on the a$ility of rulers to e ercise po(er#-!!. Repu$lic +ain article: Roman Repu$lic 3aius +arius, a Roman general and politician (ho dramatically reformed the Roman military#The Roman Repu$lic (as esta$lished around 0>) &*, according to later (riters such as 9ivy, (hen the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tar/uin the Proud, (as deposed, and a system $ased on annually elected magistrates and various representative assem$lies (as esta$lished#-!7. A constitution set a series of checks and $alances, and a separation of po(ers# The most important magistrates (ere the t(o consuls, (ho together e ercised e ecutive authority in the form of imperium, or military command#-!8. The consuls had to (ork (ith the senate, (hich (as initially an advisory council of the ranking no$ility, or patricians, $ut gre( in si'e and po(er over time#-!:. 4ther magistracies in the Repu$lic include praetors, aediles, and /uaestors#-!0. The magistracies (ere originally restricted to patricians, $ut (ere later opened to common people, or ple$eians#-!0. Repu$lican voting assem$lies included the comitia centuriata Ccenturiate assem$lyD, (hich voted on matters of (ar and peace and elected men to the most important offices, and the comitia tri$uta Ctri$al assem$lyD, (hich elected less important offices#-!". *hart ,ho(ing the *hecks and &alances of the Roman *onstitution# The Romans gradually su$dued the other peoples on the %talian peninsula, including the Etruscans#-!;. The last threat to Roman hegemony in %taly came (hen Tarentum, a ma6or 3reek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 7<! &*, $ut this effort failed as (ell#-!<.-!). The Romans secured their con/uests $y founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, esta$lishing sta$le control over the region# -7>. %n the second half of the 8rd century &*, Rome clashed (ith *arthage in the first of three Punic Wars# These (ars resulted in RomeAs first overseas con/uests, of ,icily and 2ispania, and the rise of

Rome as a significant imperial po(er#-7!.-77. After defeating the +acedonian and ,eleucid Empires in the 7nd century &*, the Romans $ecame the dominant people of the +editerranean ,ea#-78.-7:. Foreign dominance led to internal strife# ,enators $ecame rich at the provincesA e pense, $ut soldiers, (ho (ere mostly small@scale farmers, (ere a(ay from home longer and could not maintain their land, and the increased reliance on foreign slaves and the gro(th of latifundia reduced the availa$ility of paid (ork#-70.-7". %ncome from (ar $ooty, mercantilism in the ne( provinces, and ta farming created ne( economic opportunities for the (ealthy, forming a ne( class of merchants, the e/uestrians# -7;. The le *laudia for$ade mem$ers of the ,enate from engaging in commerce, so (hile the e/uestrians could theoretically 6oin the ,enate, they (ere severely restricted in terms of political po(er# -7<.-7;. The ,enate s/ua$$led perpetually, repeatedly $locking important land reforms and refusing to give the e/uestrian class a larger say in the government# Biolent gangs of the ur$an unemployed, controlled $y rival ,enators, intimidated the electorate through violence# The situation came to a head in the late 7nd century &* under the 3racchi $rothers, a pair of tri$unes (ho attempted to pass land reform legislation that (ould redistri$ute the ma6or patrician landholdings among the ple$eians# &oth $rothers (ere killed, $ut the ,enate passed some of their reforms in an attempt to placate the gro(ing unrest of the ple$eian and e/uestrian classes# The denial of Roman citi'enship to allied %talian cities led to the ,ocial War of )!E<< &*#-7). The military reforms of 3aius +arius resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a po(erful general could hold the city and ,enate ransom#-8>. This led to civil (ar $et(een +arius and his protegF ,ulla, and culminated in ,ullaAs dictatorship of <!E;) &*#-8!. %n the mid@!st century &*, three men, Julius *aesar, Pompey, and *rassus, formed a secret pactGthe First TriumvirateGto control the Repu$lic# After *aesarAs con/uest of 3aul, a stand@off $et(een *aesar and the ,enate led to civil (ar, (ith Pompey leading the ,enateAs forces# *aesar emerged victorious, and (as made dictator for life#-87. %n :: &*, *aesar (as assassinated $y senators (ho opposed *aesarAs assumption of a$solute po(er and (anted to restore constitutional government, $ut in the aftermath a ,econd Triumvirate, consisting of *aesarAs designated heir, 4ctavian, and his former supporters, +ark Antony and 9epidus, took po(er#-88.-8:. 2o(ever, this alliance soon descended into a struggle for dominance# 9epidus (as e iled, and (hen 4ctavian defeated Antony and *leopatra of Egypt at the &attle of Actium in 8! &*, he $ecame the undisputed ruler of Rome#-80. Empire +ain article: Roman Empire With his enemies defeated, 4ctavian took the name Augustus and assumed almost a$solute po(er, retaining only a pretense of the Repu$lican form of government#-8". 2is designated successor, Ti$erius, took po(er (ithout serious opposition, esta$lishing the Julio@*laudian dynasty, (hich lasted until the death of =ero in "<#-8;. The territorial e pansion of (hat (as no( the Roman Empire continued, and the state remained secure,-8<. despite a series of emperors (idely vie(ed as depraved and corrupt Cfor e ample, *aligula is argued $y some to have $een insane and =ero had a reputation for cruelty and $eing more interested in his private concerns than the affairs of the state-8).D# Their rule (as follo(ed $y the Flavian dynasty#-:>. 1uring the reign of the 5Five 3ood Emperors5 C)"E!<>D, the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural 'enith#-:!. The state (as secure from $oth internal and e ternal threats, and the Empire prospered during the Pa Romana C5Roman Peace5D#-:7. -:8. With the con/uest of 1acia during the reign of Tra6an, the Empire reached the peak of its territorial e pansionH RomeAs dominion no( spanned 7#0 million s/uare miles C"#0 million kmID#-::. The period $et(een !)8 and 780 (as dominated $y the ,everan dynasty, and sa( several incompetent rulers, such as Elaga$alus#-:0. This and the increasing influence of the army on imperial succession led to a long period of imperial collapse and e ternal invasions kno(n as the *risis of the Third *entury# -:".-:;. The crisis (as ended $y the more competent rule of 1iocletian, (ho in 7)8 divided the Empire into an eastern and (estern half ruled $y a tetrarchy of t(o co@emperors and their t(o 6unior colleagues#-:<. The various co@rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for more than half a century# 4n +ay !!, 88>, Emperor *onstantine % firmly esta$lished &y'antium as the capital of the Roman Empire and renamed it *onstantinople#-:). The Empire (as permanently divided into the Eastern Roman Empire Clater kno(n as the &y'antine EmpireD and the Western Roman Empire in 8)0# -0>.

The Western Empire (as constantly harassed $y $ar$arian invasions, and the gradual decline of the Roman Empire continued over the centuries#-0!. %n the :th century, the (est(ard migration of the 2uns caused the Bisigoths to seek refuge (ithin the $orders of the Roman Empire#-07. %n :!>, the Bisigoths, under the leadership of Alaric %, sacked the city of Rome itself#-08. The Bandals invaded Roman provinces in 3aul, ,pain, and northern Africa, and in :00 sacked Rome#-0:. 4n ,eptem$er :, :;", the 3ermanic chief 4doacer forced the last Roman emperor in the (est, Romulus Augustus, to a$dicate#-00. 2aving lasted for appro imately !7>> years, the rule of Rome in the West came to an end#-0". The Eastern Empire, $y contrast, (ould suffer a similar fate, though not as drastic# Justinian managed to $riefly recon/uer =orthern Africa and %taly, $ut &y'antine possessions in the West (ere reduced to southern %taly and ,icily (ithin a fe( years after JustinianAs death#-0;. %n the east the &y'antines (ere threatened $y the rise of %slam, (hose follo(ers rapidly con/uered territories in ,yria and Egypt and soon presented a direct threat to *onstantinople#-0<. The &y'antines, ho(ever, managed to stop %slamic e pansion into their lands during the <th century, and $eginning in the )th century reclaimed the con/uered lands#-0).-0<. %n !>>> A1 the Eastern Empire (as at its height: &asileios %% recon/uered &ulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade flourished#-">. 2o(ever, soon after the e pansion (as a$ruptly stopped in !>;! at the &attle of +an'ikert# This finally lead the empire into a dramatic decline# ,everal centuries of internal strife and Turkic invasions ultimately paved the (ay for Emperor Ale ius % *omnenus to send a call for help to the West in !>)0#-0<. The West responded (ith the *rusades, eventually resulting in the ,ack of *onstantinople $y participants in the Fourth *rusade# The con/uest of *onstantinople in !7>: (ould see the fragmentation of (hat little remained of the empire into successor states, the ultimate victor $eing that of =icaea#-"!. After the recapture of *onstantinople $y imperial forces, the empire (as little more than a 3reek state confined to the Aegean coast# The Eastern Empire came to an end (hen +ehmed %% con/uered *onstantinople on +ay 7), !:08#-"7. ,ociety The Roman Forum (as the central area around (hich ancient Rome developed, and served as a hu$ for daily Roman life#9ife in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, located on seven hills# The city had a vast num$er of monumental structures like the *olosseum, the Forum of Tra6an and the Pantheon# %t had fountains (ith fresh drinking@(ater supplied $y hundreds of miles of a/ueducts, theatres, gymnasiums, $ath comple es complete (ith li$raries and shops, marketplaces, and functional se(ers# Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas# %n the capital city of Rome, there (ere imperial residences on the elegant Palatine 2ill, from (hich the (ord palace is derived# The lo( and middle classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, (hich (ere almost like modern ghettos# The imperial city of Rome (as the largest ur$an center of its time, (ith a population of a$out one million people Ca$out the si'e of 9ondon in the early !)th century, (hen 9ondon (as the largest city in the (orldD, (ith some high@end estimates of !: million and lo(@end estimates of :0>,>>>#-"8.-":.-"0. The pu$lic spaces in Rome resounded (ith such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot (heels that Julius *aesar had once proposed a $an on chariot traffic during the day# 2istorical estimates indicate that around 7> percent of the population under 6urisdiction of ancient Rome C70E:>J, depending the standards used, in Roman %taly-"".D lived in innumera$le ur$an centers, (ith population of !>,>>> and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of ur$ani'ation $y pre@industrial standards# +ost of these centers had a forum and temples and same type of $uildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome# 3overnment For more details on this topic, see 1emocracy in Ancient Rome# &ust of Julius *aesar, (hose rise to po(er and assassination set the stage for Augustus to esta$lish himself as the first Princeps#%nitially, Rome (as ruled $y kings, (ho (ere elected from each of RomeAs ma6or tri$es in turn#-";. The e act nature of the kingAs po(er is uncertain# 2e may have held near@ a$solute po(er, or may also have merely $een the chief e ecutive of the ,enate and the people# At least in military matters, the kingAs authority C%mperiumD (as likely a$solute# 2e (as also the head of the

state religion# %n addition to the authority of the ?ing, there (ere three administrative assem$lies: the ,enate, (hich acted as an advisory $ody for the ?ingH the *omitia *uriata, (hich could endorse and ratify la(s suggested $y the ?ingH and the *omitia *alata, (hich (as an assem$ly of the priestly college (hich could assem$le the people in order to $ear (itness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday schedule for the ne t month# The class struggles of the Roman Repu$lic resulted in an unusual mi ture of democracy and oligarchy# The (ord repu$lic comes from the 9atin res pu$lica (hich literally translates to pu$lic $usiness# Roman la(s traditionally could only $e passed $y a vote of the Popular assem$ly C*omitia Tri$utaD# 9ike(ise, candidates for pu$lic positions had to run for election $y the people# 2o(ever, the Roman ,enate represented an oligarchic institution, (hich acted as an advisory $ody# %n the Repu$lic, the ,enate held great authority CauctoritasD, $ut no actual legislative po(erH it (as technically only an advisory council# 2o(ever, as the ,enators (ere individually very influential, it (as difficult to accomplish anything against the collective (ill of the ,enate# =e( ,enators (ere chosen from among the most accomplished patricians $y *ensors C*ensuraD, (ho could also remove a ,enator from his office if he (as found 5morally corrupt5H a charge that could include $ri$ery or, as under *ato the Elder, em$racing oneAs (ife in pu$lic# 9ater, under the reforms of the dictator ,ulla, Kuaestors (ere made automatic mem$ers of the ,enate, though most of his reforms did not survive# The Repu$lic had no fi ed $ureaucracy, and collected ta es through the practice of ta farming# 3overnment positions such as /uaestor, aedile, or praefect (ere funded from the office@holderAs private finances# %n order to prevent any citi'en from gaining too much po(er, ne( magistrates (ere elected annually and had to share po(er (ith a colleague# For e ample, under normal conditions, the highest authority (as held $y t(o consuls# %n an emergency, a temporary dictator could $e appointed# Throughout the Repu$lic, the administrative system (as revised several times to comply (ith ne( demands# %n the end, it proved inefficient for controlling the ever@e panding dominion of Rome, contri$uting to the esta$lishment of the Roman Empire# %n the early Empire, the pretense of a repu$lican form of government (as maintained# The Roman Emperor (as portrayed as only a princeps, or 5first citi'en5, and the ,enate gained legislative po(er and all legal authority previously held $y the popular assem$lies# 2o(ever, the rule of the emperors $ecame increasingly autocratic over time, and the ,enate (as reduced to an advisory $ody appointed $y the emperor# The Empire did not inherit a set $ureaucracy from the Repu$lic, since the Repu$lic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the ,enate# The Emperor appointed assistants and advisers, $ut the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned $udget# ,ome historians have cited this as a significant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire# The territory of the Empire (as divided into provinces# The num$er of provinces increased (ith time, $oth as ne( territories (ere con/uered and as provinces (ere divided into smaller units to discourage re$ellions $y po(erful local rulers#-::. Lpon the rise of Augustus and the Principate, the provinces (ere divided into imperial and senatorial provinces, depending on (hich institution had the right to select the governor# 1uring the Tetrarchy, the provinces of the empire (ere divided into !7 dioceses, each headed $y a praetor vicarius# The civilian and military authority (ere separated, (ith civilian matters still administered $y the governor, $ut (ith military command transferred to a du # 4n a local level, to(ns (ere divided into colonia, colonies composed of former soldiers or mem$ers of the Roman underclass, and municipia, to(ns composed of enfranchised provincials# These cities (ere given constitutions $ased on the Roman model, (ith the elected duovirs and aediles serving as magistrates, and (ith the local curia, appointed from men of property for life, serving in an advisory capa$ility, similar to the ,enate# 9a( +ain article: Roman la( The roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Romans may $e traced to the la( of the t(elve ta$les Cfrom ::) &*D to the codification of Emperor Justinian % Caround 08> A1D# Roman la( as preserved in JustinianAs codes continued into the &y'antine Empire, and formed the $asis of similar codifications in continental Western Europe# Roman la( continued, in a $roader sense, to $e applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the !;th century#

The ma6or divisions of the la( of ancient Rome, as contained (ithin the Justinian and Theodosian la( codes, consisted of %us *ivile, %us 3entium, and %us =aturale# The %us *ivile C5*iti'en la(5D (as the $ody of common la(s that applied to Roman citi'ens#-"<. The Praetores Lr$ani Csg# Praetor Lr$anusD (ere the individuals (ho had 6urisdiction over cases involving citi'ens# The %us 3entium C59a( of nations5D (as the $ody of common la(s that applied to foreigners, and their dealings (ith Roman citi'ens#-"). The Praetores Peregrini Csg# Praetor PeregrinusD (ere the individuals (ho had 6urisdiction over cases involving citi'ens and foreigners# %us =aturale encompassed natural la(, the $ody of la(s that (ere considered common to all $eing# Economy Further information: Roman commerce, Roman finance, Roman currency, and Roman agriculture A Roman denarius, a standardi'ed silver coin#Ancient Rome commanded a vast area of land, (ith tremendous natural and human resources# As such, RomeAs economy remained focused on agriculture and trade# Agricultural free trade changed the %talian landscape, and $y the !st century &*, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, (ho (ere una$le to match the imported grain price# The anne ation of Egypt, ,icily and Tunisia in =orth Africa provided a continuous supply of grains# %n turn, olive oil and (ine (ere %talyAs main e ports# T(o@tier crop rotation (as practiced, $ut farm productivity (as overall lo(, around ! ton per hectare# %ndustrial and manufacturing activities (ere smaller# The largest such activity (ere the mining and /uarrying of stones, (hich provided $asic construction materials for the $uildings of that period# %n manufacturing, production (as on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of (orkshops and small factories that employed at most do'ens of (orkers# 2o(ever, some $rick factories employed hundreds of (orkers# ,ome economic historians Clike Peter TeminD argue that the economy of the Early Roman Empire (as a market economy and one of the most advanced agricultural economies to have e isted Cin terms of productivity, ur$ani'ation and development of capital marketsD, compara$le to the most advanced economies of the (orld $efore the %ndustrial Revolution, namely the economies of !<th century England and !;th century =etherlands# There (ere markets for every type of good, for land, for cargo shipsH there (as even an insurance market# The economy of the early Repu$lic (as largely $ased on smallholding and paid la$or# 2o(ever, foreign (ars and con/uests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and $y the late Repu$lic, the economy (as largely dependent on slave la$or for $oth skilled and unskilled (ork# ,laves are estimated to have constituted around 7>J of the Roman EmpireAs population at this time and :>J in the city of Rome# 4nly in the Roman Empire, (hen the con/uests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired la$or $ecome more economical than slave o(nership# Although $arter (as used in ancient Rome, and often used in ta collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, (ith $rass, $ron'e, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and $eyondGsome have even $een discovered in %ndia# &efore the 8rd century &*, copper (as traded $y (eight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central %taly# The original copper coins CasD had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, $ut (eighed less# Thus, Roman moneyAs utility as a unit of e change consistently e ceeded its intrinsic value as metal# After =ero $egan de$asing the silver denarius, its legal value (as an estimated one@third greater than its intrinsic# 2orses (ere too e pensive, and other pack animals too slo(, for mass trade on the Roman roads, (hich connected military posts rather than markets, and (ere rarely designed for (heels# As a result, there (as little transport of commodities $et(een Roman regions until the rise of Roman maritime trade in the 7nd century &*# 1uring that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from 3ades to Ale andria via 4stia, spanning the entire length of the +editerranean#-::. Transport $y sea (as around "> times cheaper than $y land, so the volume for such trips (as much larger# *lass structure +ain article: ,ocial class in ancient Rome

A Roman clad in a toga, the distinctive garment of ancient Rome#Roman society is largley vie(ed as hierarchical, (ith slaves CserviD at the $ottom, freedmen Cli$ertiD a$ove them, and free@$orn citi'ens CcivesD at the top# Free citi'ens (ere themselves also divided $y class# The $roadest, and earliest, division (as $et(een the patricians, (ho could trace their ancestry to one of the !>> Patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the ple$eians, (ho could not# This $ecame less important in the later Repu$lic, as some ple$eian families $ecame (ealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times# Anyone, patrician or ple$eian, (ho could count a consul as his ancestor (as a no$le Cno$ilisDH a man (ho (as the first of his family to hold the consulship, such as +arius or *icero, (as kno(n as a novus homo C5ne( man5D and enno$led his descendants# Patrician ancestry, ho(ever, still conferred considera$le prestige, and many religious offices remained restricted to patricians# A class division originally $ased on military service $ecame more important# +em$ership of these classes (as determined periodically $y the *ensors, according to property# The (ealthiest (ere the ,enatorial class, (ho dominated politics and command of the army# =e t came the e/uestrians Ce/uites, sometimes translated 5knights5D, originally those (ho could afford a (arhorse, (ho formed a po(erful mercantile class# ,everal further classes, originally $ased on (hat military e/uipment their mem$ers could afford, follo(ed, (ith the proletarii, citi'ens (ho had no property at all, at the $ottom# &efore the reforms of +arius they (ere ineligi$le for military service and are often descri$ed as $eing 6ust $arely a$ove freed slaves in terms of (ealth and prestige# Boting po(er in the Repu$lic (as dependent on class# *iti'ens (ere enrolled in voting 5tri$es5, $ut the tri$es of the richer classes had fe(er mem$ers than the poorer ones, all the proletarii $eing enrolled in a single tri$e# Boting (as done in class order and stopped as soon as a ma6ority of the tri$es had $een reached, so the poorer classes (ere often una$le even to cast their votes# Allied foreign cities (ere often given the 9atin Right, an intermediary level $et(een full citi'ens and foreigners CperegriniD, (hich gave their citi'ens rights under Roman la( and allo(ed their leading magistrates to $ecome full Roman citi'ens# While there (ere varying degrees of 9atin rights, the main division (as $et(een those con suffrage C5(ith vote5H enrolled in a Roman tri$e and a$le to take part in the comitia tri$utaD and sans suffrage C5(ithout vote5H una$le to take part in Roman politicsD# ,ome of RomeAs %talian allies (ere given full citi'enship after the ,ocial War of )!E<< &*, and full Roman citi'enship (as e tended to all free@$orn men in the Empire $y *aracalla in 7!7# Women shared some $asic rights (ith their male counterparts, $ut (ere not fully regarded as citi'ens and (ere thus not allo(ed to vote or participate in politics# Family A portrait group depicted on glass, dating from c#70> A#1#, sho(ing a mother, son and daughter# %t (as once considered to $e a depiction of the family of Balentinian %%%#The $asic units of Roman society (ere households and families#-;>. 2ouseholds included the head Cusually the fatherD of the household, pater familias Cfather of the familyD, his (ife, children, and other relatives# %n the upper classes, slaves and servants (ere also part of the household#-;>. The head of the household had great po(er Cpatria potestas, 5fatherAs po(er5D over those living (ith him: 2e could force marriage Cusually for moneyD and divorce, sell his children into slavery, claim his dependentsA property as his o(n, and even had the right to punish or kill family mem$ers Cthough this last right apparently ceased to $e e ercised after the !st century &*D#-;!. Patria potestas even e tended over adult sons (ith their o(n households: A man (as not considered a paterfamilias, nor could he truly hold property, (hile his o(n father lived#-;!.-;7. 1uring the early period of RomeAs history, a daughter, (hen she married, fell under the control CmanusD of the paterfamilias of her hus$andAs household, although $y the late Repu$lic this fell out of fashion, as a (oman could choose to continue recogni'ing her fatherAs family as her true family#-;8. 2o(ever, as Romans reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had (ould $elong to her hus$andAs family#-;:. 3roups of related households formed a family CgensD# Families (ere $ased on $lood ties Cor adoptionD, $ut (ere also political and economic alliances# Especially during the Roman Repu$lic, some po(erful families, or 3entes +aiores, came to dominate political life#

Ancient Roman marriage (as often regarded more as a financial and political alliance than as a romantic association, especially in the upper classes# Fathers usually $egan seeking hus$ands for their daughters (hen they reached an age $et(een t(elve and fourteen# The hus$and (as almost al(ays older than the $ride# While upper class girls married very young, there is evidence that lo(er class (omen often married in their late teens or early t(enties# Education +ain article: Roman school %n the early Repu$lic, there (ere no pu$lic schools, so $oys (ere taught to read and (rite $y their parents, or $y educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of 3reek origin#-;0.-;".-;;. The primary aim of education during this period (as to train young men in agriculture, (arfare, Roman traditions, and pu$lic affairs#-;0. Moung $oys learnt much a$out civic life $y accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the ,enate for the sons of no$les#-;". The sons of no$les (ere apprenticed to a prominent political figure at the age of !", and campaigned (ith the army from the age of !; Cthis system (ould still $e in use among some no$le families (ell into the imperial eraD#-;". Educational practices (ere modified follo(ing the con/uest of the 2ellenistic kingdoms in the 8rd century &* and the resulting 3reek influence, although it should $e noted that Roman educational practices (ere still significantly different from 3reek ones#-;<.-;". %f their parents could afford it, $oys and some girls at the age of ; (ere sent to a private school outside the home called a ludus, (here a teacher Ccalled a litterator or a magister ludi, and often of 3reek originD taught them $asic reading, (riting, arithmetic, and sometimes 3reek, until the age of !!#-;).-;".-;;. &eginning at age !7, students (ent to secondary schools, (here the teacher Cno( called a grammaticusD taught them a$out 3reek and Roman literature#-;".-;). At the age of !", some students (ent on to rhetoric school C(here the teacher, almost al(ays 3reek, (as called a rhetorD#-;".-;). Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and re/uired that the students memori'e the la(s of Rome#-;". Pupils (ent to school every day, e cept religious festivals and market days# There (ere also summer holidays# *ulture +ain article: *ulture of ancient Rome 9anguage +ain article: 9atin The 1uenos inscription, a 9atin te t from c# "th century &*, is one of the earliest kno(n e amples of Roman (riting#-<>.The native language of the Romans (as 9atin, an %talic language the grammar of (hich relies little on (ord order, conveying meaning through a system of affi es attached to (ord stems#-<!. %ts alpha$et (as $ased on the Etruscan alpha$et, (hich (as in turn $ased on the 3reek alpha$et#-<7. Although surviving 9atin literature consists almost entirely of *lassical 9atin, an artificial and highly styli'ed and polished literary language from the !st century &*, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire (as Bulgar 9atin, (hich significantly differed from *lassical 9atin in grammar and voca$ulary, and eventually in pronunciation#-<8. Roman %nscription near &aku left $y soldiers of 9egio N%% Fulminata, !st century A1#While 9atin remained the main (ritten language of the Roman Empire, 3reek came to $e the language spoken $y the (ell@educated elite, as most of the literature studied $y Romans (as (ritten in 3reek# %n the eastern half of the Roman Empire, (hich later $ecame the &y'antine Empire, 9atin (as never a$le to replace 3reek, and after the death of Justinian 3reek $ecame the official language of the &y'antine government#-<:. The e pansion of the Roman Empire spread 9atin throughout Europe, and over time Bulgar 9atin evolved and dialecti'ed in different locations, gradually shifting into a num$er of distinct Romance languages# Although 9atin is an e tinct language (ith very fe( remaining fluent speakers, it remains in use in many (ays, such as through Ecclesiastical 9atin, the traditional language of the Roman *atholic *hurch and the official language of the Batican *ity# Additionally, even after fading from common usage 9atin maintained a role as (estern EuropeAs lingua franca, an international language of academia and diplomacy# Although eventually supplanted in this respect $y French in the !)th century and

English in the 7>th, 9atin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminologyGit has $een estimated that <>J of all scholarly English (ords derive directly or indirectly from 9atin# Religion +ain articles: Religion in ancient Rome and Roman mythology Archaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, (as made up not of (ritten narratives, $ut rather of comple interrelations $et(een gods and humans#-<0. Lnlike in 3reek mythology, the gods (ere not personified, $ut (ere vaguely@defined sacred spirits called numina# Romans also $elieved that every person, place or thing had its o(n genius, or divine soul# 1uring the Roman Repu$lic, Roman religion (as organi'ed under a strict system of priestly offices, (hich (ere held $y men of senatorial rank# The *ollege of Pontifices (as uppermost $ody in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the Pontife +a imus, (as the head of the state religion# Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, (hile augurs (ere trusted (ith taking the auspices# The sacred king took on the religious responsi$ilities of the deposed kings# %n the Roman empire, emperors (ere held to $e gods, and the formali'ed imperial cult $ecame increasingly prominent# As contact (ith the 3reeks increased, the old Roman gods $ecame increasingly associated (ith 3reek gods#-<". Thus, Jupiter (as perceived to $e the same deity as Oeus, +ars $ecame associated (ith Ares, and =eptune (ith Poseidon# The Roman gods also assumed the attri$utes and mythologies of these 3reek gods# The transferral of anthropomorphic /ualities to Roman 3ods, and the prevalence of 3reek philosophy among (ell@educated Romans, $rought a$out an increasing neglect of the old rites, and in the !st century &*, the religious importance of the old priestly offices declined rapidly, though their civic importance and political influence remained# Roman religion in the empire tended more and more to center on the imperial house, and several emperors (ere deified after their deaths# Lnder the empire, the Romans a$sor$ed the mythologies of their con/uered su$6ects, often leading to situations in (hich the temples and priests of traditional %talian deities e isted side $y side (ith those of foreign gods#-<;. =umerous foreign cults gre( popular, such as the (orship of the Egyptian %sis and the Persian +ithras# &eginning in the 7nd century, *hristianity $egan to spread in the Empire, despite initial persecution# &eginning (ith Emperor =ero, Roman official policy to(ards *hristianity (as negative, and at some points, simply $eing a *hristian could $e punisha$le $y death# Lnder Emperor 1iocletian, the persecution of *hristians reached its peak# 2o(ever, it $ecame an officially supported religion in the Roman state under *onstantine % and $ecame e ponentially popular# After a $rief and unsuccessful pagan revival $y the emperor Julian the Apostate-<<. *hristianity $ecame the permanent religion of the empire# All religions e cept *hristianity (ere prohi$ited in 8)! $y an edict of Emperor Theodosius %#-<). Art, music and literature +ain articles: Roman art, 9atin literature, Roman sculpture, and Roman music Roman painting styles sho( 3reek influences, and surviving e amples are primarily frescoes used to adorn the (alls and ceilings of country villas, though Roman literature includes mentions of paintings on (ood, ivory, and other materials#-)>.-)!. ,everal e amples of Roman painting have $een found at Pompeii, and from these art historians divide the history of Roman painting into four periods# The first style of Roman painting (as practiced from the early 7nd century &* to the early@ or mid@!st century &*# %t (as mainly composed of imitations of mar$le and masonry, though sometimes including depictions of mythological characters# The second style of Roman painting $egan during the early !st century &*, and attempted to realistically depict three@dimensional architectural features and landscapes# The third style occurred during the reign of Augustus C7; &* E !: A1D, and re6ected the realism of the second style in favor of simple ornamentation# A small architectural scene, landscape, or a$stract design (as placed in the center (ith a monochrome $ackground# The fourth style, (hich $egan in the !st century A1, depicted scenes from mythology, (hile retaining architectural details and a$stract patterns#-)>.-)!. Portrait sculpture during the period utili'ed youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mi ture of realism and idealism# 1uring the Antonine and ,everan periods, more ornate hair and $earding $ecame prevalent, created (ith deeper cutting and drilling# Advancements (ere also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories#

9atin literature (as from its very inception influenced heavily $y 3reek authors# ,ome of the earliest e tant (orks are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome# As the Repu$lic e panded, authors $egan to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy# Roman music (as largely $ased on 3reek music, and played an important part in many aspects of Roman life#-)7. %n the Roman military, musical instruments such as the tu$a Ca long trumpetD or the cornu Csimilar to a French hornD (ere used to give various commands, (hile the $ucina Cpossi$ly a trumpet or hornD and the lituus Cpro$a$ly an elongated J@shaped instrumentD, (ere used in ceremonial capacities#-)8. +usic (as used in the amphitheaters $et(een fights and in the odea, and in these settings is kno(n to have featured the cornu and the hydraulis Ca type of (ater organD#-):. The ma6ority of religious rituals featured musical performances, (ith ti$iae Cdou$le pipesD at sacrifices, cym$als and tam$ourines at orgiastic cults, and rattles and hymns across the spectrum#-)0. ,ome music historians $elieve that music (as used at almost all pu$lic ceremonies#-)7. +usic historians are not certain as to (hether or not Roman musicians made a significant contri$ution to the theory or practice of music#-)7. The graffiti, $rothels, paintings, and sculptures found in Pompeii and 2erculaneum suggest that the Romans had a very se @saturated culture#-)". 3ames and activities The youth of Rome had several forms of play and e ercise, such as 6umping, (restling, $o ing, and racing#-);. %n the countryside, pastimes for the (ealthy also included fishing and hunting#-)<. The Romans also had several forms of $all playing, including one resem$ling hand$all#-);. 1ice games, $oard games, and gam$le games (ere e tremely popular pastimes#-);. Women did not participate in these activities# For the (ealthy, dinner parties presented an opportunity for entertainment, sometimes featuring music, dancing, and poetry readings#-)). Ple$eians sometimes en6oyed such parties through clu$s or associations, although recreational dining usually meant patroni'ing taverns#-)). *hildren entertained themselves (ith toys and such games as leapfrog#-)<.-)). A popular form of entertainment (ere gladiatorial com$ats# 3ladiators fought either to the death, or to 5first $lood5 (ith a variety of (eapons and in a variety of different scenarios# These fights achieved their height of popularity under the emperor *laudius, (ho placed the final outcome of the com$at firmly in the hands of the emperor (ith a hand gesture# *ontrary to popular representations in film, several e perts $elieve the gesture for death (as not 5thum$s do(n5# Although no one is certain as to (hat the gestures (ere, some e perts conclude that the emperor (ould signify 5death5 $y holding a raised fist to the (inning com$atant and then e tending his thum$ up(ards, (hile 5mercy5 (as indicated $y a raised fist (ith no e tended thum$#-!>>. Animal sho(s (ere also popular (ith the Romans, (here foreign animals (ere either displayed for the pu$lic or com$ined (ith gladiatorial com$at# A prisoner or gladiator, armed or unarmed, (as thro(n into the arena and an animal (as released# The *ircus +a imus, another popular site in Rome, (as primarily used for horse and chariot racing, and (hen the circus (as flooded, there (ere even sea $attles# %t (as also used in many other events# -!>!. %t could hold up to 8<0,>>> peopleH-!>7. people all over Rome (ould visit it# T(o temples, one (ith seven large eggs and one (ith seven dolphins, lay in the middle of the track of *ircus +a imus, and (henever the racers made a lap, one of each (ould $e removed# This (as done to keep the spectators and the racers informed on the race statistics# 4ther than sports, the *ircus +a imus (as also an area of marketing and gam$ling# 2igher authorities, like the emperor, also attended games in the *ircus +a imus, as it (as rude not to# They, knights, and many other people (ho (ere involved (ith the race sat in reserved seats located a$ove everyone else# %t (as also found rude for emperors to root for a team# The *ircus +a imus (as created in ">> &* and hosted the last horse@racing game in 0:) A1, lasting for over a millennium# Technology +ain article: Ancient Roman technology The Roman a$acus, $ased on the &a$ylonian a$acus, (as one of the first porta$le calculating device, helped speed up the use of Roman arithmetic#Ancient Rome $oasted the most impressive technological

feats of its day, using many advancements that (ould $e lost in the +iddle Ages and not $e rivaled again until the !)th and 7>th centuries# &ut though adept at adopting and synthesi'ing other culturesA technologies, the Roman civili'ation (as not especially innovative or progressive# +any practical Roman innovations (ere adopted from earlier 3reek designs# =e( ideas (ere rarely developed# Roman society considered the articulate soldier (ho could (isely govern a large household the ideal, and Roman la( made no provisions for intellectual property or the promotion of invention# The concept of 5scientists5 and 5engineers5 did not yet e ist, and advancements (ere often divided $ased on craft, as groups of artisans 6ealously guarded ne( technologies as trade secrets# =evertheless, a num$er of vital technological $reakthroughs (ere spread and thoroughly used $y Rome, contri$uting to an enormous degree to RomeAs dominance and lasting influence in Europe# Engineering +ain articles: Roman engineering and Roman military engineering Roman engineering constituted a large portion of RomeAs technological superiority and legacy, and contri$uted to the construction of hundreds of roads, $ridges, a/ueducts, $aths, theaters and arenas# +any monuments, such as the *olosseum, Pont du 3ard, and Pantheon, still remain as testaments to Roman engineering and culture# Architecture +ain article: Roman architecture The Romans (ere particularly reno(ned for their architecture, (hich is grouped (ith 3reek traditions into 5*lassical architecture5# 1uring the Roman Repu$lic, it remained stylistically almost identical to 3reek architecture# Although there (ere many differences from 3reek architecture, Rome $orro(ed heavily from 3reece in adhering to strict, formulaic $uilding designs and proportions# Aside from t(o ne( orders of columns, composite and Tuscan, and from the dome, (hich (as derived from the Etruscan arch, Rome had relatively fe( architectural innovations until the end of the Repu$lic# Then, in the !st century &*, Romans started to (idely use concrete, invented in the late 8rd century &*# %t (as a po(erful cement derived from po''olana, and soon supplanted mar$le as the chief Roman $uilding material and allo(ed many daring architectural schemata# Also in the !st century &*, Bitruvius (rote 1e architectura, possi$ly the first complete treatise on architecture in history# %n late !st century &*, Rome also $egan to use glass$lo(ing soon after its invention in ,yria a$out 0> &*# +osaics took the Empire $y storm after samples (ere retrieved during 9ucius *ornelius ,ullaAs campaigns in 3reece# Article on history of Roman concrete Roads The Appian Way CBia AppiaD, a road connecting the city of Rome to the southern parts of %taly, remains usa$le even today#*oncrete made possi$le the paved, dura$le Roman roads, many of (hich (ere still in use a thousand years after the fall of Rome# The construction of a vast and efficient travel net(ork throughout the Empire dramatically increased RomeAs po(er and influence# %t (as originally constructed to allo( Roman legions to $e rapidly deployed# &ut these high(ays also had enormous economic significance, solidifying RomeAs role as a trading crossroadsGthe origin of the phrase 5all roads lead to Rome5# The Roman government maintained (ay stations (hich provided refreshments to travelers at regular intervals along the roads, constructed $ridges (here necessary, and esta$lished a system of horse relays for couriers that allo(ed a dispatch to travel up to <>> kilometers C0>> miD in 7: hours# A/ueducts Pont du 3ard in France is a Roman a/ueduct $uilt in c# !) &*# %t is one of FranceAs top tourist attractions and a World 2eritage ,ite#The Romans constructed numerous a/ueducts to supply (ater to cities and industrial sites and to assist in their agriculture# The city of Rome (as supplied $y !! a/ueducts (ith a com$ined length of 80> kilometres C77> miD#-!>8. +ost a/ueducts (ere constructed $elo( the surface, (ith only small portions a$ove ground supported $y arches# ,ometimes, (here

depressions deeper than 0> metres C!"0 ftD had to $e crossed, inverted siphons (ere used to force (ater uphill#-!. ,e(ers The Romans also made ma6or advancements in sanitation# Romans (ere particularly famous for their pu$lic $aths, called thermae, (hich (ere used for $oth hygienic and social purposes# +any Roman houses came to have flush toilets and indoor plum$ing, and a comple se(er system, the *loaca +a ima, (as used to drain the local marshes and carry (aste into the Ti$er river# ,ome historians have speculated that the use of lead pipes in the se(er and plum$ing systems led to (idespread lead poisoning (hich contri$uted to the decline in $irth rate and general decay of Roman society leading up to the fall of Rome# 2o(ever, lead content (ould have $een minimi'ed $ecause the flo( of (ater from a/ueducts could not $e shut offH it ran continuously through pu$lic and private outlets into the drains, and only a small num$er of taps (ere in use#-!>:. +ilitary +ain articles: +ilitary history of ancient Rome, Roman military, ,tructural history of the Roman military, Roman army, and Roman navy Roman soldiers on the cast of Tra6anAs *olumn in the Bictoria and Al$ert museum, 9ondon#The early Roman army Cc# 0>> &*D (as, like those of other contemporary city@states influenced $y 3reek civili'ation, a citi'en militia (hich practiced hoplite tactics# %t (as small Cthe population of free males of military age (as then a$out ),>>>D and organi'ed in five classes Cin parallel to the comitia centuriata, the $ody of citi'ens organi'ed politicallyD, (ith three providing hoplites and t(o providing light infantry# The early Roman army (as tactically limited and its stance during this period (as essentially defensive#-!>0. &y the 8rd century &*, the Romans a$andoned the hoplite formation in favor of a more fle i$le system in (hich smaller groups of !7> Cor in some cases ">D men called maniples could maneuver more independently on the $attlefield# Thirty maniples arranged in three lines (ith supporting troops constituted a legion, totaling $et(een :,>>> and 0,>>> men# The early Repu$lican legion consisted of five sections, each of (hich (as e/uipped differently and had different places in formation: the three lines of manipular heavy infantry Chastati, principes and triariiD, a force of light infantry CvelitesD, and the cavalry Ce/uitesD# With the ne( organi'ation came a ne( orientation to(ard the offensive and a much more aggressive posture to(ard ad6oining city@states#-!>". At nominal full strength, an early Repu$lican legion (ould have included 8,">> to :,<>> heavy infantry, several hundred light infantry and several hundred cavalrymen, for a total of :,>>> to 0,>>> men#-!>;. 9egions (ere often significantly understrength from recruitment failures or follo(ing periods of active service due to accidents, $attle casualties, disease and desertion# 1uring the *ivil War, PompeyAs legions in the east (ere at full strength $ecause recently recruited, (hile *aesarAs legions (ere in many cases (ell $elo( nominal strength after long active service in 3aul# This pattern also held true for au iliary forces#-!><. As descri$ed $y 3olds(orthy, $oth the 3reek and Roman phalan and the early Repu$lican legions (ere intended to fight large scale $attles involving a single /uick, decisive clash (ith the enemy# At this they (ere generally very successful#-!>). At the time of the +arian reforms in the late Repu$lic Cc# !>> &*D, further organi'ational change created a more fle i$le, resilient and versatile force# The legion (as no( divided into ten cohorts of :<> men each, comprised of three of the old maniples Cno( called centuriae or 5centuries5 commanded $y a centurionD#-!!>. +oreover, the velites Clight infantryD and Cpro$a$lyD the e/uites (ere eliminated and replaced $y au ilia Cau iliary units of cavalry, archers and slingers, and light infantry, usually recruited from non@citi'ensD# There (ere no other su$divisions (ithin a legion, $ut many men (ith speciali'ed skillsGmedics, engineers, technicians, artillerymenG (ere included among the legionaries#-!!!. The centuries in a cohort had a unified command structure and (ere e perienced at (orking (ith the other centuries in the cohort as a unit# A legion organi'ed in cohorts (as easier to control, and cohorts could easily $e detached and act independently (here that (as useful on the $attlefield or a separate smaller force (as needed# Accordingly, legions organi'ed in cohorts could conduct operations of almost any scale#-!!7. Three long@term trends characteri'ed the development of the Roman army over its history: increasing professionali'ation, a (idening of the $ase for recruitment, and an increase in the variety and fle i$ility

of military units# Lntil the late Repu$lican period, the typical legionary (as a property@o(ning citi'en farmer from a rural areas Can adsiduusD (ho served for particular Coften annualD campaigns,-!!8. and (ho supplied his o(n e/uipment and, in the case of e/uites, his o(n mount# 2arris suggests that do(n to 7>> &*, the average rural farmer C(ho survivedD might participate in si or seven campaigns# Freedmen and slaves C(herever residentD and ur$an citi'ens did not serve e cept in rare emergencies# -!!:. After 7>> &*, economic conditions in rural areas deteriorated as manpo(er needs increased, so that the property /ualifications for service (ere gradually reduced# &eginning (ith 3aius +arius in !>; &*, citi'ens (ithout property and some ur$an@d(elling citi'ens CproletariiD (ere enlisted and provided (ith e/uipment, although most legionaries continued to come from rural areas# Terms of service $ecame continuous and longGup to t(enty years if emergencies re/uired it although &runt argues that si or seven years (as more typical#-!!0. &eginning in the 8rd century &*, legionaries (ere paid stipendium Camounts are disputed $ut *aesar famously 5dou$led5 payments to his troops to 770 denarii a yearD, could anticipate $ooty and donatives Cdistri$utions of plunder $y commandersD from successful campaigns and, $eginning at the time of +arius, often (ere granted allotments of land upon retirement#-!!". *avalry and light infantry attached to a legion Cthe au iliaD (ere often recruited in the areas (here the legion served# These troops (ere familiar (ith local conditions and fought in a style adapted to the local terrain#-!!;. *aesar formed a legion, the Fifth Alaudae, from non@citi'ens in Transalpine 3aul to serve in his campaigns in 3aul#-!!<. 1uring the *ivil War (hen large armies (ere re/uired, $oth sides raised legions from non@citi'ens, as 3olds(orthy notes, 5(ithout $othering (ith the formality of granting citi'enship to the men on enlistment#5-!!). &y the time of *aesar Augustus, the ideal of the citi'en@soldier had $een a$andoned and the legions had $ecome fully professional# 9egionaries (ere paid )>> sesterces a year and could e pect a payment of !7,>>> sesterces on retirement#-!7>. At the end of the *ivil War, Augustus reorgani'ed Roman military forces, discharging soldiers and dis$anding legions# 2e retained 7< legions, (hich (ere no( $ased in permanent camps on the frontier along the Rhine and 1anu$e Rivers and in ,yria# *omprised of a$out !0>,>>> citi'en legionaries, an appro imately e/ual num$er of au ilia and a navy of unkno(n si'e, this esta$lishment remained the standard until late in the history of the Empire#-!7!. 1uring the Principate, (ith a fe( e ceptions,-!77. (arfare (as conducted on a smaller scale# The au ilia (ere not organi'ed into larger units $ut remained independent cohorts, and legionary troops themselves often operated as groups of cohorts rather than as full legions# A ne( versatile type of unit, the cohortes e/uitatae, com$ining cavalry and legionaries in a single formation could $e stationed at garrisons or outposts, could fight on their o(n as $alanced small forces or could com$ine (ith other similar units as a larger legion@si'ed force# This increase in organi'ational fle i$ility over time helped ensure the long@term success of Roman military forces#-!78. The Emperor 3allienus C708E7"< A1D $egan yet another reorgani'ation that created the final military structure of the late Empire# Withdra(ing some legionaries from the fi ed $ases on the $order, 3allienus created mo$ile forces Cthe *omitatenses or field armiesD and stationed them $ehind and at some distance from the $orders as a strategic reserve# This reduced the need to move troops from one province to another to reinforce the $order in case of attacks# The $order troops ClimitaneiD stationed at fi ed $ases continued to $e the first line of defense# The Emperor 1iocletian C7<:E8>0 A1D reversed this reorgani'ation $ut it $ecame the norm $y the middle of the :th century A1# 1iocletian also introduced the so@called Tetrarchy under (hich the Eastern and Western halves of the Empire (ere each governed $y an 5Augustus5 CEmperorD and a 5*aesar5 C6unior EmperorD, (ho resided at different locations near the $orders and commanded troops (ithin their respective regions#-!7:. The $asic unit of the field army (as the 5regiment5, legiones or au ilia for infantry and ve ellationes for cavalry# Evidence suggests that nominal strengths may have $een !,7>> men for infantry regiments and ">> for cavalry, although many records sho( lo(er actual troop levels C<>> and :>>D# +any infantry and cavalry regiments operated in pairs under the command of a comes# %n addition to Roman troops, the field armies included regiments of 5$ar$arians5 recruited from allied tri$es and kno(n as foederati# &y :>> A1, foederati regiments had $ecome permanently esta$lished units of the Roman army, paid and e/uipped $y the Empire, led $y a Roman tri$une and used 6ust as Roman units (ere used# %n addition to the foederati, the Empire also used groups of $ar$arians to fight along (ith the legions as 5allies5 (ithout integration into the field armies# Lnder the command of the senior Roman general present, they (ere led at lo(er levels $y their o(n officers#-!70. The nature of military leadership evolved greatly over the course of the history of Rome# Lnder the monarchy, the hoplite armies (ould have $een led $y the kings of Rome# 1uring the early and middle

Roman Repu$lic, military forces (ere under the command of one of the t(o elected consuls for the year# 1uring the later Repu$lic, mem$ers of the Roman ,enatorial elite, as part of the normal se/uence of elected pu$lic offices kno(n as the cursus honorum, (ould have served first as /uaestor Coften posted as deputies to field commandersD, then as praetor Csometimes posted as provincial governors in charge of military forces in the relevant provinceD, then as consul Csupreme command of all military forcesD# Follo(ing the end of a term as praetor or consul, a ,enator might $e appointed $y the ,enate as a propraetor or proconsul Cdepending on the highest office previously heldD to govern a foreign province# +ore 6unior officers Cdo(n to $ut not including the level of centurionD (ere selected $y their commanders from their o(n clientelae or those recommended $y political allies among the ,enatorial elite#-!7". Lnder Augustus, (hose most important political priority (as to place the military under a permanent and unitary command, the Emperor (as the legal commander of each legion $ut e ercised that command through a legatus ClegateD he appointed from the ,enatorial elite# %n a province (ith a single legion, the legate (ould command the legion Clegatus legionisD and also serve as provincial governor, (hile in a province (ith more than one legion, each legion (ould $e commanded $y a legate and the legates (ould $e commanded $y the provincial governor Calso a legate $ut of higher rankD# -!7;. 1uring the later stages of the %mperial period C$eginning perhaps (ith 1iocletianD, the Augustan model (as a$andoned# Provincial governors (ere stripped of military authority, and command of the armies in a group of provinces (as given to generals CducesD appointed $y the Emperor# These (ere no longer mem$ers of the Roman elite $ut men (ho came up through the ranks and had seen much practical soldiering# With increasing fre/uency, these men attempted Csometimes successfullyD to usurp the positions of the Emperors (ho had appointed them# 1ecreased resources, increasing political chaos and civil (ar eventually left the Western Empire vulnera$le to attack and takeover $y neigh$oring $ar$arian peoples#-!7<. *omparatively less is kno(n a$out the Roman navy than the Roman army# Prior to the middle of the 8rd century &*, officials kno(n as duumviri navales commanded a fleet of t(enty ships used mainly to control piracy# This fleet (as given up in 7;< A1 and replaced $y allied forces# The First Punic War re/uired that Rome $uild large fleets, and it did so largely (ith the assistance of and financing from allies# This reliance on allies continued to the end of the Roman Repu$lic# The /uin/uireme (as the main (arship on $oth sides of the Punic Wars and remained the mainstay of Roman naval forces until replaced $y the time of *aesar Augustus $y lighter and more maneuvera$le vessels# As compared (ith a trireme, the /uin/uireme permitted the use of a mi of e perienced and ine perienced cre(men Can advantage for a primarily land@$ased po(erD, and its lesser maneuvera$ility permitted the Romans to adopt and perfect $oarding tactics using a troop of appro imately :> marines in lieu of the ram# ,hips (ere commanded $y a navarch, a rank e/uivalent to a centurion, (ho (ere usually not citi'ens# Potter suggests that $ecause the fleet (as dominated $y non@Romans, the navy (as considered non@Roman and allo(ed to atrophy in times of peace#-!7). Availa$le information suggests that $y the time of the late Empire C80> A1D, the Roman navy comprised a num$er of fleets including $oth (arships and merchant vessels for transportation and supply# Warships (ere oared sailing galleys (ith three to five $anks of oarsmen# Fleet $ases included such ports as Ravenna, Arles, A/uilea, +isenum and the mouth of the ,omme River in the West and Ale andria and Rhodes in the East# Flotillas of small river craft CclassesD (ere part of the limitanei C$order troopsD during this period, $ased at fortified river har$ors along the Rhine and the 1anu$e# The fact that prominent generals commanded $oth armies and fleets suggests that naval forces (ere treated as au iliaries to the army and not as an independent service# The details of command structure and fleet strengths during this period are not (ell kno(n although it is kno(n that fleets (ere commanded $y prefects#-!8>. ,cholarly studies The interest in studying ancient Rome arose presuma$ly during the Age of Enlightenment in France# *harles +ontes/uieu (rote a (ork Reflections on the *auses of the 3randeur and 1eclension of the Romans# The first ma6or (ork (as The 2istory of the 1ecline and Fall of the Roman Empire $y Ed(ard 3i$$on, (hich encompassed the period from the end of 7nd century to the fall of the &y'antine Empire in !:08# 9ike +ontes/uieu 3i$$on paid high tri$ute to the virtue of Roman citi'ens# &arthold 3eorg =ie$uhr (as a founder of the criticism and (rote The Roman 2istory, carried until the First Punic (ar# =ie$uhr has made an attempt to determine the (ay the Roman tradition appeared# According to him, Romans, like other people, had a historical ethos (hich (as preserved mainly in the no$le families# 1uring the =apoleonic period the (ork titled The 2istory of Romans $y Bictor 1uruy

appeared# %t highlighted the *aesarean period popular at the time# 2istory of Rome, Roman constitutional la( and *orpus %nscriptionum 9atinarum, all $y Theodor +ommsen, $ecame very important milestones# 9ater the (ork 3reatness and 1ecline of Rome $y 3uglielmo Ferrero (as pu$lished# The Russian (ork PQRSTU VW UXYWSUU SUZXTW[W \RZ]R^]_`RaUb, VSRUZcdRXY^RaaW ^ eVWfc gZVRSUU CThe 4utlines on Roman 9ando(nership 2istory, +ainly 1uring the EmpireD $y %van 3revs contained information on the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the greatest lando(ners during the end of the Repu$lic# ,ee also Wikimedia *ommons has media related to: Romans9ist of topics related to ancient Rome Roman agriculture Timeline of ancient Rome *onstitution of the Roman Repu$lic ,ino@Roman relations Roman legion -hide.v h d h eTopics on Ancient Rome Epochs Timeline CFounding i +onarchy i Repu$lic i Empire i Principate i 1ominatei 1ecline i Western Empire j Eastern EmpireD 3overnment ,enate j *uria j Forum j *ursus honorum j Assem$lies j *ollegiality j Emperor j 9egatus j 1u j 4fficium j Praefectus j Bicarius j Bigintise viri j 9ictor j +agister militum j %mperator j Princeps senatus j Pontife +a imus j Augustus j *aesar j Tetrarch +agistrates 4rdinary Tri$une j Kuaestor j Aedile j Praetor j *onsul j *ensor j Promagistrate j 3overnor E traordinary 1ictator j +aster E/uitum j 1ecemviri j *onsular Tri$une j Triumviri j Re 9a( *onstitution j T(elve Ta$les j Roman citi'enship j Auctoritas j %mperium j ,tatus j 9itigation +ilitary &orders j Esta$lishment j ,tructure j *ampaigns j Technology j Political control j Frontiers k fortifications C*astraD j ,trategy j Engineering j Army C9egion h %nfantry tactics h Personal e/uipment h ,iege enginesD j =avy CFleetD j Au iliaries j 1ecorations k punishments ,ociety Theatre j ,ocial class j *uisine j Education j 9iterature j Art j +usic j Architecture j Religion CFuneral h Persecution h %mperial cultD j +ythology j Forum j ,PKR j *urrency j Technology j Engineering j Finance j Agriculture j *ommerce j *alendar j *lothing j Festivals j *ircus j Wine j Women j +arriage j ,lavery 9anguage 9atin CProto@%talic h 4ld 9atin h *lassical 9atin h +edieval 9atin h Renaissance 9atin h =e( 9atin h Recent 9atinD j 2istory of 9atin j 9atin literature j Bulgar 9atin j Ecclesiastical 9atin j Romance languages 9ists Wars j &attles j 3enerals j 9egions j Emperors j Triumphal arches j 3eographers j %nstitutions j 9a(s j *onsuls j 1istinguished Women Portal:Ancient Rome j Portal:+ilitary of ancient Rome