Nano Computers

NanoCo m p u t e r s
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Abstract[i & ii] 1. Introduction..[1] 1.1 Nanocomputers..[1] 1.2 Nanotechnology..[2] 2. Drawbac s o! Nanocomputers.["] #. $ypes o! Nanocomputers..[%] #.1 &lectronic Nanocomputers['] #.2 (echanical Nanocomputers..['] #.# )hemical & *io+chemical Nanocomputers..[,] #.- .uantum Nanocomputers.[1/] #." *asic terms..[1/] #.% Introduction[11] #.%.1 .uantum basics..[12] #.%.2 .uantum Nanocomputers 01s )lassical computers.[1#] #.%.# .uantum Nano+encryption[1-] #.%.- 2ecuring Internet[1-] #.%." Application o! .uantum Nanocomputing[1"] #.%.% Disad0antages o! .uantum Nanocomputing[1"] -. 3uture 2cope o! Nanotechnology.[1%] ". Applications o! Nanocomputers..[14] ".1 Nano2pace...[14] ".2 )ancel )ancer.[21] ".# *io+nanotechnology[2%] ".- Nanometrology[2%] "." &arth 2train (easurement[2'] ".% Air+borne 5ra0ity (easurement..[2,] %. )onclusion..[#1] '. *ibliographic Notes...[##] '.1 6e!erences...[##] '.2 6elated 7ebsites.[##]
ABSTRACT
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The computer has already gone through a dynamic revolution. Thirty years ago, computers were the size of a room and incredibly slow. ew people probably would have imagined supercomputers that can do over a trillion calculations per second. Today, the average person!s des"top computer is more powerful than the fastest computers were #$ years ago. The only way this can continue is if a new type of computer is developed. This computer is "nown as a nano computer.
NAN8$&):N8;85< 9 %anotechnology is an e&citing emerging science and technological
field that is ma"ing a splash in '$$'. %anotechnology involves man(s ability to create and manipulate molecules structures to create potentially new materials, devices, machines or ob)ects. A nanometre is a billionth of a metre, that is, about *+,$,$$$ of the diameter of a human hair, or *$ times the diameter of a hydrogen atom. . -f you blew up a baseball to the size of the earth, the atoms of the baseball would be about the size of grapes. -f you could ta"e a ruler and measure *$ atoms side by side, you would have a nanometer. The .orld is on the brin" of a technological revolution beyond any human e&perience. -t has the potential to bring wealth, health and education to every person on the planet. And it will be able to do this without consuming natural resources or spewing pollution into the environment. %anotechnology is about building things atom by atom, molecule by molecule. The goal of nanotechnology is to build tiny devices called nanomachines. To build things on such a small scale, you have to be able to manipulate atoms individually. =i> The challenge of nanotechnology is to place atoms precisely where you wish on a structure. Scientists can now construct natural proteins and even synthesize new ones with novel properties never seen in nature. .ith enough understanding, we may be able to turn proteins into microscopic tools to do the )obs we want. -n the future, %anotechnology will let us ta"e off the bo&ing gloves. .e!ll be able to snap together the fundamental building bloc"s of nature easily, ine&pensively and in most of the ways permitted by the laws of physics.
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$ypes o! Nanocomputers 9
*. %ano electronic computers '. %ano mechanical computers #. %ano chemical and biochemical computers /. %ano 0uantum computers
D6A7*A)?2 9 1roponents predict that nanotechnology will ignite the industrial revolution of the '*st
century, the effects of which will have a greater impact on the world(s population than antibiotics, integrated circuits, and human2made polymers combined. %ow that scientists have the tools and are developing the s"ills to manipulate nature(s building bloc"s, nanotech enthusiasts tout some mind2bending scenarios.
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The computer has already gone through a dynamic revolution. Thirty years ago, computers were the size of a room and incredibly slow. ew people probably would have imagined supercomputers that can do over a trillion calculations per second. Today, the
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NanoCo m p u t e r s average person!s des"top computer is more powerful than the fastest computers were #$ years ago. The only way this can continue is if a new type of computer is developed. This computer is "nown as a nano computer. -t may one day replace the modern computer due to many economic and scientific constraints that will one day halt the modern computer(s advancement.
The constraints for computers come from the circuits that form them. The most important component of a computer is its BbrainC, commonly referred to as the central processing unit. Computer chip manufacturers, such as -ntel, spend billions of dollars to build plants and do research that will allow these chips to shrin" in size. 3owever, the costs of research and plants are increasing at a substantial rate. 4nce the components of these chips come close to the size of atoms, the costs to build plants may be in the trillions of dollars 56llis7. .hat!s worse is nothing can become smaller than an atom, so advances in computer speed will not be possible. 3owever, two upsides do e&ist. Scientists estimate the end will come around the year '$*$, and scientists are wor"ing on developing a nano computer 58ar"off7. The earliest computers, built in the middle of the '$th century, used vacuum tubes for switching. These machines were so massive and bul"y, and demanded so much electricity to operate, that they re9uired buildings and power plants of their own. -n addition ,they used more processing power as well as much more energy . So,Scientists needed to shrin" computers to ma"e them more powerful.as The smaller an electronic system can be made, the more processing power can fit into a given physical volume, the less energy is re9uired to run it, and the faster it can wor" 5because distances among components are reduced, minimizing charge2carrier transit time7. But, the technology of putting circuits on silicon, the basis of current computer chips, is reaching the natural limits of the wafers to hold circuits, turning up the pressure for a brea" through. the answer for this is nanocomputing. nanocomputing deals
NanoCo m p u t e r s with building computers whose fundamental components measure only a few nanometers. Such computers largely "nown as nanocomputers have their circuitry so small that it can only be seen through a microscope.it is a computer whose physical dimensions are microscopic. This field of %anocomputing is a part of emerging field of nanotechnology . So, first of all before going any further in this topic we should clear what nanotechnology is.
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%anotechnology is an e&citing emerging science and technological field that is ma"ing a splash in '$$'. %anotechnology involves man(s ability to create and manipulate molecules structures to create potentially new materials, devices, machines or ob)ects. A nanometre is a billionth of a metre, that is, about *+,$,$$$ of the diameter of a human hair, or *$ times the diameter of a hydrogen atom. . -f you blew up a baseball to the size of the earth, the atoms of the baseball would be about the size of grapes. -f you could ta"e a ruler and measure *$ atoms side by side, you would have a nanometer. The .orld is on the brin" of a technological revolution beyond any human e&perience. -t has the potential to bring wealth, health and education to every person on the planet. And it will be able to do this without consuming natural resources or spewing pollution into the environment. %anotechnology is about building things atom by atom, molecule by molecule. The goal of nanotechnology is to build tiny devices called BnanomachinesC. To build things on such a small scale, you have to be able to manipulate atoms individually. The challenge of nanotechnology is to place atoms precisely where you wish on a structure. :oes this all sound li"e science fiction; Actually, it!s based upon scientific fact. All though we have yet to build a nanomachine, the principles nanotechnology uses are the well established physical properties of atoms and molecules. <ife itself would be impossible without molecular machines. They are wor"ing in your body right now. or e&ample, consider a protein in the human body. =ou could thin" of it as a machine that moves molecules. This is an o&ygen pump used in red blood cells. The heat of other molecules around it powers it. A channel opens periodically to the center of the protein alloying o&ygen to pass from the outside and bind with iron for transport through out the body. Scientists can now construct natural proteins and even synthesize new ones with novel properties never seen in nature. .ith enough understanding, we may be able to turn proteins into microscopic tools to do the )obs we want. 8anufactured products are made from atoms. The properties of those products depend on how those atoms are arranged. -f we rearrange the atoms in coal we can ma"e diamond. -f we rearrange the atoms in sand 5and add a few other trace elements7 we can ma"e computer chips. -f we rearrange the atoms in dirt, water and air we can ma"e potatoes. Today(s manufacturing methods are very crude at the molecular level. Casting, grinding, milling and even lithography move atoms in great thundering statistical herds. -t!s
NanoCo m p u t e r s li"e trying to ma"e things out of ;&58 bloc"s with bo&ing gloves on your hands. =es, you can push the ;&58 bloc"s into great heaps and pile them up, but you can!t really snap them together the way you!d li"e. -n the future, %anotechnology will let us ta"e off the bo&ing gloves. .e!ll be able to snap together the fundamental building bloc"s of nature easily, ine&pensively and in most of the ways permitted by the laws of physics. This will be essential if we are to continue the revolution in computer hardware beyond about the ne&t decade, and will also let us fabricate an entire new generation of products that are cleaner, stronger, lighter, and more precise. -t!s worth pointing out that the word >%anotechnology> has become very popular and is used to describe many types of research where the characteristic dimensions are less than about *,$$$ nanometers. or e&ample, continued improvements in lithography have resulted in line widths that are less than one micron? this wor" is often called >%anotechnology.> Sub2micron lithography is clearly very valuable but it is e9ually clear that lithography will not let us build semiconductor devices in which individual dopant atoms are located at specific lattice sites. 8any of the e&ponentially improving trends in computer hardware capability have remained steady for the last @$ years. There is fairly widespread belief that these trends are li"ely to continue for at least another several years, but then lithography starts to reach its fundamental limits. -f we are to continue these trends we will have to develop a new Dpost+lithographicD manufacturing technology which will let us ine&pensively build computer systems with mole 9uantities of logic elements that are molecular in both size and precision and are interconnected in comple& and highly idiosyncratic patterns. %anotechnology will let us do this. An early promoter of the industrial applications of %anotechnology, Albert ran"s, defined it as !that area of science and technology where dimensions and tolerances in the range of $.*nm to *$$ nm play a critical role!. -t encompasses precision engineering as well as electronicsA electromechanical systems 5eg !lab2on2a2chip! devices7 as well as mainstream biomedical applications in areas as diverse as gene therapy, drug delivery and novel drug discovery techni9ues. %anotechnology is all about manipulating and controlling things on a small scale. Computers reproduce information at almost no cost. A push is well underway to invent devices that manufacture at almost no cost, by treating atoms discretely, li"e computers treat bits of information.This would allow automatic construction of consumer goods without traditional labor, li"e a Bero& machine produces unlimited copies without a human retyping the original information. 6lectronics is fueled by miniaturization. .or"ing smaller has led to the tools capable of manipulating individual atoms li"e the proteins ina potato manipulate the atoms of soil, air and water to ma"e copies of itself. The shotgun marriage of chemistry and engineering called >%anotechnology> is ushering in the era of self2replicating machinery and self2assembling consumer goods made from cheap raw atoms Ctilizing the well understood chemical properties of atoms and molecules 5how they >stic"> together7, %anotechnology proposes the construction of novel molecular devices possessing e&traordinary properties. The tric" is to manipulate atoms individually and place them e&actly where needed to produce the desired structure.
NanoCo m p u t e r s This ability is almost in our grasp. The anticipated payoff for mastering this technology is far beyond any human accomplishment so far... 2ome applications o! nanotechnology which one canEt imagine in their dreams 9+ Self2assembling consumer goods Computers billions of times faster 6&tremely novel inventions 5impossible today7 Safe and affordable space travel 8edical %ano... virtual end to illness, aging, death %o more pollution and automatic cleanup of already e&isting pollution 8olecular food syntheses... end of famine and starvation Access to a superior education for every child on 6arth Reintroduction of many e&tinct plants and animals Terra forming here and the Solar System
-n a world of information, digital technologies have made copying fast, cheap , and perfect, 9uite independent of cost or comple&ity of the content. .hat if the same were to happen in the world of matter; The production cost of a ton of terabyte RA8 chips would be about the same as the production cost of steel. :esign costs would matter, production costs wouldn!t. By treating atoms as discrete, bit2li"e ob)ects, molecular manufacturing will bring a digital revolution to the production of material ob)ects. .or"ing at the resolution limit of matter, it will enable the ultimate in miniaturization and performance. By starting with cheap, abundant components22molecules2and processing them with small, high2fre9uency, high2productivity machines, it will ma"e products ine&pensive. :esign computers that each e&ecute more instructions per second than all of the semiconductor C1Cs in the world combined. Ta"ing all of this into account, it is clear that %anotechnology should improve our lives in any area that would benefit from the development of better, faster, stronger, smaller, and cheaper systems.
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1roponents predict that nanotechnology will ignite the industrial revolution of the '*st century, the effects of which will have a greater impact on the world(s population than antibiotics, integrated circuits, and human2made polymers combined. %ow that scientists have the tools and are developing the s"ills to manipulate nature(s building bloc"s, nanotech enthusiasts tout some mind2bending scenarios. =et some business2world s"eptics wonder when nanotechnology(s promise will translate into practical applications2or if they will at all. .ith a few e&ceptions, nanotechnology still resides in university laboratories and corporate and government research facilities, where scientists are devising the technology to build structures and substances that are smaller, lighter, faster, stronger, and more efficient than more
NanoCo m p u t e r s conventional2products. B$his is pioneering new technology. It ta es time !or these ideas and areas to germinateFC says 1at :illon, a programs director at 8innesota 1ro)ect -nnovation -nc., a 8inneapolis organization that helps small 8innesota companies identify and capitalize on federal research2funding opportunities. D-n the meantime, people in the commercial world are loo"ing at what(s happening at the university level wondering, E3ow am - going to be able to build a business around this technology; .hat(s the opportunity; .hat(s the product; .ho(s going to buy it;(F -n other words, can nanotechnology live up to its fantastic hype;.illie3endric"son is the head of the new nanotechnologies in Rushford.This is a promising area, but we don(t want to over2promise, or promise in an unrealistic timeframe,F says Ric" Giehl, an electrical engineering professor at the Cniversity of 8innesota. DAs with any scientific or technological developments, if people hear too much about it too early, a sense of disappointment inevitably builds up, and we don(t want to see that happen. The people who e&pect this field to produce something tomorrow are only referring to a very small part of it. And in my opinion, this is more of a medium2 to long2range proposition.F Cnli"e most technologies, which are 9uite specific and limited to one industry, nanotechnology cuts across almost every imaginable industry,F Cldrich says. D8y )ob is to get the state focused on the future. -(m not an advocate of putting money down on one horse and hoping it ta"es offA that(s li"e pinning the state(s hopes on pic"ing the ne&t 8icrosoft. .ith nanotechnology, we(re betting on the racetrac". -f we start investing in the broad science right now, we(ll be able to position ourselves formidably in a wide variety of industries2the material sciences, biomedical, telecommunications, and on and on.F A nanocomputer is a computer whose physical dimensions are microscopic. Several types of nanocomputers have been suggested or proposed by researchers and futurists .
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6lectronic nanocomputers would operate in a manner similar to the way present2 day microcomputers wor". The main difference is one of physical scale. 8ore and more transistors are s9ueezed into silicon chips with each passing yearA witness the evolution of integrated circuits 5-Cs7 capable of ever2increasing storage capacity and processing power. The ultimate limit to the number of transistors per unit volume is imposed by the atomic structure of matter. 8ost engineers agree that technology has not yet come close to pushing this limit. -n the electronic sense, the term %anocomputer is relative. By *HI$s standards, today!s ordinary microprocessors might be called %anodevices. Chemical and biochemical %anocomputers would store and process information in terms of chemical structures and interactions. Biochemical %anocomputers already e&ist in natureA they are manifest in all living things. But these systems are largely uncontrollable by humans. .e cannot, for e&ample, program a tree to calculate the digits of pi or
NanoCo m p u t e r s program an antibody to fight a particular disease 5although medical science has come close to this ideal in the formulation of vaccines, antibiotics, and antiviral medications7. The development of a true chemical %anocomputer will li"ely proceed along lines similar to genetic engineering. 6ngineers must figure out how to get individual atoms and molecules to perform controllable calculations and data storage tas"s. 8echanical %anocomputers would use tiny moving components called %anogears to encode information. Such a machine is reminiscent of Charles Babbage!s analytical engines of the *Hth century. or this reason, mechanical %anocomputer technology has spar"ed controversyA some researchers consider it unwor"able. All the problems inherent in Babbage!s apparatus, according to the naysayers, are magnified a millionfold in a mechanical %anocomputer. %evertheless, some futurists are optimistic about the technology, and have even proposed the evolution of %anorobots that could operate, or be controlled by, mechanical %anocomputers. A 0uantum %anocomputer would wor" by storing data in the form of atomic 9uantum states or spin. Technology of this "ind is already under development in the form of single+electron memory =2&(> and 9uantum dots. The energy state of an electron within an atom, represented by the electron energy level or shell, can theoretically represent one, two, four, eight, or even *J bits of data. The main problem with this technology is instability. -nstantaneous electron energy states are difficult to predict and even more difficult to control. An electron can easily fall to a lower energy state, emitting a photon conversely, a photon stri"ing an atom can cause one of its electrons to )ump to a higher energy state.
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The power, fle&ibility, and ease of manufacture of conventional microelectronic two2state devices have been and continue to be at the heart of the revolution in computer and information technology that has swept the world during the past half century. Among the "ey properties of these solid2state devices has been that they have lent themselves to the miniaturization of electronic devices, especially computers. irst, in the *H@$s and *HJ$s, solid state devices22transistors22replaced vacuum tubes and miniaturized all the devices 5e.g., radios, televisions, and electronic computers7 that originally had been invented and manufactured using tube technology. Then, starting in the mid2*HJ$s, successive generations of smaller transistors began replacing larger ones. This permitted more transistors and more computing power to be pac"ed in the same small space.-n fact, as noted by Kordon 8oore, the founder of the -ntel Corporation, the number of transistors on a solid state silicon integrated circuit >chip> began doubling every *, months. This trend, now "nown as 8oore!s <aw has continued to the present day. Lery soon, however, if computers are to continue to get smaller and more powerful at the same rate, fundamentally new operational principles and fabrication technologies such as %anolithography will need to be employed for miniature electronic devices. %anolithography is used to create microscopic circuits. -t is the art and science of etching, writing, or printing at the microscopic level, where the dimensions of characters are on the order of nanometers 5units of *$2H meter, or millionths of a millimeter7. This includes various methods of modifying semiconductor chips at the atom ic level for the
NanoCo m p u t e r s purpose of fabricating integrated circuits 5-C7. -nstruments used in %anolithography include the 2canning Arobe (icroscope =2A(> and the Atomic 3orce (icroscope =A3(>. The S18 allows surface viewing in fine detail without necessarily modifying it. 6ither the S18 or the AT8 can be used to etch, write, or print on a surface in single2atom dimensions.
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%anotechnology pioneers 6ric :re&ler Ralph 8er"le and their collaborators favor %anocomputer designs that resemble miniature Babbage engines, mechanical %anocomputers that would calculate using moving molecular2scale rods and rotating molecular2scale gears spinning on shafts and bearings. This idea originated in a *H@H tal" entitled >There!s 1lenty of Room at the Bottom> presented by the late %obel2 1rize2winning physicist Richard eynman eynman pointed out that such tiny machinery was not prohibited by any "nown physical principle. 8er"le envision that these tiny machines and computers would be assembled by the mechanical positioning of atoms or molecular building bloc"s one atom or molecule at a time, a process "nown as MMmechanosynthesis.> 4nce assembled, the mechanical %anocomputer would operate a bit li"e a vastly scaled down, comple& programmable versions of the mechanical calculators that were familiar office tools in the period *H/$ through *HI$, preceding the introduction of widely available, ine&pensive solid2state electronic calculators. Strong arguments can be made in favor of such an approach. or one thing, 9uantum mechanics assures that the molecular2scale moving parts should not be sub)ect to the large frictional effects that defeated earlier attempts to build comple& macroscopic mechanical computers, such as those designed by Charles Babbage in the *,#$s and *,/$s. 3owever, there are near2term drawbac"s. 4ne such drawbac" is that the fabrication of such nanomechanical devices is li"ely to re9uire >hand2 made> parts assembled one atom or molecular subunit at a time using ST8s in processes that are relatively slow. .hile this might be done, it would be tedious wor" to move even a few atoms into a specific position this way, and it would be increasingly more difficult to manufacture reliably the many precision parts for the computer. -t is possible, though, that this problem might be alleviated, somewhat, by the perfection and evolution of recently developed ST8 arrays that could build many nanoscale components in parallel. Stereospecific chemical reactions and chemical self2assembly also might be applied to help realize a mechanical nanocomputer.
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-n general terms, a chemical computer is one that processes information by ma"ing and brea"ing chemical bonds, and it stores logic states or information in the resulting chemical 5i.e., molecular7 structures. A chemical nanocomputer would perform such operations selectively among molecules ta"en )ust a few at a time in volumes only a few nanometers on a side. 1roponents of a variant of chemical nanocomputers,
NanoCo m p u t e r s biochemically based computers, can point to an >e&istence proof> for them in the commonplace activities of humans and other animals with multicellular nervous systems. %onetheless, artificial fabrication or implementation of this category of >natural,> or biomimetic biochemically based computers seems far off because the mechanisms for animal brains and nervous systems still are poorly understood. -n the absence of this deeper understanding, research on biochemically2based computers has proceeded in alternative directions. 4ne alternative direction has been to adapt naturally occurring biochemicals for use in computing processes that do not occur in nature an important e&ample of this is. A nanocomputer that uses :%A 5deo&yribonucleic acids7 to store information and perform comple& calculations. -n *HH/, Cniversity of Southern California computer scientist <eonard Adelman suggested that :%A could be used to solve comple& mathematical problems. Adleman is often called the inventor of :%A computers. 3is article in a *HH/ issue of the )ournal Science outlined how to use :%A to solve a well2 "nown mathematical problem, called the Directed :amilton Aath problem, also "nown as the >traveling salesman> problem. The goal of the problem is to find the shortest route between a number of cities, going through each city only once. As you add more cities to the problem, the problem becomes more difficult. Adleman chose to find the shortest route between seven citie
3ig 9 AdelmanGs DNA+based computer
=ou could probably draw this problem out on paper and come to a solution faster than Adleman did using his :%A test2tube computer. 3ere are the steps ta"en in the Adleman :%A computer e&periment? Strands of :%A represent the seven cities. -n genes, genetic coding is represented by the letters A, T, C and K. Some se9uence of these four letters represented each city and possible flight path. These molecules are then mi&ed in a test tube, with some of these :%A strands stic"ing together. A chain of these strands represents a possible answer.
NanoCo m p u t e r s .ithin a few seconds, all of the possible combinations of :%A strands, which represent answers, are created in the test tube. Adleman eliminates the wrong molecules through chemical reactions,which leaves behind only the flight paths that connect all seven cities. The success of the Adleman :%A computer proves that :%A can be used to calculate comple& mathematical problems. 3owever, this early :%A computer is far from challenging silicon2based computers in terms of speed. The Adleman :%A computer created a group of possible answers very 9uic"ly, but it too" days for Adleman to narrow down the possibilities. Another drawbac" of his :%A computer is that it re9uires human assistance. The goal of the :%A computing field is to create a device that can wor" independent of human involvement. Three years after Adleman!s e&periment, researchers at the Cniversity of Rochester developed logic gates made of :%A. <ogic gates are a vital part of how your computer carries out functions that you command it to do. These gates convert binary code moving through the computer into a series of signals that the computer uses to perform operations. Currently, logic gates interpret input signals from silicon transistors and convert those signals into an output signal that allows the computer to perform comple& functions. The Rochester team!s :%A logic gates are the first step toward creating a computer that has a structure similar to that of an electronic 1C instead of using electrical signals to perform logical operations, these :%A logic gates rely on :%A code. They detect fragments of genetic material as input, splice together these fragments and form a single output. or instance, a genetic gate called the >And gate> lin"s two :%A inputs by chemically binding them so they!re loc"ed in an end2to2end structure, similar to the way two <egos might be fastened by a third <ego between them. The researchers believe that these logic gates might be combined with :%A microchips to create a brea"through in :%A computing. :%A computer components 22 logic gates and biochips 22 will ta"e years to develop into a practical, wor"able :%A computer. -f such a computer is ever built, scientists say that it will be more compact, accurate and efficient than conventional computers. -n the ne&t section, we!ll loo" at how :%A computers could surpass their silicon2based predecessors, and what tas"s these computers would perform. The main benefit o using :%A computers to solve comple& problems is that different possible solutions are created all at once. This is "nown as parallel processing .3umans and most electronic computers must attempt to solve the problem one process at a time 5linear processing7. :%A itself provides the added benefits of being a cheap, energy2 efficient resource. -n a different perspective, more than *$ trillion :%A molecules can fit into an area no larger than * cubic centimeter. .ith this, a :%A computer could hold *$ terabytes of data and perform *$ trillion calculations at a time.
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#..-.1 *A2I) $&6(2 1> .uantum+)omputer 9 A 9uantum computer is a machine, as2yet hypothetical, that performs calculations based on the behavior of particles at the sub2atomic level. Such a computer will be, if it is ever developed, capable of e&ecuting far more millions of instructions per second 58-1S7 than any previous computer. 2> .ubits 9 6ngineers have coined the term 9ubit 5pronounced G=6.2bit7 to denote the fundamental data unit in a 9uantum computer. A 9ubit is essentially a bit 5binary digit7 that can ta"e on several, or many, values simultaneously. #> $eleportation 9 Teleportation involves dematerializing an ob)ect at one point, and sending the details of that ob)ect!s precise atomic configuration to another location, where it will be reconstructed. .hat this means is that time and space could be eliminated from travel 22 we could be transported to any location instantly, without actually crossing a physical distance. -> .uantum mechanics 9 As the name implies, a 9uantum computer involves 9uantum mechanics. A 9uantum computer uses subatomic particles, such as electrons and protons, to solve problems. According to 9uantum mechanics, electrons can be in many different places and many different states all at the same instance in time 5Carey A*7. The possibility that an electron can be anywhere or be in different states is supposed to ma"e 9uantum computers e&tremely fast 5Carey A*7. This along with other laws of 9uantum mechanics present the most challenges for building 9uantum computers. #.-.2 IN$68D@)$I8N Recently, there has been serious interest in the possibility of fabricating and applying nanoscale 9uantum computers. -n a 9uantum computer, it is proposed that massively parallel computations can be performed through the MMnatural> mechanism of interference among the 9uantum waves associated with the nanoscale components of a multicomponent, coherent 9uantum state. 1roposed 9uantum computers would represent each bit of information as a 9uantum state of some component of the computer, e.g., the spin orientation of an atom. According to 9uantum mechanics, the state of each nanoscale component of a system can be represented by a wave. These 9uantum matter waves are analogous to light waves, e&cept that their wavelengths tend to be much shorter, in inverse proportion to the momentum of the 9uantized component. Thus, the 9uantum waves can be manipulated in the space of only a few nanometers, unli"e most light of moderate, nondestructive energy, which has wavelengths of several hundred nanometers. By carefully setting up the states for the components of the 9uantum system, a desired computation is performed through the wave interference among the 9uantized
NanoCo m p u t e r s components. All discrete computational path would be considered at once, at the speed of light, through the wave interference patterns22fast, intrinsic parallel computation. Kiven the correct initial preparation of the entire multicomponent computational system, constructive interference among the components! waves would emphasize those wave patterns which correspond to correct solutions to the problem, and destructive interference would weed out the incorrect solutions. The idea for a 9uantum computer is based upon the wor" of 1aul Benioff in the early *H,$s and that of :avid :eutsch and Richard eynman, in the mid2*H,$s. Although 9uantum computers originally were proposed as a theoretical construct for considering the limits of computation, some researchers have suggested that fundamentally hard and economically important problems could be solved much more rapidly using 9uantum interference and parallelism. -n particular, 1eter Shor has proven that a 9uantum computer could factor large numbers very rapidly and thereby, perhaps, provide cryptographers with a powerful new tool with which to crac" difficult codes. Some proposals have been made for implementing such a computer. Seth <loyd, in particular, has attracted much attention recently with a mechanism he has proposed for the practical implementation of 9uantum computers. There have been some 9uantitative arguments, though, that cast doubts upon the specifics and the ultimate utility of <loyd!s proposals. 8ore general reservations about proposed 9uantum computers include the fact that they would have to be assembled and initialized with great and unprecedented precision. 0uantum computers would be very sensitive to e&tremely small physical distortions and stray photons, which would cause the loss of the phase coherence in the multicomponent 9uantum state. Thus, they would have to be carefully isolated from all e&ternal effects and operated at temperatures very close to absolute zero. 6ven then, some errors are li"ely to be an intrinsic problem, though they do not rule out the eventual application of 9uantum computers to solve certain classes of difficult problems. #.-.# .@AN$@( *A2I)2 or a non2scientist, understanding how 9uantum computing wor"s is darn near impossible. But the basics are worth ta"ing a stab at. Atoms have a natural spin or orientation, in the way a needle on a compass has an orientation. The spin can either be up or down. That coincides nicely with digital technology, which represents everything by a series of *s and $s. .ith an atom, a spin pointing up can be *A down can be $. lipping the spin up or down could be li"e flipping the switch on and off 5or between * and $7 on a tiny transistor. So far so good. But here!s one of the weird parts, which also is the source of 9uantum computing!s great power. An atom, which is not visible to the na"ed eye, can be both up and down at the same time until you measure it. The act of measuring it 22 whether using instruments or a powerful microscope 22 forces it to choose between up or down. :on!t as" why it wor"s that way. -t!s part of 9uantum mechanics, which is a set of laws 22 li"e 6instein!s theory of relativity 22 that govern the universe. -n this case, the laws govern the tiniest ob)ects in the universe. 0uantum mechanics is entirely unli"e anything in
NanoCo m p u t e r s the world of ordinary e&periences. The laws are so bizarre they seem made up. =et they!ve been proven time and again. Since an atom can be up and down at once 22 called putting it into a superposition 22 it!s not )ust e9ual to one bit, as in a traditional computer. -t!s something else. Scientists call it a 9ubit. -f you put a bunch of 9ubits together, they don!t do calculations linearly li"e today!s computers. They are, in a sense, doing all possible calculations at the same time 22 in a way, straddling all the possible answers. The act of measuring the 9ubits stops the calculating process and forces them to settle on an answer. orty 9ubits could have the power of one of today!s supercomputers. A supercomputer trying to find one phone number in a database of all the world!s phone boo"s would ta"e a month, Chuang says. A 9uantum computer could do it in 'I minutes.
#.-.- .@AN$@( NAN8)8(A@$&6 H&62@2 );A22I)A; )8(A@$&6 The only similarity a 9uantum computer should have to an ordinary computer is usefulness. A 9uantum computer will not be a machine in a bo&A instead it may loo" li"e some big magnets surrounded by other stuff. A 9uantum computer may differ from a modern computer in other ways also. or e&ample, a 9uantum computer may not have the permanent data storage a modern computer has with a hard drive. 3owever, a 9uantum computer will certainly need a device similar to a monitor in order to be of any use to an average person. The composition of a 9uantum computer helps give it many advantages. Scientists are trying to develop a 9uantum computer due to its potential. A 9uantum computer is supposed to be able to solve a problem all at once instead of in steps 58ar"off7. A modern computer ta"es a problem and 9uic"ly solves a single step then moves on to the ne&t one. -f there are trillions of things to search through, li"e every word on the -nternet, this can be e&tremely slow 58ar"off7. 3owever, a 9uantum computer would be e&ponentially faster than a modern computer. numbers. A 9uantum computer shows no resemblance to a modern computer. 1erhaps an even more useful tas" for the 9uantumcomputer involves factoring 8odern computers have been used a lot for factoring large numbers.
>The largest number ever "nown to have been factorized had *'H digits. -t too" a networ" of supercomputers wor"ing in parallel eight months to find the answerN To factorize a *,$$$2digit number would ta"e our most powerful conventional supercomputers more than the estimated *$$ billion years the universe has left to run> 56llis7. actoring large numbers is "nown as cryptography 56llis7. -t is used to secure things over the -nternet such as financial transactions and email 56llis7. 3owever, >a
NanoCo m p u t e r s 9uantum computer would brea" the most sophisticated code in no time flat> 56llis7. This basically means someone could intercept someone else!s email messages. A 9uantum computer!s potential goes beyond cryptography. A 9uantum computer may prove useful in the math and physics. A 9uantum computer would be fast enough for physicists to do computer simulations of nuclear e&plosions and other physical processes 51owell7. A 9uantum computer could enable mathematicians to solve seemingly impossible problems. .hile these two things might not sound great for people outside the scientific community, a 9uantum computer will probably be more useful for things that seem impossible. 4ne thing that scientists have deemed possible is teleportation 53all7. 3owever, teleportation has many problems and challenges in front of it )ust li"e the 9uantum computer. Because teleportation uses 9uantum physics, the development of the 9uantum computer may help scientists learn more to solve problems related to teleportation. ortunately, researchers have made some progress developing a 9uantum computer. Two physicists, %eil Kershenfield and -saac Chuang, have built a very basic 9uantum computer 5.inters H/7. They were able to solve two simple problems. They used li9uid alanine to solve the problem one plus one 5.inters H/7. They were able to solve another problem in li9uid chloroform 58ar"off7. This problem was to select a correct telephone number given four different numbers 5.inters H/7. The physicists hope to be able to ma"e a more comple& 9uantum computer that is able to factor *@ into @ and # 5.inters H@7. .hile all of these tas"s are simple for a modern computer, the process to solve the problem was done differently than it would have been done on a modern computer. All possible answers were chec"ed at the same time, compared to chec"ing each answer until the correct one was found 58ar"off7. #.-." .@AN$@( NAN8+&N)6<A$I8N 0uantum encryption pioneers promise to put the world!s first uncrac"ably secure networ"s online by early '$$#. Based on the 9uantum properties of photons, 9uantum encryption guarantees absolutely secure optical communications. Three independent e&periments recently have demonstrated such systems. Keneva2 based id 0uanti9ue SA encoded a secure transmission on a I$2"ilometer fiber2optic lin" in 6uropeA 8a)i0 Technologies -nc., here, used a #$2"m lin"A and researchers at %orthwestern Cniversity 56vanston, -ll.7 demonstrated a '@$28bit+second 9uantum encrypted transmission over a short lin". >4ur 9uantum random2number generator and our single2photon detector module are available now and are in use by several customers around the world,> said Kregoire Ribordy, a manager at id 0uanti9ue. A beta version of a third product, a 9uantum2"ey distribution system, >has been fully tested, and we are in advanced discussions with several potential launch customers,> he added. #.-.% 2&)@6IN5 $:& IN$&6N&$
NanoCo m p u t e r s or its part, 8agi0 says that its %ava)o system is currently at the alpha stage and promises real beta sites on selected campuses in the Cnited States in the first 9uarter. Both companies are also tal"ing about secure through2the2air communications with satellites. %orthwestern, meanwhile, vows to have a 2."+5bit1s Iuantum+ technology encryption capable of securing the -nternet bac"bone in five years. -t says that commercial partners are wor"ing with the technology. There is strong interest in 9uantum encryption because of its ability to completely eliminate the possibility of eavesdropping. Today encryption+decryption methods are only as good as the length of the "ey 2 a @J2 to '@J2bit value used to scramble the data to be transmitted with a one2way function 2 that!s used to encrypt a message. A common way to create such a one2way function is to multiply two large prime numbers, a simple operation for a computer to perform. 3owever, going bac"ward 2 that is, ta"ing a large number and finding its prime factors 2 is very difficult for computers to e&ecute. 4ther methods use some hard mathematical problem to create one2way functions, but any scheme of that "ind is vulnerable both to advances in computational power and new brea"throughs in mathematics. #.-.' AAA;I)A$I8N2 83 .@AN$@( NAN8)8(A@$IN5 0uantum computers might prove especially useful in the following applications ? *rea"ing ciphers 2tatistical analysis 3actoring large numbers 2olving problems in theoretical physics 2olving optimization problems in many variables
#.-., DI2ADHAN$A5&2 83 .@AN$@( NAN8)8(A@$IN5 The technology needed to build a 9uantum computer is currently beyond our reach. This is due to the fact that the coherent state, fundamental to a 9uantum computers operation, is destroyed as soon as it is measurably affected by its environment. Attempts at combatting this problem have had little success, but the hunt for a practical solution continues.
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3ere!s a date for your diary %ovember *st, '$**. According to a group of researchers calling themselves the %anocomputer :ream Team, that!s the day they!ll unveil a revolutionary "ind of computer, themost powerful ever seen. Their nanocomputer will be made out of atoms. irst suggested by Richard eynman in *H@H, the idea of nanotechnology, constructing at the atomic level, is now a ma)or research topic worldwide. Theoreticians have already come up with designs for simple mechanical structures li"e bearings, hinges, gears and pumps, each made from a few collections of atoms. These currently e&ist only as computer simulations, and the race is on to fabricate the designs and prove that they can wor". 8oving individual atoms around at will sounds li"e fantasy, but it!s already been demonstrated in the lab. -n *H,H, scientists at -B8 used an electron microscope to shuffle #@ &enon atoms into the shape of their company!s logo. Since then a team at -B8!s Ourich labs has achieved the incredible feat of creating a wor"ing abacus on the atomic scale.
6ach bead is a single molecule of buc"minsterfullerene 5a buc"yball7, comprising

NanoCo m p u t e r s J$ atoms of carbon lin"ed into a football shape. The beads slide up and down a copper plate, nudged by the tip of an electron microscope. The %anocomputer :ream Team wants to use these techni9ues to build an atomic computer. Such a computer, they say can then be used to control simple molecular construction machines, which can then build more comple& molecular devices, ultimately giving complete control of the molecular world. The driving force behind the :ream Team is Bill Spence, publisher of %anotechnology magazine. Spence is convinced that the technology can be made to wor", and has enlisted the help of over #$$ enthusiasts with diverse bac"grounds 2 engineers, physicists, chemists, programmers and artificial intelligence researchers. The whole team has never met, and probably never will. They communicate by email and pool their ideas on the .eb. There!s only one problem. %obody is 9uite sure how to build a digital nanocomputer. The most promising idea is rod logic, invented by nanotechnology pioneer 6ric :re&ler, now chairman of the leading nano thin" tan" The oresight -nstitute. Rod logic uses stiff rods made from short chains of carbon atoms. Around each rod sits a "nob made of a ring of atoms. The rods are fitted into an interloc"ing lattice, where each rod can slide between two positions, and be reset by a spring made of another few atoms. :re&ler has shown how to use such an arrangement to achieve the effect of a conventional electronic transistor, where the flow of current in one wire is switched on and off by current in a different wire. 4nce you have transistors, you can build a %A%: gate. rom %A%: gates you can construct every other logic elements a computer needs.
Apart from the immensely difficult problem of physically piecing together these molecular structures, massive calculations are re9uired to determine if particular molecular configurations are even possible. The :ream Team will perform these molecular simulation calculations using metacomputing where each person!s 1C performs a tiny part of the overall calculation, and the results are collated on the .eb. There are already prototype tools for e&perimenting with molecular configurations, such as %anoCA:, a freeware nano design system including Pava source code. This may all sound li"e pie in the s"y, but there!s serious research and development money being spent on nanotechnology. A recent survey counted over '$$ companies and
NanoCo m p u t e r s university research groups wor"ing in the field. And April *HHI saw the foundation of Oyve&, the world!s first nanotechnology manufacturing company. Oyve&!s goal is to build an assembler, the basic element re9uired for nanotechnology. The assembler will itself be a machine made from molecules, fitted with atom sized tools for manipulating other molecules to build other machines. -t will also be capable of replicating itself from the materials around it. .hile they may lac" any actual wor"ing prototypes of their technology, nanotechnologists are certainly not short of ideas. 4nce you have the ability to ma"e molecular machines, the possibilities are amazing and often bizarre. 4ne idea is utility fog, where billions of submicroscopic molecular robots each containing a nanocomputer are lin"ed together to form a solid mass. Controlled by a master nanocomputer, the robots could alter their configurations to create any ob)ect you li"e.
%anotechnology does come with one tiny drawbac", however. .hat happens if a molecular machine goes haywire, and instead of building, starts demolishing the molecules around it; The world would 9uite literally fall apart. %anocomputers, if they ever appear, will be e&traordinary things. But if, li"e most computer systems, they have bugs, they could also be very nasty indeed.
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".1 NAN82AA)&
Space science as long played a role in the research and development of advancing technologies. Spacecraft are being launched, with hulls that are composed of carbon fibers, a light weight high strength material. Combine that with smaller on board computers that perform hundreds of times faster than computers used on spacecraft )ust a decade ago and one can see the why of incredible advances in space e&ploration in )ust the past few years. The advancements in material science and computer science have allowed the building, launching and deploying of space e&ploration systems that continually do more and more as they become smaller and lighter. Some of the latest avenues being e&plored, that are more in the nano realm, in space science, include smart materials for the hulls of spacecraft. These would be materials primarily composed of nanotube fibers with nano sized computers integrated into them. These materials along with being even lighter will also be far stronger too. 4ne idea is to create a surface that will help transfer the aerodynamic forces wor"ing on a spacecraft during launch. .hen the craft is launched the nano computers will fle& the crafts hull to offset pressure differences in the hull caused by the crafts acceleration through the atmosphere. Then the same nano computer networ" in the hull would go to wor" heating the shaded side of the craft and cooling the sun e&posed side and to even create heat shielding for reentry. To e9ualize the surface temperature now, a spacecraft must be "ept rotating and although a slight spin is good in maintaining the attitude of a craft somtimes it interferes with the mission plan, li"e when a spacecraft is ta"ing photographs or is in the process of doc"ing with another craft, also now upon reentry spacecraft have to be oriented )ust right. .ith a smart material hull ablationing materials could be gathered in real time obviating any crucial departures in mission landing plans. Another a0enue being in0esticated is a concept o! nano robotics called D2warmsD. Swarms are nano robots that act in unison li"e bees. They theoretically, will act as a fle&ible cloth li"e material and being composed of what!s called Buc"y tubes, this cloth will be as strong as diamond. Add to this cloth of nano machines nano computers and you have smart cloth. This smart cloth could be used to "eep astronauts from bouncing around inside their spacecraft while they sleep, a problem that arises when the auto pilot computer fires the course correction roc"ets. The cloth li"e material will be able
NanoCo m p u t e r s to offset the sudden movements and slowly move the sleeping astronaut bac" into position. Still another application for the nano robot swarms, being considered, is that the smart cloth could be used in the astronauts space suits. This material will not only be capable of repairing itself 9uic"ly or controlling the environment inside the suit but it will be able to communicate with it!s wearer what it is doing and what!s going on outside the suit. 4n the planet 8ars for e&ample a suit made of smart cloth could e&tract o&ygen from the carbon dio&ide in the atmosphere for the wearer. The same suit could e&tract solar energy to power the suit. This suit would also literally be a life saver on 6arth. -magine a fire fighter wearing a suit that could e&tract 4&ygen from the environment he is in. D3oam 2warmsD not even as a suit but sprayed from a container about li"e the average sized hand held fire e&tinguisher could be used to e&tract and store dangerous to&ins and flamables. The smart foam under the control of a fire fighter would act as a portable environment that would engulf any victims found, protecting them from heat and to&ic gas, and supply them with o&ygen. The Smart foam would be able to shape some of itself into a suit for the victim and begin to monitor the victims vitals and even be able to report to an on site, or by wireless satellite communication, off site medic or doctor the condition of the victim including bro"en bones etc. The smart suit could even upon sensing a bro"en bone begin to reinforce and create on the spot a cast, a cast that would be able to act on the damaged bone so the victim could wal" out on a bro"en leg. The smart foam would also be able to utilize different stratagies to dissipate heat, for e&ample, it could shape itself into a radiator so as to dump heat away from the fire fighters and victims. A space suit is nothing more nor less than an incredible space ship itself so this same smart cloth could be the super structure of a deep space probe replete with an on board A.- computer capable of creating the science e&periments needed enroute to its destination and capable of not only ma"ing changes in mission plans but creating even new e&periments as they are needed or wanted. The same super e&plorer could even create its own solar energy gathering panels if appropriate or utilizing R.T.K technology with plutonium also it will be able to repair itself. And while all of the above is going on the craft could even e&pand it!s own computing capabilities if need be. Another application of nano robots would be in carrying out construction pro)ects in hostile environments, for e&ample with )ust a handfull, of self replicating robots, utilizing local materials, and local energy it!s conceivable that space habitats can be completely constructed by remote control so that the inhabitants need only show up with their suitcases. Colonization of space begins to ma"e economic sense then, since it would only ta"e one saturn type roc"et to create a complete space colony on mars, for e&ample. An engineer or a team of engineers could chec" up on the construction of the habitat via telepresents utilizing cameras and sensors created on the surface of 8ars by the nano bots all from the comfortable confines of 6arth. Then once the habitat is complete humans can show up to orchestrate the e&pansion of the e&ploration. Lenus could be e&plored with nano robots too. Super 3ulls could be fashioned by nano robots to withstand the intense pressures and corrosive gases of the venusian atmosphere, to safely house nano robot built sensors and e9uiptment. The potential in all of this is getting a lot more space e&ploraton accomplished with less investment of resources and a lot less danger to human e&plorers.
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Aro0ide a brie! history o! the science that led to the de0elopment o! the technical application the team has selected. &Jplain the problem your team has selected.
%anotechnology was first proposed on :ecember 'Hth *H@H by Richard eynman in his speech, >There!s 1lenty of Room at the Bottom.> 3e gave this speech at the annual meeting of the American 1hysical Society at the California -nstitute of Technology. -n his speech he stated D I am not a!raid to consider the !inal Iuestion as to whetherF ultimately+in the great !uture+we can arrange the atoms the way we wantK the 0ery atomsF all the waydownLD eynman stated that the laws of physics do not prevent us from manipulating individual atoms or molecules. The only limitation they had was no appropriate method to do so. 3e also predicted that at some point in time, the methods for atomic manipulation would be available. eynman declared that we should use the bottom2up approach instead of the top2down approach. The top2down approach would modify the shape and size of materials to meet specific needs for assembly of these materials. The bottom2up approach would produce components made of single molecules held together by covalent bonds, which are much stronger than the forces that hold together macro2components. By using the bottom2up approach, the amount of information that can be stored in devices would be incredible. 3owever, it wasn(t until *HI/ that %orio Taniguchi created the term D%anotechnologyF at the Cniversity of To"yo. Taniguchi distinguished engineering at the micrometer scale from a new, sub2micrometer level, which he called >nano2technology.> -n *H,*, Kerd Binnig and 3einrich Rohrer invented the 2canning $unneling (icroscope 5ST87 at -B8(s Ourich Research <aboratory and later created the Atomic orce 8icroscope in *H,J. .ith the discovery of these two inventions they could not only photograph individual atoms, but could actually move the atom around. -n addition, Pohn oster of -B8 Almaden labs was able to spell D-B8F with #@ &enon atoms on a nic"el using Scanning Tunneling 8icroscope to control the atoms. The investigation of nanotechnology e&panded in *H,@ when 1rofessor Richard Smalley, Robert Curl, Pr., and 3arold Groto discovered a new form of carbon, which was a molecule of si&ty carbon atoms. This supercarbon has become one of a growing number of building bloc"s for a new class of nano2sized products. Then, eleven years later, they won the %obel 1rize.
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NanoCo m p u t e r s -n *H,J, 6ric :re&ler wrote &ngines o! )reation. -t dealt with the concept of molecular manufacturing and included a full2length e&amination of the possibilities of nanotechnology. 3e proposed the idea of universal assemblers, robotic type machines, which form the basis of molecular manufacturing. Therefore, it will allow us to build anything atom2by2atom, molecule by molecule, using an assemblerC that is controlled by a computer to move the atoms where you desire. As he began to e&plain this theory, he stated BIn biologyF enMymes stic molecules together in new patterns all the time. In e0ery cellF there are programmableF numerically controlled machine tools that manu!acture protein molecules according to genetic instructions. I! you can build one molecular machineF then you can use it to build an e0en better molecular machine.C -n the spring of *H,,, 6ric :re&ler taught the first formal course in nanotechnology while visiting Stanford Cniversity. 3e suggested the possibility of nano2 sized ob)ects that are self2 duplicating robots or nanomachines that would roam around in the body "illing cancer cells. :re&ler received a doctorate degree in the field of nanotechnology from 8-T in *HH*. -n *HH', he published another boo" called Nanosystems to provide a graduate level introduction to the physical and engineering standards of the field. The publication of an issue of Scientific American that focused on nanotechnology in September '$$* is considered a milestone. The Pune *@ and Puly * issues of Red Herring were also considered milestones. There were many scientific advances that led to the concept of nanotechnology. 8any contributors helped with the theory, such as eyman giving his speech or :re&ler teaching a course. %anotechnology will have many more improvements in the future and will benefit our society
2> Identi!y two scientists or engineers that ha0e made maNor contributions to this technical application.
Shuming %ie has made a very ma)or contribution to the field where medicine and nanotechnology meet. %ie(s wor" has shown that %ano particles can be used to detect cancer at its early stages. The use of his latest technology on molecules that are lin"ed with cancer may be the "ey to improved cancer detection, which in turn will save thousands of lives. %ie(s latest technology involves the use of 9uantum dots. 3e wor", in a way, color2codes biological molecules, such as genes and proteins, allowing doctors or physicians to see and identify the e&act location of selected molecules in the cells and tissues of a living person. This technology wor"s through several steps and series. The fluorescent 9uantum dots that conduct little electricity are implanted inside micron2sized polystyrene beads. The different colors are produced because of the varying sizes and 9uantities of the dots that are embedded into the beads. Shuming %ie then attaches these beads to biological molecules such as antibodies or proteins and then applies them to cells and tissue samples in the laboratory. These antibodies attached to the beads will then hold
NanoCo m p u t e r s on or stic" to specific molecules. This ma"es identifying the location and figuring out the number of these molecules that are present easier. This techni9ue, when targeted at cancer cells, allows us to see whether or not cancer cells are present. 3owever, :re&ler cannot be given all the credit, for he learned from the best, Richard eyman. :re&ler was a one2time student of eyman. :re&ler is considered to be the founding father of nanotechnology, as we "now it today because he had many ideas concerning molecular engineering and manufacturing. The ideas of molecular engineering brought up by :re&ler are mentioned in a paper of his named D6ngines of Creation.F -t is in this paper that :re&ler laid down the possible foundations of nanotechnology. <in"ing every2day ob)ects to atoms and molecules on a molecular level may help us to understand :re&ler(s concepts better. 4ne can visualize an atom to be a physical ob)ect, such as a marble. A molecule which is 9uite comple& is a clump of atoms that are )oined together or lin"ed. This fairly comple& molecule can be considered as a group of marble )oining to be the size of a fist. According to the different chemical properties of the various atoms, their bonds will DsnapF and Dunsnap.F The molecule(s shape is formed similarly to how children build toys with things li"e 6rector Sets. The molecule(s functions and shape will be familiar things such as levers, gears, motors, and pulleys. :re&ler proposed the supposition that a submicroscopic device could be created from some type of atoms. This device would have a robotic limb controlled by a computer, that would be able to move around atoms and position them e&actly and precisely where the robot wanted them to be. This type of robotic limb is called an DassemblerF. These DassemblersF are similar to enzymes in biology that adhere molecules together in new patterns all the time. -f one of these molecular devices could be built, then that device could be used to build even better ones. These molecular machines are made so precisely, down to the most minuscule details. Because their parts are so much smaller than the everyday things that we are used to, they are a million times faster than the moving parts that we are familiar with. 6ven though a single nanomachine would be incredibly fast and precise, they could not be able to change anything for something large li"e the human, due to the fact that nanomachines are so small. This is why many of these little nanomachines would be needed at the same time in order to do something for a human being. The way we would get so many of these machines is by programming the machines how to reproduce or replicate themselves. 4ne molecular machine alone can replicate itself in an e&pedient manner by with simply fuels and some other raw materials which can be found in the first machine itself. The new molecular machi robot wanted them to be. This type of robotic limb is called an BassemblerC. These DassemblersF are similar to enzymes in biology that adhere molecules together in new patterns all the time. -f one of these molecular devices could be built, then that device could be used to build even better ones. These molecular machines are made so precisely, down to the most minuscule details. Because their parts are so much smaller than the everyday things that we are used to, they are a million times faster than the moving parts that we are familiar with. 6ven though a single nanomachine would be incredibly fast and precise, they could not be able to change anything for something large li"e the human, due to the fact that nanomachines are so small. This is why many of these little nanomachines would be needed at the same
NanoCo m p u t e r s time in order to do something for a human being. The way we would get so many of these machines is by programming the machines how to reproduce or replicate themselves. 4ne molecular machine alone can replicate itself in an e&pedient manner by with simply fuels and some other raw materials which can be found in the first machine itself. The new molecular machine would then be able to replicate itself too. .ith each new nanomachine replicating itself, there would be a whole group of nanomachines that can then carry out comple& procedures. These procedures include ma"ing anything imaginable. These nanomachines can ma"e almost anything as long as they have enough fuels and raw materials with energy costs that are minimized. :re&ler also came up with an idea on building nanocomputers. 3is nanocomputers would not wor" electrically, but it would have several mechanical parts in motion. These computers would be reasonably 9uic"er wor"ing than the computers of today. -t will be faster due to the fact that the information inside the computer only has to move such tiny spaces. Therefore, these nanocomputers will be able to understand one billion instructions a second. :re&ler says, D6ventually the whole integrated circuit technology base is going to be replaced.F -n addition, :re&ler foresaw the great things that nanotechnology can help accomplish in the field of medicine. The highly intelligent nanocomputers that were before mentioned can enact a most important role in many areas of medicine. Software composed of artificial intelligence would allow surgical procedures to be incredibly precise on a molecular level. 3owever, the most interesting thing is that :re&ler himself said that the simplest use of nanotechnology in medicine would be the destruction of selective cells or other things in the body, which is a"in to the pro)ect our team has selected. .e are using nanotechnology to destroy only cancerous cells and not healthy ones.
#> Describe in detail how the technical application the team selected impacts the problem outlined in )omponent 8ne.
The use of Cancel Cancer will dramatically decrease the death rate of people all over the world. -t will save many lives and raise the hopes of infected patient(s families and friends. Cancel Cancer will replace chemotherapy and other means of treating cancer. Some benefits of using Cancel Cancer compared to chemotherapy are that it won(t leave the patient with a wea"ened immune system or e&tremely e&hausted. Also, it will only "ill cancerous cells and not harm the healthy cells. 3owever, by simply drin"ing a solution containing nano devices, the side2effects of chemotherapy will be diminished.
-> Identi!y the limitations and bene!its o! using the technical application the team has selected to sol0e the problem.
The nano device that we plan to build will bring many benefits to not )ust medicine, but to millions of people living on this 6arth. irst of all, )ust the hope of early
NanoCo m p u t e r s cancer detection and better ways of treatment can brighten the spirits of the many cancer patients and their close ones. 3owever, this device is not only going to lift people(s hopes, but it will enhance cancer treatment greatly. Since our device will allow doctors to single out only cancerous cells, it will not destroy the healthy ones. This will be a big progression in the treatment of cancer because one of the most popular treatments for cancer was chemotherapy. -n chemotherapy, radiation was would "ill the cancerous cells in the body, but the healthy ones would also be destroyed. This would leave patients tired and e&tremely wea". -t would also leave the patient with a wea"ened immune system, when their immune system was very wea" due to cancer in the first place. 3owever, with the precise destruction of only cancerous cells, this could be prevented or at least greatly decreased. Also, in chemotherapy, some people would have the side2affects with no benefits. They would be incredibly e&hausted and there would be no improvements in their cancer. 4ur pro)ect will dispose of these troubles and cancer will no longer be an incurable disease, but will become more li"e an e&tinct disease. or chemotherapy, a patient is re9uired to visit a clinic everyday, which is very e&pensive. 4ur pro)ect will remove these hassles. 4nce you(ve been treated, you(re completely cured and there is no need to go bac" and forth. Although there are many benefits to curing cancer with nanotechnology, there are also many limitations. 8ore than *I$$ people die from cancer every day in the Cnited States and Canada. .ith our new invention, many more people will be cured from cancer, leaving the population to dramatically increase. .hen the population rises, there will be overcrowding in a world that is already overcrowded. There won(t be enough food, water, or resources for humans to survive. -n addition, there are thousands of chemotherapists who help with the curing of cancer. These chemotherapists will most li"ely lose their )ob with the ma"ing of our invention. 8any companies will go out of business due to the fact that our invention will be an improved and better way to treat cancer. There is also the possibility that our machine will malfunction and even cause harm to the patient. This will cause enormous dilemmas because it is placing the patient(s life in grave danger. -f the patient is in)ured or dies, the tragedy will most definitely affect the patient(s family and friends.
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Implications !or Designing (ore &!!ecti0e $issue &ngineering (aterials %anotechnology can be defined as using materials and systems whose structures and components e&hibit novel and significantly changed properties by gaining control of structures at the atomic, molecular, and supramolecular levels. Although many advanced properties for materials with constituent fiber, grain, or particle sizes less than *$$ nm have been observed for traditional science and engineering applications 5such as in
NanoCo m p u t e r s catalytic, optical, mechanical, magnetic, and electrical applications7, few advantages for the use of these materials in tissue2engineering applications have been e&plored. 3owever, nanophase materials may give researchers control over interactions with biological entities 5such as proteins and cells7 in ways previously unimaginable with conventional materials. This is because organs of the body are nanostructures and, thus, cells in the body are accustomed to interacting with materials that have nanostructured features. :espite this fact, implants currently being investigated as the ne&t2generation of tissue2engineering scaffolds have micron2structured features. -n this light, it is not surprising why the optimal tissue2engineering material has not been found to date. 4ver the past two years, 1urdue has provided significant evidence to the research community that nanophase materials can be designed to control interactions with proteins and subse9uently mammalian cells for more efficient tissue regeneration. This has been demonstrated for a wide range of nanophase material chemistries including ceramics, polymers, and more recently metals. Such investigations are leading to the design of a number of more successful tissue2engineering materials for orthopedic+dental, vascular, neural, bladder, and cartilage applications. -n all applications, compared to conventional materials, the fundamental design parameter necessary to increase tissue regeneration is a surface with a large degree of biologically2inspired nanostructured roughness. -n this manner, results from the present collection of studies have added increased tissue2 regeneration as another novel property of nanophase materials.
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%anometrology involves high precision measurement techni9ues combined with nano2 positioning systems to measure? Capabilities and applications in nanometrology are based on :ifferential Capacitance 8icrometry.Current applications in %anometrology are ? Arecision De!ormation (easurement

Tectonics 8ining
Arecision Displacement (easurement
Kravity Kradiometer
The Capacitance 8icrometry technology was originally developed in the mid seventies and uses relative position measurement within a locally defined reference standard. -t can be configured to allow picometre resolution over a one hundred micron range or used at lower resolution over larger dynamic range. $he current measurement systems !eature are 9
NanoCo m p u t e r s Ratiometric resolution to appro&imately * in *$, of the selected range reference length

.orst case non linearity against laser reference is Q *$2@ over $./ of reference <arge dynamic range e.g. *$mm2*$$Rm <ong term stability 2 high repeatability Allows active feedbac" for positioning %o high vacuum re9uirement
range
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A Nanometrics Instrumentation Application To apply short and long term monitoring of mining induced strain variations at selected points at underground or opencut mining operations.
To use the strain measurements 5 pit slope stability, subsidence7.
to predict roc"mass response to mining, eg
The 6arth Strain 8easurement Kroup provides precision strain monitoring systems for long term monitoring of mining induced strain variations at selected points on the mineplan. Instruments allow continuous monitoring of tensor plane strain within the range of 10-3 to 10-9. The technology was originally developed for earth9ua"e strain monitoring applications requiring extremely high sensitivity sta!ility and dynamic range
!ut is now used in minescale monitoring environments. This technique will !e used to measure loads induced in highwall mining or in the walls of deep open pit mining operations. "ey advantages include the a!ility to measure the mine scale engineering induced strain response of large structures from significant distances that loads induced !y slow creep processes over large areas can !e monitored that long term slow deformations can !e monitored with high relia!ility and that elastic failure processes can !e monitored. The operations can !e performed remotely without any distur!ance to mining processes. #irect estimates of the effects of !lasts on wall loading can !e measured as can the su!sequent creep and slump processes. $or mining applications strain monitoring complements microseismic monitoring which more than adequately documents %location and amplitude& the elastic failure and stress concentration processes.
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Keophysical methods capable of measuring the acceleration due to the 6arth!s gravitational field are amongst the earliest applications of the geophysical sciences. Kravity surveying is one of the important techni9ues in modern e&ploration for nearly all mineral and petroleum commodities. The significance of this method has increased in recent times and will continue to do so in the future as ma)or advances in satellite positioning technology provide cost effective access to surface surveys over much larger
NanoCo m p u t e r s regions than previously possible. The e&ploration industry has recently renewed interest in large scale gravity surveys and has developed a greater appreciation of the contribution of these data sets. The need for ac9uisition of large gravity data sets at high speed over highly prospective areas is renewing demand for airborne gravity facilities capable of achieving measurements at an accuracy suitable for detection of small and lenticular mineral orebodies. Kravity gradiometry provides the best opportunity to achieve this accuracy and can be performed at sampling rates necessary for targets of industry interest, on the order of a few hundreds of metres. This pro)ect will develop an airborne gravity gradiometer which will be capable of providing measurements from low flying aircraft at a rate and sensitivity suitable for the detection of buried orebodies down to a scale of appro&imately #$$ m at burial depths of '$$ m. The measurements will be integrated into other geophysical measurements from the same or other airborne platforms to enhance e&ploration capability. The pro)ect has a planned duration of five years with a budget of S*@ million dollars. The pro)ect involves high ris" research with great potential impact in the industry. The pro)ect aims at detection of geophysically significant subsurface anomalies potentially associated with ore bodies or hydrocarbon deposits by rapid vehicle mounted surface or airborne regional gravitational studies. The e&istence of gravitational anomalies depends directly on the presence of a mass e&cess or deficit associated with the deposit. The magnitude of a typical anomaly relative to the unperturbed gravity field is proportional to the total mass e&cess 5or deficit7, and is inversely proportional to the s9uare of the distance from its effective centre and the point of observation. -t is not possible in principle to distinguish between the accelerations acting on a body due to gravitational effects from those due to "inematic effects associated with changes of the body!s velocity. Thus most gravity measurement is performed from stationary platforms fi&ed to the earth surface, and its precision is limited by vibration noise sources common in the earth. The gravitational anomaly of an ore body of density contrast #$$ "g m-3 and of
dimension say '00 m !uried !elow a depth of say 100 m of over!urden is typically 'x10 -(ms-' which is 0.0000') of the normal *arth gravity field. This relatively small effect is normally measured in units of micro gals % m+al & and would represent approximately '00 m+al.
To this time most resource significant measurements have been made using instruments of the <aCoste+Romberg type which are essentially ultrasensitive spring balances detecting the small difference in weight caused by the gravity anomaly. The measurements are sub)ect to a wide variety of environmental influences, and measurements must be performed relative to a standard point that is used regularly during the survey as a fi&ed reference for the removal of drifts in the instrument. .ith great care, measurements over reasonable areas can be achieved to about @ mKals, ma"ing this technology appropriate for mapping regions of "nown potential. The procedure is slow, and re9uires e&tensive information on local topography and geology by reason of the fact that the normal variation of gravity with height is appro&imately #$$ mKal per metre. This type of relative gravity instrument has in fact been used with great difficulty from moving platforms and in particular from aircraft where altitude control using for e&ample precision radar altimeters and pressure sensors to achieve vertical position to as little as one metre still imposes limitations of the order of a few hundred mKals on the gravity data.
or this reason emphasis for large scale geophysical prospecting has moved towards gradiometry. -n principle, measurement of the gradient of the gravity field over a "nown baseline allows one to cancel out the accelerations due to the motion of the platform itself. Kradient measurements also have some advantages in detection of boundaries of anomalies. The vertical component of the gradient above the orebody discussed above and measured from an aircraft at appro&imately #$$m is appro&imately *&*$-9 ms-' per metre
which is 1 *otvos. Thus the *otvos is a unit of gravity gradient and 1 *otvos corresponds to 10 -9 s-'. The gradient would !e eight times larger at the earth,s surface. $or a gradiometer the vertical dependence of the gradient is smaller than for a gravimeter so that precise control of aircraft altitude is not a critical issue.
Cseful gravity gradient data for e&ploration will re9uire measurements below the * 6otvos level. This will certainly re9uire active stabilisation of the instrument platform for displacements at a level of about $.$*ms-'-.-1/' vertical and rotations !etter than 10-0 rad s1
-.-1/'. This is certainly possi!le on a quality sta!ilised platform.
8any ma)or laboratories have been involved in gradiometer research over the last fifteen years. 4ne ma)or direction of this wor" has been towards superconducting gravimeters 5relative and gradiometric7 utilising many somewhat e&otic but benign characteristics of materials obtainable at li9uid helium temperatures. The instruments are essentially superconducting versions of the spring or differential spring gravimeters where the mechanical springs have been replaced by magnetic field levitation. Stability is obtained by the inherent stability of persistent currents which support the superconducting proof mass. Commercial versions of the gravimeter with e&cellent long term stability 5@ mKal per year7 and sensitivity better than a mKal are available but cannot be used from moving platforms. Another direction of research has produced instruments similar to the Bell Aerospace Rotating Kravity Kradiometer. Kenerically these instruments consist of precisely matched accelerometer pairs which are rotated about an a&is to produce outputs which are modulated at harmonics of the rotation fre9uency by the gradient being measured. These outputs are effectively differenced to produce a gradient. The CS Air orce KKSS 5Kravity Kradiometer Survey System7 used two orthogonal pairs of accelerometers to produce two gradients. Three such systems mounted in mutually orthogonal configuration provided si& gradients, which is sufficient to fully determine the gradient tensor. The system of three gradiometers was inertially stabilised by three gymbals controlled by two '2degrees2of2freedom gyroscopes and three orthogonal accelerometers. .hen in use air2borne in a specially e9uipped C2*#$ transport, navigation was performed by the autopilot using the inertial outputs of the measurement platform. Kradients have been measured to a few tens of 6otvos units under ideal conditions. -nitially the CS-R4 system proposed will measure only the vertical gravity gradient. The wor" is proceeding with eight full time staff, and the pro)ect will be performed in four stages over four years, for completion in '$$@.
Page 32
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The correct scientific answer is I don't know. 3aving said that, it is worth pointing out that the trends in the development of computer hardware have been remar"ably steady for the last @$ years. 1lotted on semilog paper as a function of year, such parameters as

the number of atoms re9uired to store one bit the number of dopant atoms in a transistor the energy dissipated by a single logic operation the resolution of the finest machining technology many others
have all declined with remar"able regularity, even as the underlying technology base has changed dramatically. rom relays to vacuum tubes to transistors to integrated circuits to Lery <arge Scale -ntegrated circuits 5L<S-7 we have seen steady declines in the size and cost of logic elements and steady increases in their performance. -f we e&trapolate these trends we find they reach interesting values in the '$*$ to '$'$ time frame. The number of atoms re9uired to store one bit in a mass memory device reaches *. The number of dopant atoms in a transistor reaches *, 5while fundamental
NanoCo m p u t e r s device physics might force us to use more than one dopant atom, it!s clear that some not2 too2large integer number should suffice7. The energy dissipated by a single logic operation reaches kT for TT#$$ "elvinsA this is roughly the energy of a single air molecule bouncing around at room temperature. The finest machining technologies reach a resolution of roughly an atomic diameter. Such performance seems to re9uire a manufacturing technology that can arrange individual atoms in the precise structures re9uired for molecular logic elements, connect those logic elements in the comple& patterns re9uired for a computer, and do so ine&pensively for billions of billions of gates. -n short, if we!re to "eep the computer hardware revolution on schedule then it seems we!ll have to develop nanotechnology in the '$*$ to '$'$ time frame. 4f course, e&trapolating straight lines on semilog paper is a philosophically debatable method of technology forecasting. .hile we can confidently state that no fundamental law of nature prevents us from developing nanotechnology on this schedule 5or even faster7, there is e9ually no law of nature that says the trends of the past must continue unchanged into the future, or that this schedule will not slip. or e&ample, while Babbage proposed the stored program computer in the *,#$!s, it was about a century before anyone actually built one. -n *HH# the author, as co2chair of the Third oresight Conference on 8olecular %anotechnology, as"ed the assembled attendees how long they thought it would ta"e to develop nanotechnology, as defined here. By show of hands, answers in the range from '$*$ to '$/$ predominated 5about two thirds of the audience7. Regardless of what e&trapolation of trends or polls might suggest, we should "eep firmly in mind that how long it ta"es depends on what we do 5or don!t do7. A focused effort with resources appropriate to the magnitude of the tas" would speed development. -f we do little, or focus resources on short term goals, fundamental developments might be much delayed 5)ust as Babbage!s computer was delayed by a century7. To 9uote Alan Gay?
D$he best way to predict the !uture is to in0ent it.D
Page 34
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'.1 6&3&6&N)&2
A true myth O Nano)omputers 2td. I&&& Author. Pames Aeterson 2imple guide to Nanocomputing pub. Delhi Author 6obert 7ullmon *asics o! .uantum computing 2td. I&&& Author 5eorge ?illNt Applied .uantum Q Nano Author 6a!ter Pames
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:ow 2tu!! 7or s.com I&&& standards.com Nanospace.com 5oogle.co.in Nanoimages.com
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NanoCo m p u t e r s

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