First Course On Power Systems - Notes (N Mohan)

Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 1
Ned Mohan
Oscar A. Schott Professor of Power Electronics and Systems
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Minnesota
Minneapolis, MN 55455
USA
First Course on
POWER SYSTEMS
Bus-1 Bus-3
Bus-2
1 m
P
1 e
P
2 m
P
2 e
P
P jQ +
200km
150km
150km
A 345-kV Example System
Week Book Chapters Laboratory
1 Chapter 1: Overview
Chapter 2: Energy Sources
Lab 1: Visit to a local substation
2 Chapter 3: Fundamentals Lab 2: Introduction to PSCAD/EMTDC;
solutions of 3-phase problems
3 Chapter 4: Transmission Lines Lab 3: Transmission Lines using PSCAD-
EMTDC
4 Chapter 5: Power Flow Lab 4: Power Flow using MATLAB and
PowerWorld
5 Chapter 6: Transformers Lab 5: Including Transformers in Power Flow
using PowerWorld and MATLAB
6 Chapter 7: HVDC, FACTS Lab 6: Power Converters and HVDC using
PSCAD-EMTDC
7 Chapter 8: Distribution Systems Lab 7: Power Quality using PSCAD-EMTDC
8 Chapter 9: Synchronous
Generators
Lab 8: Synchronous Generators and AVR
using PSCAD-EMTDC.
9 Chapter 10: Voltage Stability Lab 9: Voltage Regulation using PowerWorld
10 Chapter 11: Transient Stability Lab 10: Transient Stability using MATLAB
11 Chapter 12: Interconnected
Systems, Economic Dispatch
Lab 11: AGC using Simulink, and Economic
Dispatch using PowerWorld
12 Chapter 13: Short-Circuit
Faults, Relays, Circuit Breakers
Lab 12: Transmission Line Faults using
PowerWorld and MATLAB
13 Chapter 14: Transient Over-
Voltages, Surge Arrestors,
Insulation Coordination
Lab 13: Over-voltages and Surge Arrestors
using PSCAD-EMTDC

TOPICS IN POWER SYSTEMS
Chapter 1
POWER SYSTEMS: A CHANGING
LANDSCAPE
Fig. 1-1 Interconnected North American Power Grid [2].
NATURE OF POWER SYSTEMS
Fig. 1-2 NERC Interconnections [3]. Source: NERC.
Control Areas
Fig. 1-3 One-line diagram as an example.
13.8 kV Transmission
line
Generator
Load
Feeder
Step up
Transformer
One-line Diagram
CHANGING LANDSCAPE OF POWER SYSTEMS AND UTILITY
DEREGULATION
Fig. 1-4 Changing landscape [4]. Source: ABB.
( ) a ( ) b ( ) a ( ) b
CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF BASIC
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND
ELECTROMAGNETIC
CONCEPTS
Fig. 2-1 Convention for voltages and currents.
i
a
v
+
b
v
b
a
ab
v
+
+ i
a
v
+
b
v
b
a
ab
v
+
+
Symbols and
Conventions
Fig. 2-2 Phasor diagram.
Imaginary
Real
I I =
V V 0 =

positive
angles
Imaginary
Real
I I =
V V 0 =

positive
angles
Phasors
Fig. 2-3 A circuit (a) in time-domain and (b) in phasor-domain; (c) impedance triangle.
Im
Z
c
jX
R
L
jX
Re
0
i( t )
L
R
C
+
v( t )
2V cos( t ) =
V V 0 =
I
L
j L j X =
R
C
1
j j X
C
| |
=
|
\ .
+
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Im
Z
c
jX
R
L
jX
Re
0
Im
Z
c
jX
R
L
jX
Re
0
i( t )
L
R
C
+
v( t )
2V cos( t ) =
V V 0 =
I
L
j L j X =
R
C
1
j j X
C
| |
=
|
\ .
+
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
i( t )
L
R
C
+
v( t )
2V cos( t ) =
i( t )
L
R
C
+
v( t )
2V cos( t ) =
V V 0 =
I
L
j L j X =
R
C
1
j j X
C
| |
=
|
\ .
+
V V 0 =
I
L
j L j X =
R
C
1
j j X
C
| |
=
|
\ .
+
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Phasor Analysis
Fig. 2-4 Impedance network of Example 2-1.
5 j
0.1 j
2
5 j
0.1 j
2
Example of Impedance
Calculation
Fig. 2-5 Circuit of Example 2-2.
0.3 0.5 j 0.2 j
15 j
7.0
+
1
V
1
I
m
I
2
I
Example of Impedance
Calculation
Figure 2-6 A generic circuit divided into two sub-circuits.
( ) ( ) ( ) p t v t i t =
+
Subcircuit 1 Subcircuit 2 ( ) v t
Power Flow
Figure 2-7 Instantaneous power with sinusoidal currents and voltages.
( ) i t
( ) v t
t
( ) p t average
power
0
( ) i t
( ) v t
/
t
( ) p t average
power
0
( ) a ( ) b
( ) i t
( ) v t
t
( ) p t average
power
0
( ) i t
( ) v t
/
t
( ) p t average
power
0
( ) a ( ) b
Real and Reactive
Power
Fig. 2-8 (a) Circuit in phasor-domain; (b) phasor diagram; (c) power triangle.
V
I
S P jQ = +
+
Subcircuit 1 Subcircuit 2
v
V V =
i
I I =
Im
Re
Q
P
S
Im
Re
( a )
( b ) ( c )
V
I
S P jQ = +
+
Subcircuit 1 Subcircuit 2
v
V V =
i
I I =
Im
Re
Q
P
S
Im
Re
( a )
( b ) ( c )
P, Q and VA by Phasors
Fig. 2-9 Power factor correction in Example 2-5.
+
1
V
L
P P =
C
jQ
L L
P jQ +
13.963 j
Example of Power Factor
Correction
Fig. 2-10 One-line diagram of a three-phase transmission and distribution system.
Feeder
Step up
Transformer
Generator
Transmission
line
13.8 kV
Load
One-line Diagram
Fig. 2-11 Three-phase voltages in time and phasor domain.
( )
bn
v t
t
0
2
3
( )
cn
v t ( )
an
v t
2
3
120
a b c
positive
sequence
bn
V
cn
V
an
V
120
120
( ) a
( ) b
Three-Phase Voltages
Fig. 2-12 Balanced wye-connected, three-phase circuit.
a
I
bn V
cn V
+
c
I
L
Z
b
I
c
b
a
n
N
an V

+
+
a
I
bn V
cn V

+
c
I
L
Z
b
I c b
a
n
N
an V
+
n
I
(a) ( b)
a
I
bn V
cn V
+
c
I
L
Z
b
I
c
b
a
n
N
an V

+
+
a
I
bn V
cn V
+
c
I
L
Z
b
I
c
b
a
n
N
an V

+
+
a
I
bn V
cn V

+
c
I
L
Z
b
I c b
a
n
N
an V
+
n
I
(a) ( b)
Balanced Three-Phase
Circuit Analysis
Fig. 2-13 Per-phase circuit and the corresponding phasor diagram.
a
I
a
N
n
an V
+
(Hypothetical)
a
a
I
b
I
c
I
an V
cn V
bn V
( a ) ( b )
a
I
a
N
n
an V
+
(Hypothetical)
a
a
I
a
N
n
an V
+
(Hypothetical)
a
a
I
b
I
c
I
an V
cn V
bn V
( a ) ( b )
Per-Phase Analysis
Fig. 2-14 Balanced three-phase network with mutual couplings.
a
A
aA Z
(Hypothetical)
self
Z
self
Z
self
Z
mutual
Z
mutual
Z
mutual
Z
a
b
c
A
B
C
a
I
b
I
c
I
( ) a ( ) b
Balanced Mutual
Coupling
Fig. 2-15 Line-to-line voltages in a three-phase circuit.
o
30
an
V
b
V
ab
V
cn
V
ca
V
bc
V
bn
V
Line-Line Voltages
Fig. 2-16 Delta-wye transformation.
a
I
Z
c
b
a
Z
a
I
bc
I
ca
I
ab
I
Z
c
b
a
( b ) ( a )
Z
a
I
Z
c
b
a
Z
a
I
bc
I
ca
I
ab
I
Z
c
b
a
( b ) ( a )
Z
Wye-Delta
Transformation
Fig. 2-17 Power transfer between two ac systems.
s
V
R
V
+
I
jX
R
V
s
V
I
( ) a
( ) b
jXI
Power Flow in AC
Systems
Fig. 2-18 Power as a function of .
max
/ P P
0
0.5
0
90
0
180
1.0
Power-Angle Diagram
Per Unit Quantities
, ,
base
base base base
base
V
R X Z
I
= (in ) (2-48)
, ,
base
base base base
base
I
G B Y
V
= (in ) (2-49)
( ) , ,
base base base base
base
P Q VA V I = (in Watt, VAR, or VA) (2-50)
In terms of these base quantities, the per-unit quantities can be specified as

actual value
Per-UnitValue =
base value
(2-51)
Fig. 2-19 Energy Efficiency /
o in
P P = .
in
P
o
P
loss
P
Power
System
Apparatus
Energy Efficiency of
Apparatus
Fig. 2-20 Amperes Law.
3
i
2
i
1
i
H
dl
(a)
(b) (c)
3
i
2
i
1
i
H
dl
3
i
2
i
1
i
H
dl
(a)
(b) (c)
Electro-Magnetic
Concepts:
Amperes Law
Fig. 2-21 Example 2-9.
i
OD
ID
i
OD
ID
OD
ID
m r
OD
ID
m r
(a) (b)
Example of a Toroid
Fig. 2-22 B-H characteristic of ferromagnetic materials.
m B
m H
sat B
o
o
m
m B
m H
(a) (b)
m B
m H
m B
m H
sat B
o
o
m
m B
m H
sat B
o
o
m
m B
m H
(a) (b)
B-H Curves in
Ferromagnetic Materials
Fig. 2-23 Toroid with flux
m
.
m A
m
m A
m
Flux and Flux-Density
Inductance
Fig. 2-24 Coil inductance.
2
m
m
m m
N
L
A
=

m
( ) N
m
( )
m
A ( )
m

m
B
m
H
m
N | |
|
|
\ .
i
2
m
m
m m
N
L
A
=

m
( ) N
m
( )
m
A ( )
m

m
B
m
H
m
N | |
|
|
\ .
i
(a) (b)
m
m
A
i
N
m
m
A
i
N
Fig. 2-25 Rectangular toroid.

h
w
r
h
w
r
Example of a Toroid
Fig. 2-26 Voltage polarity and direction of flux and current.
( ) i t
( ) t
( ) e t
+
N
( ) i t
( ) t
( ) e t
+
N
Faradays Law
Fig. 2-27 Example 2-11.
( ) t
( ) e t
t 0
( ) t
( ) e t
t 0
Plot of time-varying Flux
and Voltage
Fig. 2-28 Including leakage flux.
(a) (b)
i
+
e
i
+
e
i
+
e
m
+
e
m
Leakage Flux
Fig. 2-29 Analysis including the leakage flux.
( ) v t
+
R
m
l
L
( ) i t
( )
m
e t ( ) e t
+
( ) v t
+
R
m
l
L
( ) i t
( )
m
e t ( ) e t
+
l
di
L
dt
( )
m
e t ( ) e t
+
+
( ) i t
m
L
l
L
l
di
L
dt
( )
m
e t ( ) e t
+
+
( ) i t
m
L
l
L
(a)
(b)
Representation of Leakage
Flux by Leakage
Inductance
CHAPTER 3

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND
THE ENVIRONMENT
Fig. 3-1 Production and consumption of energy in the United States in 2004 [1].
( ) a ( ) b
Energy Consumption and
Production in the U.S.
Fig. 3-2 Electric power generation by various fuel types in the U.S. in 2005 [1].
Power Generation by
Various Fuel Types in the
U.S.
Fig. 3-3 Hydro power (Source: www.bpa.gov).
H
Generator
Penstock
Turbine
Water
Hydro Power Generation
Fig. 3-4 Rankine thermodynamic cycle in coal-fired power plants.
Steam at High pressure
Pump
Heat in
Heat out
Turbine Boiler
Condenser
Gen
Rankine Thermodynamic
Cycle in Coal Plants
Fig. 3-5 Brayton thermodynamic cycle in natural-gas power plants.
Air in
Compressor
Turbine
Exhaust
Fuel in
Combustion
Chamber
Brayton Cycle in Gas
Turbines
Fig. 3-6 (a) BWR and (b) PWR reactors [5].
( ) a ( ) b
Nuclear Power Plant
Types
Fig. 3-7 Wind-resource map of the United States [6].
Wind Resources in the
U.S.
Fig. 3-8
p
c as a function of [7]; these would vary based on the turbine design.
Coefficient of
Performance
Fig. 3-9 Induction generator directly connected to the grid [8].
Utility
Induction
Generator
Wind
Turbine
Wind Generation using an
Induction Generator
Connected Directly to the
AC Grid
Fig. 3-10 Doubly-fed, wound-rotor induction generator [9].
AC
DC
DC
AC
Wound rotor
Induction Generator
Generator-side
Converter
Grid-side
Converter
Wind
Turbine
AC
DC
DC
AC
Wound rotor
Induction Generator
Generator-side
Converter
Grid-side
Converter
Wind
Turbine
Wind Generation using a Doubly-Fed
Induction Generator
Fig. 3-11 Power Electronics connected generator [10].
Gen
Utility
Power Electronics Interface
1
Conv
2
Conv
Wind Generation using an AC
Generator Connected through Power
Electronics
Fig. 3-12 PV cell characteristics [11].
Photovoltaics
Fig. 3-13 Photovoltaic systems.
Isolated
DC-DC
Converter
PWM
Converter
Max. Power-
point Tracker
Utility
1
Isolated
DC-DC
Converter
PWM
Converter
Max. Power-
point Tracker
Utility
1
Interfacing PV with AC
Grid
Fig. 3-14 Fuel cell v-i relationship and cell power [12].
1.4 -
1.2 -
1 -
0.8 -
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2 -
0 - - 0
- 200
- 400
- 600
- 800
- 1000
- 1200
|
0
|
500
|
1000
|
1500
|
2000
Maximum Theoretical Voltage
Current Density ( i in mA/cm
2
)
Activation
Losses
Ohmic Losses
Mass
Transport
Losses
Open
Circuit
Voltage
C
e
l
l

P
o
w
e
r

(

P
C
in
m
W
)
C
e
l
l

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(

V
C
in
V
o
l
t
s

)
- g
E =
2 F
Cell Power
P
C
= V
C
x i
1.4 -
1.2 -
1 -
0.8 -
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2 -
0 -
1.4 -
1.2 -
1 -
0.8 -
0.6 -
0.4 -
0.2 -
0 - - 0
- 200
- 400
- 600
- 800
- 1000
- 1200
- 0
- 200
- 400
- 600
- 800
- 1000
- 1200
|
0
|
500
|
1000
|
1500
|
2000
|
0
|
500
|
1000
|
1500
|
2000
Maximum Theoretical Voltage
Current Density ( i in mA/cm
2
)
Activation
Losses
Ohmic Losses
Mass
Transport
Losses
Open
Circuit
Voltage
C
e
l
l

P
o
w
e
r

(

P
C
in
m
W
)
C
e
l
l

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(

V
C
in
V
o
l
t
s

)
- g
E =
2 F
- g
E =
2 F
Cell Power
P
C
= V
C
x i
Fuel Cells
Fig. 3-15 Greenhouse effect [13].
Greenhouse Effect
Fig. 3-16 Resource mix at XcelEnergy [14].
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
Resource mix
XcelEnergy
Fig. 3-17 Electric power industry fuel costs in the U.S. in 2005 [1].
Fuel Costs in the U.S. in
2005
CHAPTER 4

AC TRANSMISSION LINES
AND UNDERGROUND
CABLES
Fig. 4-1 500-kV transmission line (Source: University of Minnesota EMTP course).
( ) a ( ) c
( ) b
( ) a ( ) c
( ) b
Transmission Tower,
Conductor and Bundling
Fig. 4-2 Transposition of transmission lines.
1
D
2
D
3
D
1 cycle
( ) a ( ) b
a
b
c
Transposition
Fig. 4-3 Distributed parameter representation on a per-phase basis.
line
neutral (zeroimpedance)
line
R L
C
Distributed Parameters
Fig. 4-4 (a) Cross-section of ACSR conductors, (b) skin-effect in a solid conductor.
D
T
J
towards center surface
( ) a ( ) b
Calculation of
Transmission Line
Resistance: Skin Effect
Fig. 4-5 Flux linkage with conductor-a.
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
D
r
a
i
b
i
c
i
r
a
i
x
dx
a b
c
a b
c
D
D
b
i
dx
x
a
b
c
Calculation of
Transmission Line
Inductance
Fig. 4-6 Electric field due to a charge.
x
q
1 2
1
x
2
x
Electric Field Due to
Transmission Line Voltage
Fig. 4-7 Shunt capacitances.
a
q
b
q
c
q
a
b
c
D
a
q
b
q
c
q
a
b
c
D
a b
c
a b
c
( ) a ( ) b
C C
C
n
hypothetical
neutral
Calculation of Transmission Line
Capacitance
Table 4-1
Transmission Line Parameters with Bundled Conductors (except at 230 kV)
at 60 Hz [2, 6]
Nominal Voltage ( / ) R km ( / ) L km ( / ) C km
230 kV 0.055 0.489 3.373
345 kV 0.037 0.376 4.518
500 kV 0.029 0.326 5.220
765 kV 0.013 0.339 4.988
Typical Parameters for various
Voltage Transmission Lines
Fig. 4-8 A 345-kV, single-conductor per phase, transmission system.
Calculating Transmission
Line Parameters using
EMTDC
Fig. 4-9 Distributed per-phase transmission line ( G not shown).
+
( )
R
V s
+
( )
S
V s
+
( )
x
V s
0
x
( )
R
I s ( )
S
I s
R sL
1
sC
( )
x
I s
Distributed-Parameter
Representation
Fig. 4-10 Per-phase transmission line terminated with a resistance equal to
c
Z .
+
S
V
S
I
j L
1
j
C
c
Z
+
0
R R
V V =
0
x
S
V
R
V
( ) a ( ) b
R
I
Voltage Profile under
SIL
Table 4-2
Surge Impedance and Three-Phase Surge Impedance Loading [2, 6]
Nominal Voltage ( )
c
Z ( ) SIL MW
230 kV 375 140 MW
345 kV 280 425 MW
500 kV 250 1000 MW
765 kV 255 2300 MW
Typical Surge Impedances and SIL
for various Voltage Transmission
Lines
Table 4-3
Loadability of Transmission Lines [6]
Line Length (km) Limiting Factor Multiple of SIL
0 - 80 Thermal > 3
80 - 240 5% Voltage Drop 1.5 - 3
240 - 480 Stability 1.0 1.5

Loadability of
Transmission Lines
Fig. 4-11 Long line representation.
+
( )
S
V s
( )
S
I s
+
( )
R
V s
( )
R
I s
series
Z
2
shunt
Y
2
shunt
Y
Long-Line
Representation
Fig. 4-12 Per-phase transmission line representation based on length.
+
S
V
S
I
+
R
V
R
I
series
Z
2
shunt
Y
2
shunt
Y
+
S
V
S
I
+
R
V
R
I
line
j L
2
line
j
C
2
line
j
C
line
R
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
+
S
V
S
I
+
R
V
R
I
line
j L
line
R
Transmission Line
Representations
Fig. 4-13 Underground cable.
Underground Cables
CHAPTER 5

POWER FLOW IN
POWER SYSTEM
NETWORKS
Fig. 5-1 A three-bus 345-kV example system.
Bus 1 Bus 3
Bus 2
Slack Bus
PV Bus
PQBus
P jQ +
200km
150km 150km
Bus 1 Bus 3
Bus 2
Slack Bus
PV Bus
PQBus
P jQ +
200km
150km 150km
Three-Bus Example Power
System
Table 5-1 Per-Unit Values in the Example System
Line Series Impedance Z in (pu) Total Susceptance B in (pu)
1-2
12
(5.55 56.4) Z j = + = (0.0047 0.0474) j + pu 675
Total
B = = (0.8034) pu
1-3
13
(7.40 75.2) Z j = + = (0.0062 0.0632) j + pu 900
Total
B = = (1.0712) pu
2-3
23
(5.55 56.4) Z j = + = (0.0047 0.0474) j + pu 675
Total
B = = (0.8034) pu

Transmission Lines in
Example Power System
Fig. 5-2 Example system of Fig. 5-1 for assembling Y-bus matrix.
Bus 1 Bus 3
Bus 2
1
I
2
I
3
I
13
Z
12
Z
23
Z
1
V
3
V
2
V
Calculating Y-Bus in the
Fig. 5-3 Plot of
2
4 x as a function of x .
x
2
4 x
4
2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 3.0 3.5 4.0
(0)
x
(1)
x
(2)
x
Newton-Raphson
Procedure
Fig. 5-4 Power-Flow results of Example 5-4.
0
1
1 0 V pu =
0
2
1.05 -2.07 V pu =
0
3
0.978 -8.79 V pu =
( ) 0.69 - 1.11 j pu
( ) 2.39 0.29 j pu +
( ) 2.68 1.48 j pu +
( ) 5.0 1.0 j pu +
1 1
(3.08 - 0.82) P jQ j pu + =
2 2
( 2.0 2.67) P jQ j pu + = +
Power Flow Results in the
CHAPTER 6

TRANSFORMERS IN POWER
SYSTEMS
Fig. 6-1 Principle of transformers, beginning with just one coil.
+
1
e
1
N
m
1
e
1
N
m
m
i
+
1
e
m
L
m
i
+
1
e
m
L
(a) (b)
Transformer Principle:
Generation of Flux
Fig. 6-2 B-H characteristics of ferromagnetic materials.
m
B
m
H
m
B
m
H
sat
B
o
m
B
m
H
sat
B
o
m
B
m
H
(a) (b)
Core in Transformers
Fig. 6-3 Transformer with the open-circuited second coil.
+
m
i +
1
e
m
L

Ideal
Transformer
1
N
2
N
2
e
+
m
i +
1
e
m
L

Ideal
Transformer
1
N
2
N
2
e
+
1
e
1
N
m
2
e
2
N
+
+
1
e
1
N
m
2
e
2
N
+
(a) (b)
Flux Coupling
Fig. 6-4 Transformer with load connected to the secondary winding.
+
1
e
1
N
m
2
e
2
N
+
( )
1
i t
( )
2
i t
+
1
e
1
N
m
2
e
2
N
+
( )
1
i t
( )
2
i t
( )
2
i t
( )
1
i t
+
m
i +
1
e
m
L

Ideal
Transformer
1
N
2
N
2
e
( )
2
i t ( )
2
i t
( )
1
i t
+
m
i +
1
e
m
L

Ideal
Transformer
1
N
2
N
2
e
( )
2
i t
(a) (b)
Transformer with Load
Connected to the
Secondary
Fig. 6-5 Transformer equivalent circuit including leakage impedances and core losses.
'
2
I 1
I
+
m
i +
1
E
m
jX

Ideal Transformer
1
N
2
N
2
E
2
I
1
R
l1
jX
2
R
l 2
jX
2
V
+
1
V
+
Real Transformer
he
R
'
2
I 1
I
+
m
i +
1
E
m
jX

Ideal Transformer
1
N
2
N
2
E
2
I
1
R
l1
jX
2
R
l 2
jX
2
V
+
1
V
+
Real Transformer
he
R
Transformer Model
Fig. 6-6 Eddy currents in the transformer core.
m
circulating
currents
i
m
circulating
currents
i
m
circulating
currents
m
circulating
currents
(a) (b)
Eddy Current and
Hysteresis Losses
Fig. 6-7 Simplified transformer model.
+
p
V
+
s
V
p
I
s
I
p
Z
s
Z
1: n
p
n
s
n
+
s
V
Transformer Simplified
Model
Fig. 6-8 Transferring leakage impedances across the ideal transformer of the model.
+
p
V
+
s
V
p
I
s
I
ps
Z
1: n
p
n
s
n
+
p
V
+
s
V
p
I
s
I
sp
Z
1: n
p
n
s
n
( ) a
( ) b
Transferring Leakage
Impedances from One Side
to Another
Fig. 6-9 Transformer equivalent circuit in per unit (pu).
+
(pu)
p
V
+
(pu)
s
V
(pu) I
(pu) I
(pu)
tr
Z
Transformer Equivalent
Circuit in Per Unit
Fig. 6-10 Winding connections in a three-phase system.
( ) a
( ) b
Connection of Transformer
Windings
Fig. 6-11 Including nominal-voltage transformers in per-unit.
345/ 500kV 500/ 345kV
500kV
Bus 3 Bus 1
Including Nominal Turns-
Ratio Transformer in
Power Flow Studies
Fig. 6-12 Auto-transformer.
+
1
V
+
2
V
1
I
1
n
2
n
( ) a
2
I
+
1
V
( ) 1 2
V V +
1
I
1
n
2
n
2
I
( ) 1 2
I I +
+
2
V
( ) b
+
Auto-Transformer
Fig. 6-13 Phase-shift in -Y connected transformers.
( ) c
+
A
V
+
a
V
0
30 1
2
:
3
j
n
e n
( ) a
a
b c
A
B
C
( ) b
a
V
A
V
1
n
2
n
Phase-Shift Due to Wye-
Delta Transformers
Fig. 6-14 Transformer for phase-angle control.
a
b
c
a
b
c
( ) a
( ) b
a
V
b
V
c
V
ab
V
bc
V
ca
V
( ) c
a
V

b
V

c
V

a b
V

b c
V

c a
V

a
V
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
c
( ) a
( ) b
a
V
b
V
c
V
ab
V
bc
V
ca
V
( ) c
a
V

b
V

c
V

a b
V

b c
V

c a
V

a
V
Phase-Shift Control by
Transformers
Fig. 6-15 Three-winding auto-transformer.
H
L
T H
L
T
( )
H
Z
( )
L
Z
( )
T
Z
1
n
2
n
3
n
( ) a
( ) b
a
b
c
A
B
C
a
a
a
A
C
H
L
T H
L
T
( )
H
Z
( )
L
Z
( )
T
Z
1
n
2
n
3
n
( ) a
( ) b
a
b
c
A
B
C
a
a
a
A
C
Three-Winding Auto-
Transformers
Fig. 6-16 General representation of an auto-transformer and a phase-shifter.
+
1
V
1: t
1
I
2
I
+
2
V
+
2
V
t
1/ Y Z =

General Representation of
Auto- and Phase-Shift
Transformers
Fig. 6-17 Transformer with an off-nominal turns-ratio or taps in per unit; t is real.
+
1
V
1/ Y Z =

1: t
1
I
2
I
+
2
V
( ) a ( ) b
1
1 Y
t
| |
|
\ .

2
1 1
Y
t t
| |
|
\ .

/ Y t
1
V
+
2
V
1
I
2
I
1
1 Y
t
| |
|
\ .

2
1 1
Y
t t
| |
|
\ .

/ Y t
1
V
+
2
V
1
I
2
I
PU Representation of Off-
Nominal Turns-Ratio
Transformers
Fig. 6-18 Transformer of Example 6-3.
+
1
V
0.1 j pu
1: t
1
I
2
I
+
2
V
( ) a ( ) b
1
0.909 Y j pu =
2
0.826 Y j pu =
0.11
s
Z j pu =
+
1
V
+
2
V
1
I
2
I
Example of Off-Nominal Turns-Ratio
Transformers
CHAPTER 7

HIGH VOLTAGE DC (HVDC)
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
Fig. 7-1 Power semiconductor devices.
Thyristor IGBT MOSFET IGCT
(a)
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
T
h
y
r
i
s
t
o
r
IGBT
MOSFET
P
o
w
e
r

(
V
A
)
Switching Frequency (Hz)
IGCT
(b)
(a)
(a)
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
T
h
y
r
i
s
t
o
r
IGBT
MOSFET
P
o
w
e
r

(
V
A
)
IGCT
(b)
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
T
h
y
r
i
s
t
o
r
IGBT
MOSFET
P
o
w
e
r

(
V
A
)
IGCT
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
2
10
4
10
6
10
8
T
h
y
r
i
s
t
o
r
IGBT
MOSFET
P
o
w
e
r

(
V
A
)
IGCT
(b)
Symbols and Capabilities
of Power Semiconductor
Devices
Figure 7-2 Power semiconductor devices: (a) ratings (source: Siemens), (b) various
applications (source: ABB).
( ) a

Device blocking voltage [V]
D
e
v
ic
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t [
A
]
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
HVDC
Traction
Motor
Drive
Power
Supply
Auto-
motive
Lighting
FACTS
D
e
v
ic
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t [
A
]
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
D
e
v
ic
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t [
A
]
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
HVDC
Traction
Motor
Drive
Power
Supply
Auto-
motive
Lighting
FACTS
( ) b ( ) a

D
e
v
ic
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t [
A
]
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
HVDC
Traction
Motor
Drive
Power
Supply
Auto-
motive
Lighting
FACTS
D
e
v
ic
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t [
A
]
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
D
e
v
ic
e
c
u
r
r
e
n
t [
A
]
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
HVDC
Traction
Motor
Drive
Power
Supply
Auto-
motive
Lighting
FACTS
( ) b
Power Semiconductor
Devices and Applications
Fig. 7-3 HVDC system one-line diagram.
1
AC
2
AC
HVDC Line
HVDC System
Fig. 7-4 HVDC systems: (a) Current-Link, and (b) Voltage-Link.
AC1 AC2
+
AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2
+
AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2
( ) a ( ) b
HVDC Systems: Voltage-
Link and Current-Link
Fig. 7-5 HVDC projects, mostly current-link systems, in North America [source: ABB]
3100MW
1920MW
200MW
200MW
200MW
200MW
200MW
210MW
150MW
200MW
600MW
1000MW 500MW
1000MW
36MW
312MW
370MW
320MW
100MW
200MW
350MW
330MW
1620MW
2000MW
2000MW
690MW
2250MW
2138MW
3100MW
1920MW
200MW
200MW
200MW
200MW
200MW
210MW
150MW
200MW
600MW
1000MW 500MW
1000MW
36MW
312MW
370MW
320MW
100MW
200MW
350MW
330MW
1620MW
2000MW
2000MW
690MW
2250MW
2138MW
HVDC Projects in North
America
Fig. 7-6 Block diagram of a current-link HVDC system.
Current-Link HVDC
System
Fig. 7-7 Thyristors.
K
A
G
P
N
P
N
A
G
pn1
pn2
pn3
K
(a) (b)
K
A
G
K
A
G
P
N
P
N
A
G
pn1
pn2
pn3
K
P
N
P
N
A
G
pn1
pn2
pn3
K
(a) (b)
Thyristors
Fig. 7-8 Thyristor circuit with a resistive load and a series inductance.
( ) b
t
t
t
0
0
0

d
v
d
V
s
v s
i
G
i
0 t =
( ) a
s
i
s
L
+
d
v s
v
R
( ) b
t
t
t
0
0
0

d
v
d
V
s
v s
i
G
i
0 t =
( ) b
t
t
t
0
0
0

d
v
d
V
s
v s
i
G
i
0 t =
( ) a
s
i
s
L
+
d
v s
v
R
( ) a
s
i
s
L
+
d
v s
v
R
Primitive Thyristor
Circuits
Fig. 7-9 Three-phase Full-Bridge thyristor converter.
(a)
d
i
6
5
4 2
1 3
cn
v
+
+
+
an
v
bn
v
s
L
a
i
+
+
an
v
a
i
d
I
+
d
v
N
P
1
3
5
4
6
2
(b)
n n
(a)
d
i
6
5
4 2
1 3
cn
v
+
+
+
an
v
bn
v
s
L
a
i
+
+
an
v
a
i
d
I
+
d
v
N
P
1
3
5
4
6
2
(b)
n n
+
d
v
(a)
d
i
6
5
4 2
1 3
cn
v
+
+
+
an
v
bn
v
s
L
a
i
+
+
an
v
a
i
d
I
+
d
v
N
P
1
3
5
4
6
2
(b)
n n
(a)
d
i
6
5
4 2
1 3
cn
v
+
+
+
an
v
bn
v
s
L
a
i
+
+
an
v
a
i
d
I
+
d
v
N
P
1
3
5
4
6
2
(b)
n n
+
d
v
Three-Phase Thyristor
Converter
Fig. 7-10 Waveforms in a three-phase rectifier with 0
s
L = and 0 = .
t
0
c
v
b
v
a
v
(a)
a
i
0
o
120
o
60 t
b
i
0
c
i
0
N
v
P
v
(c)
t
do
V
LL
2V d
v
0
(b)
t
t
t
0
c
v
b
v
a
v
(a)
a
i
0
o
120
o
60 t
b
i
0
c
i
0
N
v
P
v
(c)
t
do
V
LL
2V d
v
0
(b)
t
t
Three-Phase Diode
Rectifier Waveforms
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 111 Fig. 7-11 Waveforms with 0
s
L = .
0
0
0
0
t
t
t
t
an
v
bn
v cn
v Pn
v
Nn
v
A
a
i
b
i
c
i
1
4
3
6 6
1
5 5
2
4
0
0
0
0
t
t
t
t
an
v
bn
v cn
v Pn
v
Nn
v
A
a
i
b
i
c
i
1
4
3
6 6
1
5 5
2
4
Three-Phase Thyristor
Converter Waveforms with
zero AC-Side Inductance
Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 112 Fig. 7-12 Waveforms in the inverter mode.
0
0
0
0
t
t
t
t
an
v
bn
v
cn
v
Pn
v
Nn
v
a
i
b
i
c
i
1
4
3
6
1
5
2
4
3
2
0
0
0
0
t
t
t
t
an
v
bn
v
cn
v
Pn
v
Nn
v
a
i
b
i
c
i
1
4
3
6
1
5
2
4
3
2
Three-Phase Inverter
Waveforms
Fig. 7-13 Average dc-side voltage as a function of .
( ) b ( ) a
0 0
d
V
0
90
0
160
0
180
d
V
d
I
Rectifier
d d
P V I = = +
Inverter
d d
P V I = =
DC-Side Voltage as a
Function of Delay Angle
Fig. 7-14 Waveforms with
s
L .
0
0
t
t
an
v
bn
v
cn
v Pn
v
Nn
v
u
A
a
i
1
4
1
4
u
0
0
t
t
an
v
bn
v
cn
v Pn
v
Nn
v
u
A
a
i
1
4
1
4
u
Thyristor Converter
Waveforms in the
Presence of AC-Side
Inductance
Fig. 7-15 Power-factor angle.
( ) b ( ) a
a
V
a
V
1 a
I
1 a
I
1

1

Power Factor Angle in
Rectifier and Inverter
Modes
CU One-line Diagram
Fig. 7-16 One-line diagram of the HVDC Transmission System (source: CU project).
Fig. 7-17 Six-pulse and 12-pulse current and voltage waveforms [2].
( ) a ( ) b
( )
a
i Y Y
( )
a
i Y
12-Pulse Waveforms
Fig. 7-18 A pole of an HVDC system.
d
i
+
1 d
v
+
2 d
v
AC 1 AC 2 AC 1 AC 2
d
R
d
L
d
i
+
1 d
v
+
2 d
v
AC 1 AC 2 AC 1 AC 2
d
R
d
L
HVDC System
Representation for Control
Fig. 7-19 Control of an HVDC system [3].
1 d
V
0
d
I , d ref
I
min
Inverter characteristic
with =
Rectifier characteristic
in a current-control mode
Control of HVDC
Converters
Fig. 7-20 Voltage-link HVDC transmission system [source: ABB].
A Voltage-Link HVDC
System in Northeastern
U.S.
Fig. 7-21 Block diagram of voltage-link HVDC system.
AC1 AC2
+
AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2 AC1 AC2
+
1 1
, P Q
2 2
, P Q
Voltage-Link HVDC
System Block Diagram
Fig. 7-22 Block diagram of a voltage-link converter and the phasor diagram.
+
d
V
conv
v
L
bus
v
L
i
+
d
V
conv
v
L
bus
v
L
i
+
conv
V
L
I
+
bus
V
+
L L
jX I
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
L
I
L
I
L L
jX I
conv
V
bus
V
Phasor Diagram on the Ac-
Side of the Voltage-Link
Converter
Fig. 7-23 Synthesis of sinusoidal voltages.
+
d
V
a
b
c
1:
a
d 1:
b
d 1:
c
d 1:
a
d
a
i
d
V
da
i
+
aN
v
( ) a ( ) b
Representation of Voltage-
Link Converter with Ideal
Transformers
Fig. 7-24 Sinusoidal variation of turns-ratio
a
d .
1
0.5
0
d
V
0.5
d
V
0
t
t
a
d
aN
v
a
d
a
V
Synthesis of Average
Sinusoidal Voltages
Fig. 7-25 Three-phase synthesis.
a
b
c
N
2
d
V
2
d
V
2
d
V
a
v
b
v
c
v
ac-side
( ) a
d
V
0.5
d
V
0
a
v
t
( ) a
aN
v
bN
v
cN
v
Converter Output Voltages
and Voltages across the
Load
Fig. 7-26 Realization of the ideal transformer functionality.
a
q
+
d
V
da
i
a
i
a
N
+
aN
v
(a) (b)
+
d
V
a
q
Buck Boost
a
q
a
i
+
aN
v
Switching Power-Pole of
Voltage-Link Converters
Fig. 7-27 PWM to synthesize sinusoidal waveform.
aN
v
0 t
d
V
aN
v
aN
v
aN
v
0
0
s
T
( ) a
( ) b
h
V
1
f
s
f
2
s
f 3
s
f
Switching in Sinusoidal
Average Voltage
Waveform
CHAPTER 8

Distribution System, Loads
and Power Quality
Fig. 8-1 Residential distribution system.
13.8kV
Transformer
120V
120V
120V
1
House
2
House
3
House
Residential Distribution
System
Fig. 8-2 System load.
100% 0
Load
(MW)
percentage of the time 100% 0
Load
(MW)
percentage of the time
kW
Time
AM NOON PM
12 6 12 6 12
peak
(a) (b)
Daily Load and Load-
Duration Curves
Fig. 8-3 Utility loads.
Motors 51% HVAC 16%
IT
14%
Lighting 19%
Motors 51% HVAC 16%
IT
14%
Lighting 19%
Motors 51% HVAC 16%
IT
14%
Lighting 19%
36%
Residential 35%
Commercial
29%
Industrial
36%
Residential 35%
Commercial
29%
Industrial
( ) a ( ) b
Utility Load Distribution
Table 8-1 Power Factor and Voltage Sensitivity of Power Systems Load
Type of Load Power Factor / a P V = / b Q V =
Electric Heating 1.0 2.0 0
Incandescent Lighting 1.0 1.5 0
Fluorescent Lighting 0.9 1.0 1.0
Motor Loads 0.8 0.9 0.05 0.5 1.0 3.0
Modern Power-
Electronics based
Loads
1.0 0 0

Power Factor and Voltage
Sensitivity of Power
Systems Load
Fig. 8-4 Voltage-link-system for modern and future power-electronics based loads.
d
V
+
Utility
Load
Voltage-Link System used
in Power Electronics
Based Loads
Fig. 8-5 Per-phase, steady state equivalent circuit of a three-phase induction motor.
+
(at )
a
V
+
ls
j L
ma
I
ma
E
'
ra
I
a
I
s
R
'
lr
j L
'
syn
r
slip
R

m
j L
Induction Motor Per-Phase
Diagram
Fig. 8-6 Torque-speed characteristic of induction motor at various applied frequencies.
em
T
1
f
Load
Torque
0
2
f
3
f
4
f
5
f
m
1 syn
1 slip
3 syn
3 slip
Torque-Speed
Characteristics
Fig. 8-7 Switch-mode dc power supply.
60Hz
ac
input
rectifier
topology to convert
dc to dc with isolation
Feedback
controller
HF transformer
dc to HF ac
Output in
V
+
*
o
V
o
V
60Hz
ac
input
rectifier
topology to convert
dc to dc with isolation
Feedback
controller
HF transformer
dc to HF ac
Output in
V
+
*
o
V
o
V
Switch-Mode DC Power
Supplies
Fig. 8-8 Uninterruptible power supply.
Rectifier Inverter Filter
Critical
Load
Energy
Storage
Critical
Load
Energy
Storage
Critical
Load
Energy
Storage
Uninterruptible Power
Supplies (UPS)
Fig. 8-9 Alternate feeder.
Load
Feeder 1
Feeder 2
Load
Feeder 1
Feeder 2
Static Power-Transfer
Switch
Fig. 8-10 CBEMA curve.
CBEMA Curve Showing
Acceptable Voltage-Time
Region
Fig. 8-11 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR).
Power Electronic
Interface
Load
s
v
+
+ inj
v
Power Electronic
Interface
Load
Power Electronic
Interface
Load
s
v
+
+ inj
v
Dynamic Voltage
Restorers (DVR)
Fig. 8-12 Three-Phase Voltage Regulator (Courtesy of Siemens) [5].
Voltage Regulating
Transformers
Fig. 8-13 STATCOM [4].
Utility
STATCOM
jX
Utility
STATCOM
jX
STATCOM
Figure 8-14 Voltage and current phasors in simple R-L circuit.
s
I
s
V
i
s
v
s
+
( ) a
( ) b
s
I
s
V
i
s
v
s
+
i
s
v
s
+
( ) a
( ) b
Linear Load
Figure 8-15 Current drawn by power electronics equipment without PFC.
t
( )
distortion s s1
i i i =
t
0
/
1

s1
i
i
s
v
s
1
T
0
( ) a
( ) b
t
( )
distortion s s1
i i i =
t
0
/
1

s1
i
i
s
v
s
1
T
0
( ) a
( ) b
Waveforms Associated
with Power Electronics-
Based Load
1
T
s
i
t
I
I
0
s1
i
t
0
I
I
/ 4I
t
distortion
i
0
Figure 5-4 Example 5-1.
( ) c
( ) b
( ) a
1
T
s
i
t
I
I
0
s1
i
t
0
I
I
/ 4I
t
distortion
i
0
( ) c
( ) b
( ) a
1
T
s
i
t
I
I
0
s1
i
t
0
I
I
/ 4I
t
distortion
i
0
( ) c
( ) b
( ) a
1
T
s
i
t
I
I
0
s1
i
t
0
I
I
/ 4I
t
distortion
i
0
( ) c
( ) b
( ) a
Example of Distorted
Current
Fig. 8-17 Relation between PF/DPF and THD.
PF
DPF
%THD
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
1
. 0 9
. 0 8
. 0 7
. 0 6
. 0 5
. 0 4
PF
DPF
%THD
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
1
. 0 9
. 0 8
. 0 7
. 0 6
. 0 5
. 0 4
Influence of Distortion on
Power Factor
Table 5-1 Harmonic current distortion (I
h
/I
1
)
1
/
sc
I I
( %) Odd HarmonicOrder h in
35 h 23 35 h < 17 23 h < 11 17 h < h <11
15 0 .
12 0 .
10 0 .
7 0 .
4 0 .
7 0 .
55 .
4 5 .
35 .
2 0 .
6 0 .
5 0 .
4 0 .
2 5 .
15 .
2 5 .
2 0 .
15 .
10 .
0 6 .
14 .
10 .
0 7 .
0 5 .
0 3 .
20 0 .
15 0 .
12 0 .
8 0 .
5 0 .
Distortion(%)
Harmonic
Total
>1000
100 1000
50 100
20 50
< 20
h
/I
1
)
1
/
sc
I I
35 h 23 35 h < 17 23 h < 11 17 h < h <11
15 0 .
12 0 .
10 0 .
7 0 .
4 0 .
7 0 .
55 .
4 5 .
35 .
2 0 .
6 0 .
5 0 .
4 0 .
2 5 .
15 .
2 5 .
2 0 .
15 .
10 .
0 6 .
14 .
10 .
0 7 .
0 5 .
0 3 .
20 0 .
15 0 .
12 0 .
8 0 .
5 0 .
Distortion(%)
Harmonic
Total
>1000
100 1000
50 100
20 50
< 20
1
Table 8-1 Harmonic current distortion ( / )
h
I I Table 5-1 Harmonic current distortion (I
h
/I
1
)
1
/
sc
I I
35 h 23 35 h < 17 23 h < 11 17 h < h <11
15 0 .
12 0 .
10 0 .
7 0 .
4 0 .
7 0 .
55 .
4 5 .
35 .
2 0 .
6 0 .
5 0 .
4 0 .
2 5 .
15 .
2 5 .
2 0 .
15 .
10 .
0 6 .
14 .
10 .
0 7 .
0 5 .
0 3 .
20 0 .
15 0 .
12 0 .
8 0 .
5 0 .
Distortion(%)
Harmonic
Total
>1000
100 1000
50 100
20 50
< 20
h
/I
1
)
1
/
sc
I I
35 h 23 35 h < 17 23 h < 11 17 h < h <11
15 0 .
12 0 .
10 0 .
7 0 .
4 0 .
7 0 .
55 .
4 5 .
35 .
2 0 .
6 0 .
5 0 .
4 0 .
2 5 .
15 .
2 5 .
2 0 .
15 .
10 .
0 6 .
14 .
10 .
0 7 .
0 5 .
0 3 .
20 0 .
15 0 .
12 0 .
8 0 .
5 0 .
Distortion(%)
Harmonic
Total
>1000
100 1000
50 100
20 50
< 20
1
Table 8-1 Harmonic current distortion ( / )
h
I I
IEEE Harmonic Limits
+
sc
I
Z
s
V
s
+
Z
s
V
s
(a) (b)
Figure 5-6 (a) Utility supply; (b) short circuit current.
+
sc
I
Z
s
V
s
+
Z
s
V
s
+
Z
s
V
s
(a) (b)
Figure 5-6 (a) Utility supply; (b) short circuit current.
Figure 8-18 (a) Utility Supply, (b) Short-Circuit Current.
Short-Circuit Current
Fig. 8-19 Average retail price of electricity to ultimate customers [4].
Retail Price of Electricity in
the U.S.
CHAPTER 9

SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATORS
Fig. 9-1 Synchronous generators driven by (a) steam turbines, and (b) hydraulic turbines.
H
Generator
Penstock
Turbine
Water
Steam at High pressure
Pump
Heat in
Heat out
Turbine Boiler
Condenser
Gen
( ) a ( ) b
Application of
Synchronous Generators
Fig. 9-2 Machine cross-section.
(a) (b)
Air gap
Stator
Air gap
Stator
Cross-section of
Synchronous Generators
Fig. 9-3 Machine structure.
(a) (b) (c)
S N S N
S
N N
S
S
N N
S
S
N
N
S S
N
N
S
Synchronous Generator
Structure
Fig. 9-4 Three phase windings on the stator.
axis a
axis b
axis c
2 / 3
2 / 3
2 / 3
b
i
a
i
c
i
axis a
axis b
axis c
2 / 3
2 / 3
2 / 3
b
i
a
i
c
i
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6 ' a
i
a
i
7 '
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1'
2'
3'
4'
5'
6 ' a
i
a
i
7 '
(a) (b)
Sinusoidally-Distributed
Windings
Fig. 9-5 Connection of three phase windings.
a
' a
b
' b
c
' c
a
i
b
i
c
i
axis a
axis b
axis c
o
240
o
120
o
0
a
' a
b
' b
c
' c
a
i
b
i
c
i
axis a
axis b
axis c
o
240
o
120
o
0
b
b
i
a
i
c
i
c
a
b
b
i
a
i
c
i
c
a
(a) (b)
Three-Phase Winding
Connection in a Wye
Fig. 9-6 Field winding on the rotor that is supplied by a dc current
f
I .
a-axis
N
S
syn
Rotor Field
Fig. 9-7 Current direction and voltage polarities; the rotor position shown induces
maximum
a
e .
a-axis
N
S
syn
a
e
Voltage induced in the
Stator Phase due to
Rotating Rotor Field
Fig. 9-8 Induced emf
af
e due to rotating rotor field with the rotor.
a-axis
N
S
syn
af
e
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
N
S
a-axis
(at 0)
f
B t =
af
E
Re
Im
syn
Representation of Induced
Stator Voltage due to
Rotor Field
Fig. 9-9 Armature reaction due to phase currents.
axis a
axis b
axis c
2 / 3
2 / 3
2 / 3
b
i
a
i
c
i
axis a
axis b
axis c
2 / 3
2 / 3
2 / 3
b
i
a
i
c
i
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
0 j
e
2
3
j
e

4
3
j
e

a
I
Re
Im
(at 0)
AR
B t =
a-axis
, a AR
E
0
90
Armature Reaction Due to
Three Stator Currents
Fig. 9-10 Phasor diagram and per-phase equivalent circuit.
( ) a ( ) b
Re
Im
a
I
af
E
, a AR
E
a
E
m a
jX I
af
E
+
+
, a AR
E
+
m a
jX I
+
a
E
+
a
V
s
X
a
I
s
R
Superposition of the two
Induced Voltages and Per-
Phase Representation
Fig. 9-11 Power output and synchronism.
stability limit
steady state
generator
mode
motoring
mode
0
o
90
o
90
P
stability limit
steady state
+
o
V V 0

=
a
I
af af
E E =
T
jX +
( ) a
( ) b
Power Out as a function of
rotor Angle
Fig. 9-12 Steady state stability limit.
0
o
90
( ) a
e
P
1
e1
P
e2
P
m1
P
m2
P
( ) b
0
o
90
e
P
,max e
P
Steady State Stability
Limit
Fig. 9-13 Excitation control to supply reactive power.
{ aq
I
aq
I

o
90
o
90
a
I
a
I
a
I
s a
jX I
s a
jX I
s a
jX I
af
E af
E
af
E

a
V
a
V
a V
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
{ aq
I
aq
I

o
90
o
90
a
I
a
I
a
I
s a
jX I
s a
jX I
s a
jX I
af
E af
E
af
E

a
V
a
V
a V
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Reactive Power Control by
Field Excitation
Fig. 9-14 Synchronous Condenser.
Synchronous
Condenser
Synchronous
Condenser
Fig. 9-15 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).
acinput
phase-controlled
rectifier
slip rings
field winding
Generator
ac regulator
output
Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR)
Fig. 9-16 Armature reaction flux in steady state.
Armature Reaction Flux in
Steady State Leading to
Synchronous Reactance
Fig. 9-17 Armature (a) and field current (b), after a sudden short circuit [source: 4].
( ) a ( ) b
Simulation of a Short-
Circuit Assuming a
Constant-Flux Model
Fig. 9-18 Synchronous generator modeling for transient and sub-transient conditions.
( ) b
( ) a
'
''
af
af
af
E
E
E
+
+
'
''
s a
s a
s a
jX I
jX I
jX I
+
a
E
a
I
Re
Im
a
I
af
E
a
E
s a
jX I '
af
E
'
s a
jX I
''
s a
jX I
''
af
E
Representation for Steady State,
Transient Stability and Fault
Analysis
CHAPTER 10

VOLTAGE REGULATION
AND STABILITY IN
POWER SYSTEMS
Fig. 10-1 A radial system.
R R
P jQ +
S
V
R
V
L
jX
S S
P jQ +
Load
(a)
(b)
S S
P jQ +
R R
P jQ +
L
jX
S
V
R
V
+
I
A Radial System
Fig. 10-2 Phasor diagram and the equivalent circuit with 1pu
S R
V V = = .
(a)
I
L
jX I
R
V
S
V
/ 2
(b)
S S
P jQ +
S
V
+
L
jX I
R
Q
R
P
R
V
+
Voltages and Current

Phasors with Both-Side
Voltages at 1 PU
Fig. 10-3 Voltage profile along the transmission line.
S
V
+
R
V
+
x
V
+
x
(a) (b)
(1pu)
S
V
(1pu)
R
V
x
V
R
P SIL <
R
P SIL >
Voltage Profile for Three
Values of SIL
Fig. 10-4 Voltage collapse in a radial system (example of 345-kV line, 200 km long).
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
( ) a
( ) b
S
V
R
V
L
jX
R R
P jQ +
/
R
P SIL
R
S
V
V
1 PF =
0.9
(leading)
PF =
0.9
(lagging)
PF =
Nose Curves at Three
Power Factors as a
function of Loading
Fig. 10-5 Reactive power supply capability of synchronous generators.
A
B
C
0
P
Q
Reactive Power Supply
Capability
Fig. 10-6 Effect of leading and lagging currents due to the shunt compensating device.
+
Th V
Th jX +
bus V
I
(a)
bus V
I
Th jX I Th V
bus V
I
Th jX I
Th V
(b)
Th jX I
+
Effect of Current Power
Factor on Bus Voltage
Fig. 10-7 V-I characteristic of SVC.
bus
V
1
j C
C
I
bus
V
0
C
I
( ) a ( ) b
Static Var
Compensators (SVC)
Fig. 10-8 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR).
bus
V
L
I
( ) a ( ) c
0
L
I
bus
V
0
90
0
90 >
( ) b
bus
v
L
i
L
i
Thyristor Controlled
Reactors (TCR)
Fig. 10-9 Parallel combination of SVC and TCR.
bus
V
1
j C
C
I
( ) a
L
I
L
I
I
( ) b ( ) c
bus
V bus
V
I
0 0
I
inductive capacitive inductive capacitive
A
B
C
1
V
1
V
2
V
2
V
Linear
Range
Voltage Control by SVC
and TCR Combination
Fig. 10-10 STATCOM.
bus
V
conv
V
conv
I
+
conv
jXI
+
d
V
+
bus
V
conv
V
conv
I
+
conv
jXI
( ) a ( ) b
STATCOM
Fig. 10-11 STATCOM VI characteristic.
conv
I 0
inductive capacitive
Linear
Range
bus
V
STATCOM V-I
Characteristic
Fig. 10-12 Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) [source: Siemens Corp.].
( ) a ( ) c ( ) b
Thyristor-Controlled
Series Capacitor (TCSC)
CHAPTER 11

TRANSIENT AND
DYNAMIC STABILITY OF
POWER SYSTEMS
Fig. 11-1 Simple one-generator system connected to an infinite bus.
1
V 0
B B
V V =
( ) a
m
P
L
X
L
X
( ) b
1
V E 0
B
V
+
I
'
( )
d tr
j X X + / 2
L
jX
e
P
One-Machine Infinite-Bus
System
Fig. 11-2 Power-angle characteristics.
post-fault
Pre-fault
L
X
L
X
Bus 1 0
B B
V V =
0
e
P
m
P
0
( ) a ( ) b
m
P
e
P
during-fault
Power-Angle
Characteristic in One-
Machine Infinite-Bus
System
Fig. 11-3 Rotor-angle swing in Example 11-1.
0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2 1 . 4
2 0
2 5
3 0
3 5
4 0
4 5
5 0
5 5
Rotor-Angle Swing
Following a Fault and a
Line Taken Out
Fig. 11-4 Fault on one of the transmission lines.
( ) b

e
P
e m
P P =
0
0
c
A
B
Pre-fault
during fault
post-fault
max
( ) a
L
X
L
X
Bus 1 0
B B
V V =
m
P
e
P
Power-Angle
Characteristics
Fig. 11-5 Rotor oscillations after the fault is cleared.

e
P
e m
P P =
0
1
m
C
D
Pre-fault
post-fault
Rotor Oscillations After
the Fault is Cleared
Fig. 11-6 Critical clearing angle.

e
P
e m
P P =
0
0
crit
A
B
Pre-fault
post-fault
max
Critical Clearing Angle

using Equal-Area Criterion
Fig. 11-7 Power angle curves and equal-area criterion in Example 11-2.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
( )
e
P pu
e m
P P =
Pre-fault
during fault
post-fault
0
0
22.47 =
0
115.28
m
=
0
75
c
=
A
B
Example using Equal-Area
Criterion
Fig. 11-8 Block diagram of transient stability program for an n-generator case.
Initial Power Flow
'
Calculate and
e
P E
for each generator
, , m k e k
P P =
'
,
and held constant
m k k
P E
Electro-dynamic
differential
Equations
for 1, 2, 3.... k =
and
k k

, e k
P
Phasor Calculations
'
using
k k
E
(load may be assumed
as a constant impedance)
Transient Stability
Calculations in Large
Networks
Fig. 11-9 A 345-kV test example system.
Bus-1 Bus-3
Bus-2
1 m
P
1 e
P
2 m
P
2 e
P
Example Power System for
Transient Stability
Analysis
Fig. 11-10 Rotor-angle swings of
1
and
2
in Example 11-3.
0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2 1 . 4 1 . 6
0
1 0 0
2 0 0
3 0 0
4 0 0
5 0 0
6 0 0
7 0 0
8 0 0
1
Rotor Angle Swings in the

Following a Fault
Fig. 11-11 Growing Power Oscillations: Western USA/Canada system, Aug 10, 1996 [4].
Importance of Dynamic
Stability
CHAPTER 12

CONTROL OF
INTERCONNECTED
POWER SYSTEM AND
ECONOMIC DISPATCH
Fig. 12-1 Field exciter for automatic voltage regulation (AVR).
acinput
phase-controlled
rectifier
slip rings
field winding
Generator
ac regulator
output
Automatic Voltage
Regulation (AVR)
Fig. 12-2 (a) The Interconnections in North America, (b) Control Areas [Source: 2]
( ) a ( ) b
Control Areas (Balancing
Authorities)
Fig. 12-3 Load-Frequency Control (ignore the supplementary control at present).
m
P
e
P
Load
P
( ) a
Regulator
Turbine
Turbine
Governor
Frequency
-
Supplementary
Control
( ) b
m
P
f
f
a
b
m
P
0
0
f
G
G
Steam-Valve
Position
m
P
1
R
slope R =
Load-Frequency Control
and Regulation
Fig. 12-4 Response of two generators to load-frequency control.
1 m
P
1 e
P
2 m
P
2 e
P
Load
P
( ) a ( ) b
m
P
1 m
P
2 m
P
f
f
1 2
( )
m m
P P +
unit1 unit 2
a
c d
1 m
P
2 m
P
b e
unit 2
unit 1
0
0
f
1
G
1
G
2
G
2
G
1
G
1
G
Load Sharing
Fig. 12-5 Two control areas.
Area 1 Area 2
12
P
21
P
12
jX
Synchronizing Torque
between Two Control
Areas
Fig. 12-6 Area Control Error (ACE) for Automatic Generation Control (AGC).
+
+

B
1
R
Supplementary
Controller
Governor
(frequency deviation) f
(tie-line flow deviation) P
(Area Control Error)
ACE
Change in Steam Valve Position
k
s
Automatic Generation
Control (AGC) and Area
Control Error (ACE)
Fig. 12-7 Two control areas in the example power system with 3 buses.
1 m
P
1 e
P
2 m
P
2 e
P
1 2
P
1 3
P
Bus-1
Bus-3
Bus-2
M
M
Area 2 Area 1
Load
Two Control Areas in the
Fig. 12-8 Line flows in Example 12-2.
5
Load
P pu =
2
2
m
P pu =
2
3
m
P pu =
1 3
2.35 P pu
=
1 2
0.65 P pu
=
Bus-1
Bus-3
Bus-2
Area 1 Area 2
2 3
3.65 P pu
=
6
Load
P pu =
2
3
m
P pu =
2
3
m
P pu =
1 3
2.64 P pu
=
1 2
0.36 P pu
=
Bus-1
Bus-3
Bus-2
Area 1 Area 2
2 3
3.36 P pu
=
6
Load
P pu =
2
3
m
P pu =
2
3
m
P pu =
1 3
2.64 P pu
=
1 2
0.36 P pu
=
Bus-1
Bus-3
Bus-2
Area 1 Area 2
2 3
3.36 P pu
=
( ) a ( ) b
Power Flow on Tie-Lines
between Two Control
Areas Following a Load
Change
Fig. 12-9 Electrical equivalent of two area interconnection.
12
jX
2
jX
1
jX +
1 1
E
+
2 2
E
Electrical Equivalent of
Two Areas
Fig. 12-10 Two-area system with AGC. Source: adapted from [6].
+
+

+

+

+

+
1
B
1
1
R
1 s
P 1
1
1
G
T s +
1
1
1
S
T s +
1 1
1
M s D +
1
s
1 m
P
1 Load
P
Regulator Governor Steam Turbine Area 1
1
s
1

2
B
2
1
R
2 s
P 2 m
P
Regulator Governor Steam Turbine Area 2
2
s
2 Load
P
2

2
1
1
G
T s +
2
1
1
S
T s +
2 2
1
M s D +
1
s
1 2
( )
12
T
12 12 1 2
( ) P T =
1
K
s
2
K
s
1
ACE
2
ACE
1 v
P
2 v
P
1
1
1
s
T s +
2
1
1
s
T s +
Modeling of Two Control
Areas with AGC
Fig. 12-11 Simulink results of the two-area system with AGC in Example 12-3.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
1 m
P
2 m
P
12
P
Results of Simulink
Modeling Following a Step
Load Change in Control
Area 1
Fig. 12-12 Heat Rate at various generated power levels.
[ ] P MW
0 20 40 60 80 100
9.0
10.0
11.0
MBTU-per-Hour
MW
At this point, to produce 40 MW
Fuel Consumption = 400 MTU-per-Hour
Heat Rate
Economic Dispatch: Heat
Rate of a Power Plant
Fig. 12-13 Marginal cost as function of the power output.
( )
[$/ ]
i i
C P
hour
[ ]
i
P MW
0
i
C
i
P
( )
[$/ ]
i i
i
C P
P
MWh
[ ]
i
P MW
0
( ) a ( ) b
Cost Curve and Marginal
Cost of a Power Plant
Fig. 12-14 Marginal costs for the three generators.
0 0 0
P P P
1
( ) C P
P
2
( ) C P
P
3
( ) C P
P
1
P
2
P
3
P
Load Sharing between

Three Power Plants
CHAPTER 13

TRANSMISSION LINE
FAULTS, RELAYING AND
CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Fig. 13-1 Fault in power system.
a
b
c
g
a
i
f
b
i
c
i
a
b
c
g
a
I
f
b
I
c
I
( ) a ( ) b
Fault (Symmetric or
Unsymmetric) on a
Balanced Network
Fig. 13-2 Sequence components.
2 c
I
1 a
I
1 b
I
1 c
I
2 a
I
2 b
I
a
I
b
I
c
I
0 c
I
0 a
I
0 b
I
Symmetrical
Components
Fig. 13-3 Sequence networks.
1 a
E
+
1
Z
+
1 a
V
2 a
V
0 a
V
1 a
I
2 a
I
0 a
I
2
Z
0
Z
Sequence Networks: Per-
Phase Representation of a
Balanced Three-phase
representation
Fig. 13-4 Three-phase symmetrical fault.
a
b
c
g
a
I
f
b
I
c
I
( ) a
1 a
E
+
1
Z
+
1
0
a
V =
1 a
I
( ) b
Three-Phase Symmetrical
Fault (ground may or may
no be involved)
Fig. 13-5 Single line to ground fault.
( ) a
( ) b
1 a
E
+
2 a
V
0 a
V
a
b
c
g
a
I
f
f
Z
1
Z
2
Z
0
Z
1 a
I
2 a
I
0 a
I
3
f
Z
1 a
V
Single-Line to Ground
(SLF) Fault through a Fault
Impedance
Fig. 13-6 Double line to ground fault.
( ) a
( ) b
1 a
E
+
a
b
c
g
b
I
f
1
Z
1 a
I
1 a
V
c
I

+
2
Z
2 a
I
2 a
V
+
0
Z
0 a
I
0 a
V
Double-Line to Ground
Fault
Fig. 13-7 Double line fault (ground not involved).
( ) a
a
b
c
g
b
I
f
c
I
( ) b
1 a
E
+
1
Z
1 a
I
1 a
V
+
2
Z
2 a
I
2 a
V
+
1 f a
Z I
Double-Line Fault (ground
not involved)
Fig. 13-8 Path for zero-sequence currents in transformers.
( ) a ( ) b ( ) c
Path for Zero-Sequence
Currents
Fig. 13-9 Neutral grounded through an impedance.
( ) a
n
Z
( ) b
+
0 a
V
0
Z
0 a
I
3
n
Z
Neutral Grounded through
an Neutral Impedance)
Fig. 13-10 (a) One-line diagram of a simple power system and bus voltages.
1
Load
P pu =
0
Load
Q =
Bus-1
Bus-2
Bus-3
1
0.12
gen
X pu =
2
0.12
gen
X pu =
0
0.06
gen
X pu =
1
0.10
tr
X pu =
2
0.10
tr
X pu =
0
0.10
tr
X pu =
1
0.10
Line
X pu =
2
0.10
Line
X pu =
0
0.20
Line
X pu =
1
1.0 0 V pu =
0
3
0.98 11.79 V pu =
One-Line Diagram of a
Simple System)
Fig. 13-11 Positive-sequence circuit for calculating a 3-phase fault on bus-2.
0.12 j pu
1
1.0 0 V pu =
+
Load
I
fault
I
0.10 j pu 0.10 j pu
E
0.9604
Load
R pu =
Thee-phase Fault on Bus-2
in the Simple System
Fig. 13-12 Sequence networks for calculating fault current due to SLG fault on bus-2.
1
1.0 0 V pu =
+
0.10 j pu
E
0.9604
Load
R pu =
0.12 j pu 0.10 j pu
0.9604
Load
R pu =
0.9604
Load
R pu =
1 a
V
+
2 a
V
+
0 a
V
+
0.10 j pu 0.12 j pu 0.10 j pu

0.10 j pu 0.06 j pu 0.20 j pu
1 a
V
1 a
I
2 a
I
0 a
I
0
a
V =
+
Single-Line to Ground
(SLG) Fault in the Simple
System
Fig. 13-13 A SLG fault in the example 3-bus power system.
1 m
P
1 e
P
2 e
P
Bus-1
Bus-3
Bus-2
2 m
P
An SLG Fault in the
Example 3-Bus System
Fig. 13-14 Protection equipment.
CB
R
CT
PT
Protection in Power
System
Fig. 13-15 Current Transformer (CT) [5].
(a)
(b)
CT
Burden
Current Transformers
(CT)
Fig. 13-16 Capacitor-Coupled Voltage Transformer (CCVT) [5].
(a) (b)
Capacitor-Coupled Voltage
Transformers (CCVT)
Fig. 13-17 Differential relay.
CT
CT
CT
Relay
Differential Relays
Fig. 13-18 Directional over-current Relay.
CB
R
CT
PT
Directional Over-Current
Relays
Fig. 13-19 Ground directional over-current Relay.
Time
instantaneous
Ground Directional Over-
Current Relays for Ground
Faults
Fig. 13-20 Impedance (distance) relay.
X
R
Impedance (Distance)
Relays
Fig. 13-21 Microwave terminal [5].
Microwave Terminal for
Pilot Relays
Fig. 13-22 Zones of protection.
Time
A B C
Zone 1: instantaneous
Zone 2: 20-25 cycles
Zone 3: 1-1.5 sec
Zones of Protection
Fig. 13-23 Protection of generator and the step-up transformer.
Gen
Relay
Relay
Relay
CT CT CT Transformer F1 F2
Protection of Generator
and its Step-up
Transformer
Fig. 13-24 Relying in the example 3-bus power system.
A
B
P jQ +
Zone1
Zone2
Zone2
Relaying in the 3-Bus
Fig. 13-25
6
SF circuit breaker [5].
Circuit Breakers
Fig. 13-26 Current in an RL circuit.
0 0 . 0 5 0 . 1 0 . 1 5 0 . 2
- 1
- 0 . 5
0
0 . 5
1
1 . 5
2
asymmetric
symmetric
offset
+
( )
s
v t
+
( ) v t
( ) i t
R L
( ) a ( ) b
0
Illustration of Current
Offset in R-L Circuits
CHAPTER 14

TRANSIENT OVER-VOLTAGES,
SURGE PROTECTION AND
INSULATION COORDINATION
Fig. 14-1 Lightening current impulse.
[ ] t s
0.5
peak
I
peak
I
i
1
t 2
t
Lightning Current
Impulse
Fig. 14-2 Lightening strike to the shield wire.
( ) a ( ) b
Lightening Strike to Shield
Wire and Backflash
Fig. 14-3 Over-voltages due to switching of transmission lines.
( ) b
a
v
b
v
c
v
L
( ) a
L
L
A
B
C
500kV Line
100 miles
(open)
Switching Surges
Fig. 14-4 Frequency dependence of the transmission line parameters [Source: 2].
Frequency Dependence of
Transmission Line
Parameters
Fig. 14-5 Calculation of switching over-voltages on a transmission line.
Bus-1 Bus-3
Calculation of Switching
Over-Voltages on Line 1-3
in the Example 3-Bus
Power System
Fig. 14-6 Standard Voltage Impulse Wave to define BIL.
i
0
t
peak
V
0.5
peak
V
1.2 s 40 s
Standard Voltage Impulse
to Define Basic Insulation
Level (BIL)
Fig. 14-7 A 345-kV transformer voltage insulation levels.
1500
1300
1100
900
700
1 10 100 1000 10000
Line-to-ground
(Peak kV)
time in s
1175kV
BIL
BSL
chopped
wave
Transformer Insulation
Withstand Capability Curve
Arrester Voltage, subjected to a
8 20 Lightning Current Impulse
with a peak of 20 kA
s
Transformer Insulation
Protected by a ZnO
Arrester

First Course On Power Systems - Notes (N Mohan)

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Copyright Ned Mohan 2006 1

Voltages and Current

Critical Clearing Angle

Rotor Angle Swings in the

Load Sharing between

0.10 j pu 0.12 j pu 0.10 j pu

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