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Nigella sativa (Black Cumin) is a medicinal Spice that appears to be active in the dose used to season food products. It has a potent bioactive known as thymoquinone which shows promise in treating epilepsy, allergies, and boosting the immune system.
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When looking at the human evidence in particular, nigella sativa appears to have a general health protective effect of a very small magnitude. It is able to reduce triglycerides and glucose when elevated and can normalize cholesterol metabolism (although not HDL-C) as well, but the amount of benefit it confers is too small for it to be considered a good intervention. As a general antiinflammatory agent (such as its usage in rheumatoid arthritis) it also seems modestly effective. It does appear to have more promise as an immune booster (no evidence on rates of sickness, but it appears to increase the ability of macrophages to attack invaders) and an anti-allergic compound (with efficacy against allergic rhinitus, asthma, and eczema). One study that used nigella sativaalongside a proton pump inhibitor noted that the seed extract was potently anti-bacterial againstheliobacter pylori with a comparable potency to the reference drugs used. Although much more evidence is needed on this last claim, in men with central obesity the seeds have been noted to greatly improve subjective symptoms of obesity. Symptoms such as loss of libido (affected 84% of men), forgetfulness (89%), high appetite (73%), aches and arthalgia (74%), sleeplessness (54%), and laziness (74%) amongst others were noted to be outright abolished despite no changes in placebo.
Things to Know
Also Known As
Nigella cretica, Black cumin, Black seeds, Roman coriander, Nutmeg flower, Fennel flower, Ajaji
Things to Note
Contact dermatitis has been reported with topical application of the seed oil; the frequency of this is unknown Nigella sativa can inhibit the CYP3A4 enzyme activity, although it is possible that this is not too potent and relevant to supplementation (mixed evidence, possible inhibition followed by recompensatory induction)
Nigella sativa appears to inhibit CYP2D6, and may inhibit either CYP2C9 or CYP2C19 (or both) Nigella sativa may possibly induce P-glycoprotein activity
Is a Form of
Spice Ayurveda
Stacks Part Of
Ulcers (Stomach and Intestinal) Kidney Stones Type II Diabetes and Insulin Resistance
Caution Notice
Known to interact with enzymes of Drug Metabolism
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A B C D
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE
Multiple studies where at least two are double-blind and placebo controlled
CHANGE EFFECT
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
HDL-C
80%
See all 8 studies
Mild increases have been reported in some cases, but for the most part nigella sativa does not influence HDL cholesterol in the active dosage range.
LDL-C
Minor
40%
See all 8 studies
Reductions in LDL-C are mild at best and only occur in persons with impaired lipid profiles (high cholesterol or dyslipidemia), but they do appear to occur with ingestion... show
Total Cholesterol
60%
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
Minor
sporadically noted in persons with high cholesterol initially, the cholesterol reductions are mild at best and do not affect persons with normal cholesterol.
Triglycerides
Minor
40%
See all 8 studies
The decreases in triglycerides only affect those with high triglycerides, and the decrease scales with severity of hyperlipidemia (mild elevation of TGs is met with a 1-5%... show
Blood Pressure
Minor
50%
See all 4 studies
The reduction in blood pressure is only seen in hypertensives and very mild (1-3mmHg), likely not practically relevant at all.
Weight
Minor
25%
See all 4 studies
One study has noted weight loss, but due to the reduction in appetite and no records of food intake the possibility of subjects losing weight due to eating less cannot... show
Liver Enzymes
75%
See all 5 studies
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
damage (this curative effect needs to be explored more), and there are no alterations in liver enzymes that would be...show
Blood Glucose
100%
See all 5 studies
Although the best evidence to date shows no change in blood glucose, these studies were not structured to assess the influence on diabetics; in diabetics, there appears... show
100%
See study
A modest reduction in symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (9%) has been noted with ingestion of the seeds
Pain
Minor
100%
See study
Allergies
Notable
100%
See all 4 studies
Supplementation of the seed appears to beneficially influence most symptoms associated with allergies and most causes of the allergies (rhinitus, eczema, asthma, etc.),... show
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
Nasal Congestion
Minor
100%
See study
Nasal congestion as a sideeffect of allergic rhinitus is slightly reduced following the treatment of rhinitus withnigella sativa seeds
Seizure Frequency
Minor
100%
See study
Seizure frequency in children with poorly controlled epilepsy is significantly reduced with a seed extract, and while it was quite notable in some children it was variable... show
Food Intake
100%
See study
Creatinine
100%
See 2 studies
Heart Rate
100%
See study
Serum Albumin
Minor
50%
See all 3 studies
An increase in serum albumin has been noted, and the reason for this currently unknown.
Proteinuria
100%
No significant influence on
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
See study
Uric Acid
50%
See 2 studies
Pulmonary Function
Minor
100%
See 2 studies
While the magnitude of benefit has not yet been compared to reference drugs, nigella sativa extracts appear to benefit lung function in both asthmatics and persons...show
Subjective Well-being
Notable
100%
See study
Although only based on one study, in men with central obesity and a wide variety of general health complaints supplementation has outright abolished all measured complaints... show
Adiponectin
100%
See study
C-Reactive Protein
0%
See study
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
Free Testosterone
100%
See study
No significant influence on circulating free testosterone concentrations in men with central obesity
Appetite
Minor
100%
See study
The side-effect of 'high appetite' was effectively abolished in men with central obesity, which may underlie the observed weight loss; food intake was not reported in this... show
Bilirubin
100%
See 2 studies
Despite treating the viral load of hepatitis C, no significant changes in serum bilirubin exist.
Processing Speed
Minor
100%
See study
Trail making test time in older adult men appears to be reduced modestly with daily supplementation of nigella seed extract
Processing Accuracy
100%
See study
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
Attention
Minor
100%
See study
Cognition
Minor
100%
See study
A slight improvement in cognition has been noted with supplementation of nigella seed extract in older persons
Memory
Minor
100%
See study
There appears to be a small but respectable (15-20% higher than baseline) improvement in logical memory and 30 minute recall in older subjects supplementing the seeds in... show
Working Memory
100%
See study
Despite improvements in logical memory and 30 minute recall, digit span tests are not affected by supplementation of nigella sativa.
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
HbA1c
Minor
100%
See study
A mild decrease in HbA1c has been noted in diabetics given the seeds as an adjuvant to standard therapy
Cortisol
100%
See study
Asthma
Minor
100%
See 2 studies
Asthmatic symptoms appear to be reduced with supplementation of nigella sativa seeds, in part due to benefits to lung function and in part due to its antiallergic...show
Immunity
Minor
100%
See study
Macrophage phagocytic activity and killing potential is increased following oral ingestion of the seed extract.
Viral Load
Notable
100%
See study
A pilot study in hepatitis C noted that the viral load was reduced to 38.6% of baseline with a modest dosage of the seed oil, a fairly drastic reduction.
CHANGE
SCIENTIFIC CONSENSUS
COMMENTS
100%
See study
A normalization of RBC count has been noted in the treatment of hepatitis C with the seed oil of nigella sativa
100%
See study
A normalization of WBC count has been noted in persons with hepatitis C being treated with the seed oil.
Complete Summary
Table of Contents: 1. Sources and Composition 1. Sources 2. Composition 2. Pharmacology 1. Metabolism 2. Cellular Kinetics 3. Enzymatic Interactions 3. Molecular Targets 1. Ion Channels 2. AMPK 3. Akt 4. PPARs 5. MAPKs 4. Neurology 1. GABAergic Neurotransmission 2. Depression 3. Memory and Learning 4. Appetite 5. Attention 6. Fever 7. Analgesia 8. Stroke 9. Anxiety 10. Epilepsy 5. Cardiovascular Health 1. Cardiac Tissue 2. Blood Pressure 3. Triglycerides and Lipoproteins 4. Atherosclerosis 6. Interactions with Glucose Metabolism 1. Insulin and the Pancreas 2. Blood Glucose 7. Obesity and Fat Mass 1. Adipokines 2. Interventions 8. Skeletal Muscle and Performance 1. Mechanisms 9. Inflammation and Immunology
14.
15.
1. Macrophages 2. T Cells 3. Natural Killer Cells 4. Eicosanoids 5. Allergies 6. Rheumatoid Arthritis 7. Virology Interactions with Hormones 1. Testosterone Interactions with Oxidation 1. Mechanisms Interactions with Sexuality 1. Seminal Parameters Interactions with Organ Systems 1. Lungs and Trachea 2. Stomach 3. Kidney Interactions with Cancer Metabolism 1. Pancreatic 2. Liver 3. Cervical Safety and Toxicology 1. General 2. Case Studies
Nigella sativa seeds are sometimes eaten alongside honey or simply used to Spice food products such as breads[6][9] and even in these food products it is considered medicinal since the recommended dosages are low, with the crushed seed powder (no further processing required) being recommended at 1-2g (Unani Pharmacopoeia of India), 1-3g (Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India), or 0.5-4g (Siddha Pharmacopoeia of India).[5]
Nigella sativa (Black Cumin or Kalonji) appears to be medicinally active in fairly low doses, and does not appear to require any particular extraction processes of sources to have medicinal properties. As such, it is a prime candidate for being a functional food product (something that can be eaten in the diet for benefits exceeding normal nourishment)
1.2. Composition
The seeds of nigella sativa are comprised of:
An oil component (36-38%[12][13]) which is mostly comprised of linoleic acid (50-60%), oleic (2023.4%), dihomolinoleic acid (10%), palmitic acid (12.5%) and eicodadienoic acid (3%)[7][12][14] with some other minor lipid constituents such as methylnonadeca-15,17-dienoate, pentyl hexadec12-enoate, and pentyl pentadec-11-enoate[15]
An essential oil component (0.4-2.5%[13] and a subset of the oil component) Protein at 20-23%[16][12][9][17] Carbohydrates at 32-38%[12][9][17] A moisture content of 4.64-6.5%[12][17] A fiber content of 6.6-7.64%[17][12] An ash content of 4.0-4.37%[17][12]
The seeds themselves are a relatively balanced profile of proteins, fatty acids, and carbohydrates; a particular subset of the fatty acids, the essential oil ranging from 0.4-2.5% of the total seed weight, is seen as the active part of the seed due to containing the 'main' bioactive
Comferol (flavonoid) as diglucoside and digalactoside[18] The isoquinoline alkaloids nigellicimine and its N-oxide[7] Nigellidine and nigellicine[19] as well as nigellidine-4-sulfite[20] Nigellamines A1-A5 (A1 at 0.0096%, A2 at 0.0078%[21]), B1-2 (0.0012% and 0.0036%, respectively), and C (dolabellane type diterpenoids)[22][21]
Alpha-hederin[12][7] -sitosterol and stigmasterol[15] as well as some other sterols[23] Thiamin (Vitamin B1) at 831mg/100g dry weight[17] Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) at 63mg/100g dry weight[17] Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) at 789mg/100g dry weight[17] Niacin at 6,311mg/100g dry weight[17] Folic acid at 42mg/100g dry weight[17] Vitamin E (as tocopherols) at 340-361mg/100g dry weight[17][16]
Potassium (Lowest estimate at 7.6+/-0.42mg/100g[12] or 0.6-1% dry weight,[24] with higher estimates between 808-1,180mg/100g dry weight [17][16])
Phosphorus (1.8+/-0.23mg/100g[12] or 0.5-0.7% dry weight[24]) Sodium (0.75+/-0.1mg/100g[12] or 0.2-0.7%,[24] with higher estimates of 17.6-85.3mg/100g dry weight[17][16])
Iron (Reported as low as 0.1-0.7% dry weight[24] with highly variable estimates ranging between 0.15-57.5mg/100g dry weight[12][17][16])
Zinc (0.06+/-0.015mg/100g[12] or 0.01-0.1% dry weight[24]) Copper (0.02-0.03% dry weight[24]) Calcium (Low estimates at 0.04+/-0.008mg/100g[12] yet higher estimates between 188570mg/100g dry weight[17][16] or 7.4-10.6% dry weight[24])
There are a variety of molecules found in the seed itself that are not concentrated in the essential oil fragment, and these may play a part in the bioactivity of the seed. The mineral content seems pretty variable
The essential oil component (0.4-2.5% of the seeds by weight[13] although most sources are in the more modest end of this range at 0.4-0.45%[25][26]) includes:
Thymoquinone at 27.8-57.0% of the essential oil[27][13] yet only somewhere between 0.05%[28] and 0.13-0.17%[13] of the oil overall; also, the dimer known as dithymoquinone (Nigellone)[29] which is not quantifiable in the oil[28] and is instead reliant on conversion in the body
Thymohydroquinone[27][30] at 0.0008% of the oil overall[28] Thymol at 0.009% of the oil overall[28] and 0.09-0.25% of the essential oil[27] p-Cymene at 7.1-15.5%[13][14][27] Carvacrol at 5.8-11.6%[13] and Carvone at 0.13-4%[27][14] 4-terpineol at 2-6.6%,[13] -terpinene (less than 0.07%[27]), and -terpinene (0.02-1.1%[27]) Longifoline at 1-8%[13] and Longipinene (0.21-1.68%[27]) t-anethole at 0.25-4.28%[27][13] although at times very high concentrations (38.3%) have been noted[14]
Limonene at 0.29-4.3%[27][14]
The essential oil of the seeds (0.4-2.5% of the seed by weight) contains a variety of molecules of which include Thymoquinone, seen as the main component of the entire seed
2. Pharmacology
2.1. Metabolism
Thymoquinone is known to readily convert into dithymoquinone, a dimer which is referred to as nigellone.[28][10]
Systemic exposure to phenytoin can be reduced up to 87% with nigella sativa (week long supplementation followed by drug testing) ingestion in dogs,[38] suggesting induction of CYP2C19 or CYP2C9 which metabolize phenytoin.[39] Phenytoin is also known to induce CYP3A4 and CYP2B6.[40]
Overall, it appears that nigella sativa retains the ability to inhibit CYP3A4 yet it doesn't appear to be practically relevant following oral ingestion (tentative statement). It may interact with P-glycoprotein by increasing its activity, and it does appear to inhibit CYP2D6 as well as either CYP2C19 or CYP2C9 (maybe both)
3. Molecular Targets
3.1. Ion Channels
Nigella sativa seeds appear to have calcium channel blocking abilities at 1003,000g/mL of the crude seed extract as assessed by relaxing rabbit intestinal cells, with 10-fold more potency in the petroleum extract.[41]
3.2. AMPK
Adenosine monophosphate kinase (AMPK) is a protein that positively modulates glucose and lipid uptake into cells, and its activation is seen as hypolipidemic and antidiabetic.[42] Nigella sativa extract at 200g/mL appears to activate AMPK phosphorylation in muscle cells but not adipocytes with a potency comparable to 2mM AICAR.[43] Oral ingestion of 48mg/kg of the basic seed extract in Meriones shawi (equivalent to 2g of the seed extract in humans) over four weeks has been confirmed to increase ACC phosphorylation in skeletal muscle, indicative of increased AMPK activity.[44]
Nigella sativa appears to activate AMPK in skeletal muscle and liver cells, but not in fat cells; this may be a mechanism relevant to oral supplementation of the seeds
Nigella sativa seed extract appears to cause mitochondrial uncoupling in isolated liver mitochondria in a concentration dependent manner between 25200g/mL which was not due to any known constituents (thymol, carvacrol, hederagenin, nigellimine and thymoquinone).[43] This reached a potency of 81+/-5% at 160g/mL of the water extract or 64+/-8% at 200g/mL of the ethanolic extract.[43]
Despite the aforementioned uncoupling, nigella sativa does not depress intracellular (cytosolic) ATP concentrations[43] and the theoretical recompensatory increase in acidosis (from anaerobic glycolysis[45]) from ATP depletion does not occur.[43] This is similar to both Metformin[46] andBerberine[47] which activate AMPK vicariously through causing mitochondrial uncoupling in order to preserve cytoplasmic ATP concentrations.
It is hypothesized that nigella sativa activates AMPK in a similar manner to berberine and Metformin, vicariously through causing mitochondrial uncoupling
3.3. Akt
In the livers of rats fed the petroleum extract of nigella sativa (equivalent to 2g/kg of the basic seed extract), Akt phosphorylation in response to insulin appears to be increased relative to control.[48] This is also seen in muscle cells at 200 g/mL[43] but not in adipocytes.[43] The increase in GLUT4 content of skeletal muscle seen in animals fed a basic seed extract (equivalent ot 2g in humans) is thought to be indicative of increased Akt activity, or at least the increase in plasma insulin.[44]
There is an increase in Akt activity following supplementation of nigella sativa, which should work to increase glucose uptake into liver and muscle cells. It is not sure what causes this increased Akt phosphorylation although increased insulin signalling is likely a factor
3.4. PPARs
In adipocytes, nigella sativa appears to activate PPAR activity in the concentration range of 50-200g/mL[43] which may explain the increased glucose uptake and proliferation seen in adipocytes[49]despite AMPK[43] and Akt[43] not contributing. The increase glucose uptake with this concentration ofnigella sativa is comparable to a supraphysiological concentration of insulin (100nM) and was additive with it as well, while the increase in adipogenesis was comparable to 10M rosiglitazone.[43]
Nigella sativa may activate PPAR and induce fat cell glucose uptake and proliferation, a proobesogenic yet insulin sensitizing mechanism common to the Thiazolidinedione drug class
3.5. MAPKs
In the livers of rats fed the petroleum extract of nigella sativa (equivalent to 2g/kg of the basic seed extract), p44/42ERK phosphorylation in response to insulin treatment appears to be enhanced as well as baseline p44/42ERK phosphorylation[48] although in isolated H4IIE liver cells there was no influence;[43] this increase in ERK1/2
phosphorylation has also been confirmed in muscle cells (C2C12 myocytes)[43] yet failed to influence adipocytes.[43]
ERK1/2 appears to be increased in activity, which is thought to just be secondary to insulin signalling in liver and skeletal muscle cells
4. Neurology
4.1. GABAergic Neurotransmission
Nigella sativa has been found to inhibit picrotoxin (noncompetitive GABAA antagonist[50]) induced seizures and against bicuculline (competitive GABAA antagonist[51]), with an injection of 150mg/kg being more protective than 300mg/kg sodium valproate against picrotoxin.[52] That being said, nigella sativa (via Thymoquinone) has been found to lower the ED50 for sodium valproate[52] suggesting that the GABAA receptor is somehow enhanced via thymoquinone. It is possible that thymoquinone has opioidergic signalling which increases GABAergic tone, which has been hypothesized[52] based on some rat studies showing that both signalling pathways contribute to the observed effects.[53][53] Alternatively, it has been noted that thymoquinone suppresses the stress-induced increase in brain nitrite concentrations (without an inhernet effect in unstressed mice),[54] which may be related to the ability of thymoquinone to suppress iNOS activation[55] which can dysregulate GABAergic signalling[56] since cGMP (produced via Nitric Oxide) suppresses GABAA function.[57] The anti-epileptic[53] and anxiolytic[54] properties of nigella sativa appear to be mediated via GABA signalling.
Thymoquinone appears to enhance GABAA signalling, although the exact mechanism is not known; it may be somewhat indirectly via opioidergic signalling, nitrinergic signalling (nitric oxide pathways in the brain), or possibly both
At least one study has noted that administration of 20mg/kg thymoquinone to mice has resulted in an increase in brain GABA concentrations[54] and that the addition of methylene blue (negative regulator of nitrinergic signalling[58]) did not further the increase.
May increased GABA concentrations itself
4.2. Depression
Depression is known to have an inflammatory link[59][60] associated with microglia (support cells alongside neurons that mediate the inflammatory response in the brain[61]) as increased inflammatory cytokine levels (IL-6, TNF-, CRP) are known to be associated with depression[62][63] and classical antidepressants have antiinflammatory properties.[61] In a model of LPS induced depression (which produced the aforementioned cytokines to cause depression[64]), injections of nigella sativa (200-400mg/kg) is able to abolish the depressant effect in a forced swim test and open field test; isolated thymoquinone (40mg/kg) was also effective and 200mg/kg of nigella sativa appears to be more effective than the higher dose.[65]
May have antidepressant effects in models of excessive inflammation (known to induce depression)
4.4. Appetite
One study using oral intake of nigella sativa petroleum extract over four weeks in rats has noted a 25% reduction in food intake after one week of ingestion (which attenuated but persisted) resulting in mild weight loss.[48]
4.5. Attention
Supplementation of 500mg seed powder twice daily for nine weeks appears to improve attention processing (trail making test) and speed of processing without affecting processing accuracy in older subjects; the improvement being very modest in size.[66]
4.6. Fever
In rats given a yeast induced fever, nigella sativa at 500mg/kg oral intake fails to prevent symptoms of fever despite the reference drug (100mg/kg aspirin) being effective.[67]
4.7. Analgesia
Nigella sativa seeds at 500mg/kg appear to have analgesic properties in rats (hot plate test) with a potency statistically similar to aspirin at 100mg/kg, albeit trending to be less effective.[67]
4.8. Stroke
400mg/kg of nigella sativa seed extracts (petroleum ether and chloroform) daily in rats for a week prior to a middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO; a model for stroke) is able to fully preserve locomotor activity and grip strength (similar to the reference drug of 100mg/kg aspirin) and reduced oxidative changes and infarct size to a similar level.[68]
Extracts of the seeds appear to be neuroprotective against stroke, and the potency seems comparable to aspirin
4.9. Anxiety
Thymoquinone at 10-20mg/kg appears to exert anxiolytic properties in mice (much more effective in unstressed mice than stressed mice) with a potency statistically comparable to 2mg/kg diazepam and in a manner which is synergistic with methylene blue (negative regulator of nitrinergic signalling[58]) despite methylene blue inherently being inactive.[54] The increase in GABA and suppression of nitrite seen with thymoquinone were both not enhanced with methylene blue,[54] suggesting that methylene blue acts downstream of nitrite.
Thymoquinone appears to have anxiety reducing properties, and it is thought that this is secondary to a suppression of nitric oxide signalling in the brain preserving the functions of GABA signalling
4.10. Epilepsy
Intraperitoneal injections of the water extract (50-75mg/kg intraperitoneal injections) but not seed oil appears to have anti-epileptic properties against pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), mostly due to thymoquinone which had an EC50 (93.2mg/kg or 0.57mM/kg) lower than sodium valproate (161mg/kg).[52] There are no significant protective properties against maximal electroshock induced seizures and thymoquinone can attenuate picrotoxin
induced seizures[52] as well as potentiate the protective effects of sodium valproate when coadministered.[52] In rats, direct intracerebroventricular injections of thymoquinone (200-400M) is able to half the ability of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ) to induce seizures in a manner that is wholly reversible by flumazenil (a GABAA antagonist) and is attenuated by naloxone (opioid antagonist)[69] and this has been noted with intraperitoneal injections of the basic seed extract (40-80mg/kg).[53]
The anti-epileptic abilities of thymoquinone appear to be mediated via enhancing signalling via the GABAA (benzodiazepine) receptor, although opioid signalling may play a role
1mg/kg thymoquinone (twice daily 0.5mg/kg as a syrup) to children with poorly controlled epilepsy over the course of four weeks was associated with a reduction in seizure frequency by 53.91+/-38.756, and then the second part of the study (as it was a cross-over design) was associated with a 26.64+/-41.297 reduction; while both periods outperformed placebo, they were not significantly differnt due to the high variability.[70] Overall, 54.5% of the subjects experienced a 50% or greater reduction in seizures.[70]
Appears to have confirmed anti-epileptic effects in children following oral ingestion of isolated thymoquinone
5. Cardiovascular Health
5.1. Cardiac Tissue
800mg/kg of nigella sativa to rats over the course of twelve weeks was able to improve the recovery of cardiac tissue following ischemia/reperfusion injury, thought to be due to its antioxidative properties.[71]
sativa seed extract (concentrated via boiling) noted very minor reductions in blood pressure (1-2mmHg for both systolic and diastolic).[72] In men with central obesity and mild hypertension, the reduction in blood pressure has reached 6% (9mHg) and diastolic was reduced 1.5% (1mmHg).[73]
While injecting the essential oil seems to cause drastic reductions in blood pressure, this does not seem to apply to oral ingestion of the seeds. The actual therapeutic potency of the seeds in hypertensive persons, while present, is of very small magnitude
Supplementation of 2g of the crushed seeds from nigella sativa over the course of four weeks in persons with high cholesterol was associated with minor reductions in total cholesterol (4.78%) and LDL-C (7.6%) yet more significant reductions in triglycerides (16.65%).[74] This has been noted elsewhere to a statistically insignificant degree in diagnosed hyperlipidemics[5] and men with central obesity with high baseline lipids.[73] In type II diabetics, the addition of 2g of the crushed seeds appears to reduce total cholesterol (11.3% after four weeks, maintained over the next two months), LDL-C (16.3% within eight weeks), and triglycerides (20% within four weeks) and although the HDL:LDL ratio increased significantly there was no inhernet change in HDL-C.[75] This hypocholesterolemic effect has been noted elsewhere in medicated diabetics with 2.5mL of the oil, although this study failed to find an influence on triglycerides.[76] One study has investigated the usage of nigella sativa paired with Garlic as an adjuvant to simvastatin (a statin drug) and found that the improvments in LDL-C, total cholesterol, and triglycerides from simvastatin were enhanced with coadministration of the spices.[3]
Nigella sativa appears to be able to improve the lipid profile in persons with impaired lipid profiles, but the magnitude of this effect is quite small. However, it seems to work nicely with pharmaceutical options as it has been used in medicated diabetics and dyslipidemics without problem
In hypertensive persons with no apparent alterations in lipid or glucose metabolism, supplementation of 100-200mg of a seed extract is ineffective in improving any biomarker for cholesterol or triglycerides.[72]
There is no apparent influence on the lipid profile in persons who have a normal profile
5.4. Atherosclerosis
It is possible that nigella sativa extract could protect against the development of atherosclerosis, particularly related to the immune system (from when macrophages accumulate too much cholesterol and convert into foam cells[77] that promote atherosclerosis[78]) since nigella sativa both potentiates macrophage activity[9] yet exerts antiinflammatory effects in these cells at 100L.[79] The development of foam cells has been noted to be reduced in vitro at a very reasonable IC50 value of 180ng/mL.[80]
The influence of foam cells on the development of artherosclerosis is likely reduced with supplementation of the seed oil of nigella sativa, and this occurs at low enough concentrations that it is probably relevant to oral supplementation
relative to the diabetic control and the reference drug (Metformin, which reduced insulin).[44]
The seed extract and both water and ethanolic extracts, yet not the basic seed oil, appear to be able to augment insulin secretion from the pancreas when in the presence of glucose (ie. when a meal is ingested rather than a per se effect)
Nigella sativa has been found to, in vitro, accelerate pancreatic -cell proliferation secondary to accelerating DNA synthesis in these cells by 13% relative to control (over an 18 hour incubation at 200g/mL)[49] and in diabetic rats injected with 0.20mL/kg of the essential oil for 30 days was able to attenuate the rate of -cell destruction induced by the diabetic toxin (streptozotocin).[83]
May be able to protect and regenerate pancreatic -cells
In persons with high cholesterol but no apparent problems with blood glucose, supplementation of 2g of the crushed seeds daily for four weeks failed to modify fasting blood glucose[74] and this failure has been noted over six weeks in the same cohort of persons[5] and over eight weeks in hypertensive that are not also diabetic.[72] Three months of supplementation with nigella sativa seed powder (1-3g) in type II diabetics in addition to their medication noted that only the 2g dosage was associated with significant improvements in HbA1c (1.52% from baseline) and blood glucose[75] and similar effects have been noted in unmedicated men with central obesity (no diagnosed diabetes, but elevated blood glucose) where a mild 1.9% reduction in blood glucose was noted after three months of 3g nigella sativa.[73]2.5mL of the oil itself in medicated type II diabetics has also noted improvements in blood glucose relative to the medicated control given placebo, with a reduction 58% greater than control (although no changes in postprandial glucose were noted).[76]
When looking at human studies assessing blood glucose uptake, there appears to be a relatively potent reduction in blood glucose in diabetic persons (who have elevated blood glucose) while there is no hypoglycemic effect in persons with normal blood glucose
7.2. Interventions
Nigella sativa appears to be traditionally recommended as an anti-obesity agent[87] Supplementation of 2g of the seed extract daily over six weeks in overweight and hypercholesterolemic persons has failed to significantly reduce BMI and waist circumference[5] which has been noted elsewhere.[72] Only one trial has been conducted and noted significant weightloss, although the persons in this study (men with central obesity) also experienced a reduction in appetite; since food intake was not recorded it is possible that they consumed less food.[73]
Nigella sativa can increase IL-1 secretion in vitro[89] although likely secondary to the suppression of iNOS secretion of IL-6, nitric oxide, and TNF- are suppressed.[90]
May alter cytokine secretion from macrophages in a manner that reflects an antiinflammatory state
Supplementation of 2g of nigella sativa seeds for 30 days in addition to immunotherapy (compared against immunotherapy itself) appears to be able to enhance phagocytic activity of macrophages, increasing a 32% boost to 75%.[9] Intracellular killing activity increased to a similar level.[9]
Oral ingestion of nigella sativa appears to boost the ability of macrophages to destroy invaders
9.2. T Cells
Nigella sativa is able to increase secretion of IL-3 from lymphocytes when cultured with pooled allogeneic cells, without necessarily increasing mitogenic potential of lymphocytes when incubated with PHA, concanavalin-A, or pokeweed mitogen.[89]
9.4. Eicosanoids
Thymoquinone appears to potently suppress 5-LOX (IC50 less than 1g/mL) and COX (IC50 of 3.5g/mL) enzyme activity in leukocytes, and while it is the most active component it does not appear to fully explain the observed effects with the oil.[13]
9.5. Allergies
Nigellone (dithymoquinone) appears to be able to inhibit mast cell histamine release in response to A23187 and compound 48/80[11] and injections of 8mg/kg thymoquinone can reduce histamine release in rat RPMCs senstized to ovalbumin by 41%.[91] Injections of compound 48/80 (induces mortality secondary to mast cell degranulation) are significantly attenuated with injections of thymoquinone at 10-100mg/kg.[91]
The main bioactive appears to inhibit the release of histamine from mast cells
Injections of 3mg/kg thymoquinone for five days prior to ovalbumin sensitization in guinea pigs is able to reduce the sensitivity of the trachea to contractions by histamine (74%) and acetylcholine (71%), suggesting anti-asthmatic effects in response to allergins.[91]
May have an anti-asthmatic effect in allergic asthma
In allergic rhinitus, the oil of nigella sativa failed to alter nasal concentrations of IgE and eosinophils yet reduced subjective symptoms of rhinitus over the course of thirty days (itching, runny nose, sneezing, and congestion)[92] which has been noted previously in a general cohort of persons with allergic diseases (allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, atopic eczema) given 40-80mg/kg of the seed oil daily[93] and when using the standard 2g dosage of seed extract as an adjuvant therapy.[9] In asthmatic persons, a boiled extract of the seeds (15mL/kg) over three months was able to significantly improve all asthmatic symptoms and pulmonary function tests causing a concomitant reduction in the requirement for anti-ashtmatic medications.[94]
Nigella sativa appears to have anti-allergic properties, and may also be useful as an adjuvant therapy alongside other immune boosters for the treatment of mostly rhinitus and asthma although some benefit may exist for eczema (other allergic symptoms mostly unstudied)
Supplementation of 500mg nigella sativa oil twice daily for one month in patients with rheumatoid arthritis noted that while placebo was unable to affect rheumatoid arthritis that the seed oil reduced the disease activity score (DAS-28) from 4.98+/-0.79 to 4.55+/-0.82; a 9% reduction.[96] This study also noted significant reductions in joint pain and swelling as well as morning stiffness in affected joints.[96]
Standard doses of the oil may provide modest benefit to persons with rheumatoid arthritis
9.7. Virology
Nigella sativa has shown antiviral properties in vitro at 35M (against infectious laryngotrachietis virus)[97] and in mice (cytomegalovirus virus),[98] leading to its testing in humans with viral diseases. In patients with hepatitis C who were not on IFN- therapy, 450mg of the seed oil of nigella sativathrice daily over the course of three months was associated with a significant reduction in HCV RNA levels (to 38.6% of baseline) as well as a restoration of many serum parameters (red and white blood cell count, platelets, albumin, etc.).[99] Interestingly, lower leg edema and ascites were both significantly reduced.[99]
Nigella sativa appears to be able to reduce viral load in persons with hepatitis C
Asthmatic symptoms have been noted to be improved in persons who suffer from allergic asthma at 40-80mg/kg of the seed extract[93] and general asthma (relation to allergies not stated) with a boiled extract at a concentration of 0.1g% and 15mL/kg.[94] In chemical war victims that had impaired respiratory function, supplementation of a boiled extract from the seeds of nigella sativa (50g% at 0.375mL/kg) for two months was able to significantly improve respiratory function as assessed by symptoms such as wheezing and pulmonary function tests (PFTs).[106]
Lung function may be improved secondary to treating symptoms of asthma, which is mostly indicative of the anti-allergic potential of nigella sativa seeds. However, a direct benficial influence on the lungs cannot be ruled out as it has shown benefit in persons without asthma
13.2. Stomach
Nigella sativa is known to have antibacterial properties in vitro[107] and have shown efficacy against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria as well as yeast[108] which has been noted to influence anti-biotic resistant bacteria.[109] Due to all the aforementioned and how an in vitro study noted complete eradication of heliobacter pylori within an hour[110] it has been investigated for reducing this particular bacteria in humans where supplementation of 2g of the seed extract of nigella sativa (in addition to 40mg omeprazole) was able to eradicate two thirds (66.7%) of a heliobacter pyloriinfection, whereas lower (1g) and higher (3g) doses were less effective at 47.647.8%.[4] The reference therapy (clarithromycin, amoxicillin, omeprazole) reached 82.6% eradication but was statistically comparable to 2g nigella sativa.[4] The combination of an antibiotic or two with a proton pump inhibitor (omeprazole) tends to be standard therapy for the eradication of heliobacter pylori[111]and nigella sativa has not yet been tested in isolation.
Nigella sativa appears to have anti-ulcer properties against the heliobacter pylori bacteria, with a potency somewhat comparable to a clarithromycin and amoxicillin combination therapy. It has not yet been tested in isolation, but alongside a proton pump inhibitor (omeprazole)
13.3. Kidney
Kidney stones (of which calcium stones are most common[112][113]) are deposits of minerals or other solid products in kidney tissue, which can then be urinated out (somewhat painfully) or cause direct kidney damage before that[113] and are a risk factor for kidney disease;[114] dissolution of kidney stones is desired due to preventing any possible kidney damage and reducing the risk of painful kidney stone urination, and nigella sativa seeds have been traditionally used for the treatment and prevention of kidney stones.[6] In rats who got calcium oxalate stones induced (1% ethylene glycol), ingestion of either a water extract of n-butanol extract at 250mg/kg for 28 days alongside the 1% ethylene glycol was able to attenuate formation of calcium stones, with the water extract (54% reduction) underperforming relative to the n-butanol extracts (83-88% reduction).[115] An ethanolic extract of nigella sativa also appears effective both when started alongside
ethylene glycol (64% reduction) or when started 14 days later in a therapeutic manner (56% reduction).[116]
Preliminary evidence in rats suggest quite potent anti-kidney stone properties, with the standard dose (250mg/kg correlating to a human dose of around 3g for a 150lb person) of all extracts more than halving kidney stone formation and the n-butanol extract nearly abolishing it
14.2. Liver
In rats given hepatocellular carcinomas after a two week preload of 1g/kg nigella sativa methanolic extract (), the increase in liver weight was significantly attenuated and the alterations in hepatic enzymes (serum levels and hepatic activity of hexokinase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase) was similarly attenuated by more than half.[122]
14.3. Cervical
In vitro, thymoquinone appears to be cytotoxic towards cervical squamous carcinoma cells (SiHa) with an IC50 of 9.33-10.67g/mL; this was more effective than the reference drug cisplatin while it exerted less toxicity on non-cancerous cells (3T3-L1 adipocytes and Vero kidney cells).[123] Thymoquinone appeared to induce apoptosis and increase expression of p53 and decreasing Bcl-2 (no influence on Bax), and at a concentration of
30g/mL there was near complete accumulation in the sub G1 phase of the cell cycle (from 4.22% in control to 93.66%).[123] Similar cytotoxicity has been seen with the basic methanolic extract with an IC50 of 93.2L/mL reaching 88.3% inhibition at 125L/mL[124] and elsewhere thymoquinone has shown cytotoxicity against other cervical cancer cells such as HeLa.[125]
In vitro, Thymoquinone appears to outperform the reference drug in causing cytotoxicity of SiHa cervical cancer cells
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