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01-01-21
LIGNITE AND THERMAL POWER PLANTS FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN TURKEY
DR. ILKER SENGULER
GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF MINERAL RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION 06520 ANKARA, TURKEY
INTRODUCTION
In Turkey, like all over the world, the importance of energy necessary for becoming industrialized and development is
increasing day by day. Economical and social development can only turn true if energy can be obtained in suitable
conditions. So running out of energy sources and increasing environmental impacts are great problems especially for
developing countries.
When we look at the rate of the sources that are used to produce electricity in the world, the number of thermal
power plants take the first place with 64%. There are reactions against nuclear energy especially in developed
countries.
Although the clear energy sources such as geothermal, solar energy, wind energy and wave energy are
environmental, they need specific energy transformation systems and techniques also, production capacity is low. So
they seem not to be enough for today s energy needs. Thus, in our country, thermal power plants play important
roles in electricity production for many years because of having less investment costs than the other electricity
generating systems.
In our energy policy, it is said that we should try to find the certain rates of reserves of energy raw material and their
potential. We should improve our local sources without depending on other countries in the energy sector. We also
should improve our local sources to increase the energy production which should be enough for both primary energy
sources and demands to electrical energy.
Although Turkey has not got enough primary energy sources like petroleum, natural gas, and hard coal, she has got
many lignite and water sources. The thermal power plants in Turkey, the total installed capacity of power is 6533
MW, and 6233 MW of it is based on lignite. So, this shows that lignite is the most important raw material of energy.
LIGNITE POTENTIAL OF TURKEY
The reserves of coal constitutes 27% of the whole world s energy sources. Therefore, without any doubt, it is going
to be the most important energy raw material in the 21 st Century. The world s coal reserves are about 992 billion
tonnes and 510 billion tonnes of them are bituminous coal, 483 billion tonnes sub-bituminous coal and lignite. 70% of
all the lignite reserves in the world are found in four big countries. Former USSR had 132 billion tonnes of lignite
reserves, Germany has 43 billion tonnes, Australia has 43 billion tonnes and USA has 135 billion tonnes. The rate of
our country is about 1.75%.
There are no certain data on the presence of lignite in Turkey. But according to some researchers, it was produced at
Balya, Balikesir (West of Anatolia) in 1889. In this region, 400 000 tonnes of lignite were produced between 1896 and
1919. And in the same region, between the years 1903 and 1910, 5 800 000 kWh of electricity were produced.
Between the years 1914 and 1918, production in the Soma, Manisa (West of Anatolia) lignite mine and other mines
initiated.
Mineral Research and Exploration Institute (MTA) that was founded in 1935 began research at Seyitomer (Kutahya)
in the same year. At the end of these investigations, the Seyitmer thermal power plant was established according to
the determined reserve of lignite in this basin.
In 1967, our biggest lignite deposit was found at Elbistan, Kahramanmaras (East of Anatolia). However, since having
low quality, it is used in thermal power plants. Between 1960 and 1985, a preliminary survey comprising an area of
69 629 km2, detail geology in an area of 38 291 km2 and a drilling of 998 891 m were carried out. Since 1985, MTA
has been continuing its studies on this lignite basin.
The lignite reserves of Turkey are about 8.3 billion tonnes and the biggest reserve is 3.3 billion tonnes at Elbistan,
Kahramanmaras. In Turkey, lignite reserves belong to TKI (Turkish Lignite Enterprise) and TEDAS (Turkish Electricity
Generation and Transmission Company) (1).
Most of the known lignite deposits in Turkey have low calorific value, high percentage of ash, volatile matter, moisture
and sulphur. Almost 75% of the total reserves have a calorific value below 2500 kcal/kg. 17% is between 2500 and

3000 kcal/kg, while only 8% is above 3000 kcal/kg. Therefore, it is inevitable that the majority of such lignites which
are feasible technically and economically have to be enriched by washing before marketing.
The higher quality lignites such as Tuncbilek washed coals which have 15% moisture, 33% volatile matter and 4 800
kcal/kg calorific value and Soma coals which have 16% moisture, 32% volatile matter, 4 700 kcal/kg calorific value
together with Gediz and Celtek coals can be defined in the international classification ranks as sub-bituminous coals.
Nevertheless, all coals except the ones extracted from the Zonguldak Basin are traditionally called as Lignite in
Turkey. Tuncbilek and Soma coals, however, can compete with imported coals since they are enriched by nearby
washing while the larger part of lignites extracted and presented to the market without any treatments are not able to
reach the international standards in terms of quality and environmental aspects.
The future of lignite is directly related to the long-term energy demand. Study results of general energy model MAED
(Model of Analysis of Energy Demand) for the year 2010, which is under the control of MENR (Ministry of Energy and
Natural Resources), show that the total installed capacity of power will rise to 59 408 MW in the year 2010. With the
establishment of future power plants and increase in the ratios of capacity utilisation of existing power, the capacity of
lignite based power plants will rise to 13 134 MW from 5493 MW and the amount of lignite fed to power plants will
climb to 155 million tonnes/year from 41 million tonnes/year (2).
LIGNITE BASINS AND THERMAL POWER PLANTS
The Pliocene aged Elbistan coal field the largest lignite basin of Turkey where there are 4 sectors and only one of
them is in production. Thermal power stations, having an installed capacity of power 4x340 MW, are based on lignite
in this area. The Soma basin, which is Miocene aged, is the second largest area in Turkey with 626 million tonnes.
Lignites in this basin are of different qualities. In the Denis sector, the calorific value of lignite changes between 1400
and 2500 kcal/kg, also in Soma between 2500 and 4600 kcal/kg, in Eynez between 300 and 4400 kcal/kg. Lignite in
this area is suitable for thermal power plants, house-heating and industrial factories. Both Soma A capacity of power
44 MW and Soma B capacity of power 990 MW are still producing electricity.
Another important lignite basin, is the Miocene aged Tuncbilek field having 2200-4900 kcal/kg calorific value. This
region has 335 million tonnes lignite that can be used in both household and industry. The coal is divided into
categories according to its quality after it is cleaned and shifted out. Later it is used in house-heating, industry and
thermal power plants. The Miocene aged Seyitomer field is also important because it has both 158 million tonnes of
lignite and 120 million tonnes of bituminous marl reserve. In this basin, it is stated that the bituminous marl on lignite
can be used with lignite in certain ratios in thermal power plants that have CFBC (Circulating Fluidized Bed
Combustion) technology. When we use these marls, the fifth unit may be planned and produce electricity for a long
time. The total installed capacity of power of the thermal power plant is 4x150 MW at Seyitomer, Kutahya (3).
The Can basin, Miocene aged, has 91.2 million tonnes of lignite reserve. 10 million tonnes of this reserve is over
4000 kcal/kg and can therefore be used in house-heating. Now, a thermal power plant, which is planned to have a
total installed capacity of power 2x160 MW is under construction. The Miocene aged Beypazari, Cayirhan lignite
basin has got 383 million tonnes of lignite. Goynuk, Himmetoglu area has got 39.2 million tonnes of lignite. The low
calorific value of coal at Cayirhan, Beypazari is about 2800-3100 kcal/kg and in Himmetoglu area the average
calorific value is about 2750 kcal/kg.
The lignite of Miocene aged Mugla basin divided into five sectors namely Milas, Eskihisar, Tinaz, Bagyaka and
Husamlar. Yatagan (3x210 MW), Kemerkoy (3x210 MW) and Yenikoy (2x210 MW) thermal power plants are in this
region. The reserve in this basin is enough only for these 3 thermal power plants. 155 million tonnes of lignite reserve
is at Etyemez, Hamal and Kalburcayiri areas of the Pliocene aged Sivas Kangal basin. In this area, a thermal power
plant, having a total installed capacity of power 2x150 MW is working with a low calorific value of 1200 kca/kg.
109 million tonnes of lignite in the Bursa basin is Miocene aged. The Orhaneli thermal power plant, has a total
installed capacity of power 210 MW. 220 million tonnes of lignite reserve, which is at Beysehir area in Konya, is
Miocene-Pliocene aged. Its low calorific value is about 1100 kcal/kg. Although a new thermal power plant based on
this reserve has been planned to be built, it has not been found to be feasible because 60 million tonnes of Karadiken
regions reserve is under the level of lake water and the ratio of the overburden is high. Also, it is said that a new
thermal power plant, being planned to have a total installed capacity of power 500 MW, and 160 million tonnes of
reserve will be built at the Ilgin, Konya basin.
There are 214 million tonnes of low quality lignite in Adana, Tufanbeyli basin, Pliocene aged, and there are not any
power stations there yet. Building up a new thermal power plant, which is planned to have a total installed capacity of
power 1x330 MW, has been planned for the following years. There are 129 million tonnes of lignite varying from 2000
to 2500 kcal/kg, in Tekirdag, Saray basin, Oligocene aged. There are 88 million tonnes of lignite in the Pliocene aged
Bingol basin, 50 million tonnes of lignite in the Pliocene aged Cankiri Orta basin, and 50 million tonnes of lignite in the
Pliocene aged Adiyaman Glbasi basin. Thermal power plants are planned to be built in the future.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

In Turkey, lignite production, currently at 57 million tonnes, is projected to more than triple in twenty years, to reach
193 million tonnes by 2020. Domestic production will not be able to keep up with demand, leading to an increase in
the share of imports in order to meet Turkey s energy consumption. Imports, that provided 66% of energy
consumption in 2000, will make up 70% of the energy supplies in 2010, 75% in 2020. The share of oil in imports will
decrease by half, while the share of natural gas and hard coal will grow significantly (4).
The most dramatic increase in demand will be in electricity. In order to meet the projected demand in electricity,
authorities anticipate that 43 000 MW of capacity will be needed by 2010, with another 44 000 MW to be added
between 2010 and 2020. This translates to bringing on line 2500 MW of new generation capacity on average every
year for the next ten years.
Among the planned new power plants are 29 new lignite-fired units, 16 of which are at Elbistan, plus 22 operating on
hard coal (18 of which will use imported coal), 33 on natural gas, 16 on oil. This brings the total planned new thermal
capacity to 47 000 MW by 2020.
Lignite represents more than 90% of the production in Turkey and comes mainly from open mines. It has a very low
calorific value and high content in sulphur and ash. About 75% of the reserves have a calorific value below 2500
kcal/kg.
In Turkey, clean coal technologies target the reduction of local and regional pollutants, especially particles, SO2 and
NOx. At the same time, in some cases Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC), Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC) and significant CO2 reduction can also be achieved. For the reduction of particles, Turkey is
already utilizing Electrostatic Precipitator (ESP) in alll its new power plants. For SO2 removal, Turkey has installed or
plans to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) in all the major coal-fired power plants (Cayirhan and Orhaneli)
which have already been retrofitted with FGDs and four more (Kemerkoy, Yatagan, Kangal, and Yenikoy) are under
construction.
Alternative SO2 control options include:
Simplified Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD), which achieve lower SO2 removal efficiency, but have significantly
lower cost;
SO2 averaging, where compliance with a total annual SO2 release (expressed in tonnes/year) can be achieved
with over-compliance by some power plants.
NOx control options include:
Boiler tuning and optimization since such techniques can provide 5-40% reduction at a very low cost;
Modifications of existing burners;
Retrofit of low NOx burners;
Gas reburning;
Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR); and
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR).
Circulating Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) technology;
CFBC technology is ideally suited for poor quality coals such as Turkey s lignite, and the technology can
accommodate fuel quality fluctuations;
CFBC reduces simultaneously all local and regional pollutants;
A preliminary review suggest that Turkish coals have a high content of calcium, which could act as sorbent to
eliminate or reduce the amount of additional sorbent needed for SO2 control.
During the last years, prices of CFBC technologies have declined significantly making them competitive with
pulverized coal plants fitted with FGDs. If Turkey continues to prefer relatively small power units (in the 150 to
300 MW range), CFBC technology may have a clear advantage.
Other technological options should also be evaluated, including Pressurized Fluidized Bed Combustion (PFBC) and
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) that they achieve higher levels of emission reduction. Furthermore,
they reduce CO2 emissions through higher net plant efficiency (5).
CONCLUSION
Apart from power plants demand however, the amount of lignite supplied by Turkish Coal Enterprise (TKI) as well as
private sector to the household and industry has lessened in recent years. This fact is simply because of
environmental problems created by the usage of untreated domestic lignites which have gradually been replaced with
the consumption of natural gas and imported coals. With a possible increase in the consumption of natural gas and
imported coals it is expected that the market of lignite is going to be narrowed in the coming years. This clearly
indicates that only the better quality coals will find a place in the market of industry and household in the near future.
Therefore, to increase the demand for lignites from household and industrial consumers and to prevent their harmful
environmental impacts, they must definitely be treated by using improved enrichment techniques. Lower quality
sources like lignite, bituminous shale, peat etc, must also be effectively combusted by using, for example, Circulating

Fluidized Bed Combustion (CFBC) technology in power plants and in industrial factories. From the point of view that
wide application of these techniques depend on the explicit studies on their economy, efficiency and the improvement
of technology, these policies are enthusiastically supported by the coal sector.
Turkish environmental policy considers that energy policy should take into account environmental problems and that
a balance should be found between increase in energy demand, which is required for economic development, and
environmental concerns.
Turkey had the lowest energy-related CO2 emissions per capita among the International Energy Agency (IEA)
countries. However, energy-related CO2 emissions per capita and per gross domestic product are both increasing.
Energy-related CO2 emissions from coal and coal products decreased slightly between 1990 and 2000 while that of
oil and gas increased.
Turkey has not signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The Government
argues that Turkey should be treated as a developing country in the convention, although she is a member of the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
Turkey has initated several measures with regard to Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions. The National Climate Coordination Group has published a report on GHG emissions in line conducted by members of the UNFCCC. This
report recommends to enhance the use of renewables, in particular hydro electricity, and the use of advanced
combustion technologies for lignites. A working group on climate change has been established to follow and evaluate
scientific developmants in the area of climate change and to prepare a national greenhouse gas inventory.
The lignite potential of Turkey is big enough for todays need. This potential is more attractive with the utilization of
advanced combustion technologies and improved coal mining techniques. Another aspect of mining, which could
contribute to a significant improvement of coal utilization and reduced environmental impacts, is benefication of coal
through selective mining and coal washing.
The latest investigations point out that constructing of new thermal power plants basing on lignite and new units to
existing thermal power plants will increase the total installed capacity of power more than 8000 MW in Turkey.
The sensibility to the environmental problems in Turkey, can be taken as a guarantee that we will not face the
environmental problems industrialized countries had faced before. We should not forget that A living society is one
that obtains its current needs without destroying the belongings of the next generations.
REFERENCES
(1) Senguler, I., 1999, Lignite and Thermal Power Plants. Turkey 8. Energy Congress, Ankara.
(2) Kokturk, A., 1998, Coal in Turkey. Energy, Monthly Review of the Sector, 3, 5, Istanbul.
(3) Senguler, I., 1999, Investigation of economical utilization possibilities of the Seyitomer (Kutahya, western Turkey)
area oil shales. Ph.D. thesis, Ankara University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences Department of
Geology, 193 pp., Ankara.
(4) Energy Policies of IEA Countries, Turkey 1997 Rewiew, 1997, Head of Publications Service, OECD, Paris,
France.
(5) Turkey Energy and Environment Issues and Options Paper, 1999, World Bank s Europe & Central Asia Region
Energy Sector Unit, Ankara.