Biology 11 (Fundamentals of Biology I)

ANIMALS: Form and Function

Lecturer: Brian S. Santos Pav. IV, Room 4113 Main References: (1) Biology by Campbell and Reece (2) Integrated Principles of Zoology by Hickman et al.

Life is characterized by hierarchical levels of organization

Life is characterized by hierarchical levels of organization

Levels of organismal complexity 1. Protoplasmic grade (i.e. unicellular organisms) 2. Cellular grade (i.e. flagellates, sponges) 3. Cell-tissue (i.e. jellyfish) 4. Tissue-organ (i.e. flatworms) 5. Organ-system (most animal phyla)

ANIMALS : Form and Function

A. Animal Cell Types and Tissues B. Animal Systems and Processes 1. Support and Protection 2. Movement 3. Digestion and Nutrition 4. Gas Exchange 5. Transport/Circulation 6. Excretion and Osmoregulation 7. Regulatory Mechanisms

ANIMALS : Form and Function

Anatomy - the study of the biological form of an organism Physiology - the study of the biological functions an organism performs The comparative study of animals reveals that form and function are closely correlated

Some Animal Cell Types

Some Animal Cell Types

Cells of the Gastric Gland Osteocytes

Epithelial Cells

Chondrocytes

Ertythrocytes
Leucocytes

Neuron

Four main categories of animal tissues 1. Epithelial Tissue 2. Connective Tissue

3. Muscular Tissue
4. Nervous Tissue

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

1. Epithelial Tissue Forms outer coverings and inner linings

compact; tightly packed cells

little intercellular substance

Polarized
With apical and basal surfaces

1. Epithelial Tissue The apical surface is exposed to air or fluid

may contain microvilli, cilia, flagella

Basal lamina/ Basement membrane

where the cells at the base of the barrier are attached

1. Epithelial Tissue What is responsible for the tight arrangement in epithelial cells? animals have 3 main types of intercellular links: 1. tight junctions 2. desmosomes 3. gap junctions

1. Tight Junction

membranes of adjacent cells are fused, forming continuous belts around cells prevent leakage of extracellular fluid across the epithelial layer

2. Desmosomes
fasten cells together into strong sheets reinforced by intermediate filaments of keratin

Also found attaching muscles together

3. Gap Junction

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells salt ions, sugar, amino acids, and other small molecules can pass through channels

Types of epithelial tissue according to layering

Types of epithelial tissue according to layering

1. simple epithelium
- Made up of a single layer of cells

2. stratified epithelium
- Made up of many layers of cells

3. pseudostratified epithelium
- Made up of a single layer of cells but appears stratified

Types of epithelial cells according to shape

1. Cuboidal

2. Squamous

3. Columnar

Simple squamous epithelium

flattened cells lining of blood capillaries, lungs, and other surfaces

allow passive diffusion of gases and tissue fluids into and out of cavities

Stratified squamous epithelium

adapted to withstand mild mechanical abrasion

basal layers of cells undergo continuous mitotic divisions

lines the oral cavity, esophagus, anal canal, vagina of mammals, skin

Simple cuboidal epithelium

short, boxlike cells

collecting duct in kidney

usually lines small ducts and tubules

may have active secretory and absorptive functions

Simple columnar epithelium

roof of mouth of toad

like cuboidal epithelium but cells are taller found on highly absorptive surfaces such as intestinal tract and female reproductive tract

in some organs, cells may be ciliated

Stratified columnar epithelium

salivary duct

consists of at least two layers of cells

found along some areas of the anorectal region and salivary duct

Other specialized types of epithelial tissue

Transitional epithelium
- Stratified epithelium - Allows for great stretching - Found in urinary tract and urinary bladder

Other specialized types of epithelial tissue

Glandular epithelium
- Functions for secretion of various substances - May be UNICELLULAR or MULTICELLULAR - May be EXOCRINE or ENDOCRINE or BOTH

Gastric gland of stomach Goblet cell of intestine

Cutaneous gland of skin

Other specialized types of epithelial tissue

Simple sqamosal linings

mesothelium squamous cells lining body walls and visceral organs

endothelium lining of blood and lymph vessels

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

2. Connective Tissue Connects/ Binds/ Supports different organs Allow space for exchange of metabolites between blood and tissues

Few cells, Large intercellular substance (aka extracellular matrix/ECM)

2. Connective Tissue Extracellular matrix - permit diffusion of nutrients, substances, water, gases, and wastes

- important in areas where small blood vessels are absent

2. Connective Tissue Types of cells: A. fixed

- fibroblast/fibrocyte
- mesenchymal - adipose - fixed macrophage B. wandering

- Blood cells
- Lymph

Connective tissue may be composed of one or more of these three tissue types Collagenous fibers (white) Made of collagen Nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise Elastic fibers (yellow) Made of elastin Elastin fiber provides a rubbery quality Reticular fibers (branching) Made of collagen Very thin and branched Form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues

Diagram of Fibrous Connective Tissue

35

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates A. Fibrous connective tissue

dense parallel bundles of collagenous fibers forms tendons and ligaments

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

B. Loose connective tissue

binds epithelia to underlying tissues functions to hold organs in place has all three fiber types two cell types present - Fibroblasts - Produce ECM - Macrophages - For defense

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates

C. Adipose tissue specialized loose connective tissue for fat storage pads and insulates the body and stores fuel as fat molecules
each adipose cell contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when the body uses fat as fuel

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates D. Cartilage

has abundant collagenous fibers embedded in a rubbery matrix made of a substance called chondroitin sulfate chondrocytes secrete collagen and chondroitin sulfate Types: 1. Hyaline cartilage 2. Elastic cartilage 3. Fibrocartilage

1. Hyaline cartilage
Bluish white and homogenous Abundant in collagen fibers Covers joints and rib ends Skeletal support nose, larynx, and trachea Skeletal support for embryos Skeletal support for adult sharks and rays

2. Elastic cartilage
Contains fine collagenous fibers and many elastic fibers External ears, eustachian tube, epiglottis Allowing great flexibility

3. Fibrocartilage
contains many large collagenous fibers intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis, disks of knee joint, and pads between femur and tibia absorbs compression shock

Collagen fiber Chondrocyte in lacuna

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates E. Bone

the skeleton supporting most vertebrates mineralized connective tissue

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates E. Bone

Osteoblasts are cells that deposit a matrix of collagen then, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate ions combine and harden within the matrix into the mineral hydroxyapatite the combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone harder than cartilage without being brittle

Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Major types of connective tissues in vertebrates F. Blood

Made of: 1. Plasma (55%) matrix consisting of water, salts, and a variety of dissolved proteins 2. Formed elements (45%) erythrocytes, leukocytes and cell fragments called platelets
Copyright 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Blood Plasma (55 %)

1. water (90% of plasma) 3. gases (O2, CO2, N) 2. dissolved solids a. proteins fibrinogen (synthesized by the liver) albumin (synthesized by the liver) globulin b. supplies for cells (glucose, fats and fat-like substances, amino acids, salts) c. cell products (enzyme, hormones, antibodies) d. cellular waste products (urea, uric acid)

Blood Formed elements (45 %) produced by bone marrow

Types of White Blood Cells

A. granulocyte 1. neutrophil % 60-75 Nucleus 2-5 or more thin lobes, connected by thin chromatic threads 2 oval lobes linked by thread-like chromatin U or J-shaped Cytoplasmic granule fine Other features phagocytic

2. eosinophil

2-5

coarse granules

against helminthic infections inflammatory reaction

3. basophil

0.5-2

Coarse granules

Types of White Blood Cells

B. agranulocyte 1. lymphocyte % Nucleus Cytoplasmic granule narrow rim of cytoplasm Other features smallest; antibody production

20-25 large, somewhat spherical with some indentations and only slightly concentric position 3-8

2. monocyte

nuclei vary slightly, large amount of indented ovals to horse- cytoplasm shoe shaped structure

biggest; becomes macrophage; phagocytic

MUSCULAR TISSUE

3. Muscle Tissue composed of long cells called muscle fibers that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses

most abundant tissue in most animals

muscle contraction accounts for most of the energy-consuming cellular work in active animals

Types of muscles tissue

Types of muscles tissue

1. skeletal muscle has cylindrical and striated cells with multiple nuclei (syncitial) occurs in muscles attached to skeleton single innervation by motor nerve functions in voluntary movement of body

Types of muscles tissue 2. smooth muscle

spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus

cells have no striations

double innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system; involuntary

blood vessel walls and walls of the digestive tract

functions in movement of substances in lumens of body

Types of muscles tissue

3. cardiac muscle

has cylindrical but branching striated cells, each with a single nucleus
double innervation by parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system; involuntary occurs in the wall of the heart

functions in the pumping of blood

NERVOUS TISSUE

4. Nervous Tissue irritability and conductivity; senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another neuron functional unit of nervous tissue

4. Nervous Tissue

Neurons consists of a cell body, dendrites and axons Dendrite transmits nerve impulses from their tips toward the rest of the neuron Axon transmits impulses toward another neuron or toward an effector, such as a muscle cell

4. Nervous Tissue
Types of neurons: sensory (afferent) motor (efferent) interneuron

ANIMAL BODY PLANS

Animal Body Plans

Symmetry
refers to balanced proportions correspondence in size and shape of parts on opposite sides of a median plane

Spherical Symmetry

any plane passing through the center divides a body into equivalent or mirrored halves found chiefly among some unicellular forms rare in animals best suited for floating and rolling

Radial Symmetry

body can be divided into similar halves by more than two planes passing through the longitudinal axis found in some sponges and hydras, jellyfish, sea urchins usually sessile, free floating or weakly swimming

Biradial Symmetry

only two planes passing through the longitudinal axis produce mirrored halves because of some part that is single or paired comb jellies

Bilateral Symmetry

body can be divided along a sagittal plane into mirrored portions right and left halves much better suited for directional (forward) movement

strongly associated with cephalization

Radiata

Bilateria

Segmentation
metamerism serial repetition of similar body segments along the longitudinal axis of the body segment (metamere or somite)