Eects of CNC on Machine Components

5. Eects of CNC on Machine Components

CNC has brought about lasting changes to major components of machine tools, leading to new machine congurations and types of automation equipment.

5.1. Machine Conguration

The principal reason for numerical control's inuence on machine congurations is the fact that, as with conventional automation, it becomes possible to do without continuous tending and observation of the work sequence by a worker. At the same time, the continued development of cutting tools has led to signicantly higher cutting speeds, feed rates, and cutting depths, which, in practice, can only be implemented without a human operator. These improvements oer greatly increased performance but at the same time place new requirements on the machines. Especially machines used to process smaller workpieces oer many options in this regard. With large workpieces, the weight of the workpiece places tight limits on the feeding and load-bearing characteristics of the machine, as well as on the dimensions, clamping, and large working space. Thus, for small and medium-sized turning machines, it has become common to place the bed at the rear, whether inclined or vertical, as had already been introduced for copying lathes. In this way, the chip clearance is not obstructed by the bed. This also has the advantage that it is possible to swivel the transverse axis away from the horizontal, signicantly improving the access to tools and the workpiece. Space is created under the workpiece for installation of a chip conveyor.

One new machine design was prompted by the development of variablespeed three-phase motors. Here, there is a vertically suspended spindle, with the longitudinal and transverse motions being executed not by the tool but by the spindle. As a result, not only is there good chip clearance even during internal machining, but the motion of the spindle also allows easy tool changing using the pickup principle. Here, too, there is good access to tools and the workpiece and space for a chip conveyor (Figure 5.1 ).

Figure 5.1. Vertical turning machine using the pickup principle for automatic loading and unloading of workpieces.
In large turning machines, the conguration of conventional lathes has been retained, that is, a horizontal bed in machines for long workpieces and a vertical design for short workpieces. For longitudinal and shaft turning machines, it may be possible to install a chip conveyor inside the bed. In vertical lathes, the horizontal clamping surface interferes with chip removal. Automatic chip removal is almost impossible, especially during internal machining. Free program design and the practically unlimited amount of data that can

be entered have lead to lathes with two or even three heads that work independently but in coordination with each other. This shortens the production time per piece and increases the number of tools available. Even lathes developed especially for automated production, in which the tool motions are generated in a conventional manner using cam discs (e.g., multiple-spindle automatic lathes), have in the meantime been converted to numerical control. The fundamental machine conguration was retained, however. As for drilling machines, the radial drilling machine, with its non-Cartesian motion directions, has been discarded entirely. The standard type is now a design with a vertical spindle and a horizontal workpiece table. The division of the axes among the table and pedestal follows the working space of its conventional predecessors. As a result of automation, however, automatic tool changing becomes almost obligatory, with a corresponding inuence on the machine conguration. In milling machines as well, it is possible to nd machine congurations that already existed among conventional machines. However, the freedom of programming in numerical automation set loose a trend toward complete machining and thus a new type of machine: the machining center, a machine that makes possible all types of machining that use recirculating tools. Naturally, this makes it necessary to have an appropriately dimensioned tool changer and one or even two rotational axes in addition to the three translational axes. The congurations of these machines also mainly correspond to those of conventional machines, especially to those of boring mills. To expand the automatic sequence, these machines generally are also equipped with an automatic tool-changing system. This additional equipment, of course, also inuences the structure of the basic machine. In all these machines with a horizontal clamping surface, there is a problem with chip removal and installation of a chip conveyor. For this reason, in a few cases in machines for processing smaller workpieces, the workpiece is machined with a vertical clamping surface after being clamped onto the surface in the horizontal position in the clamping station. The conguration of the original conventional machines generally also was retained in the various types of grinding machines. The reason for this was that priority had to be given to the requirements of the grinding process.

Only with smaller external surface grinding machines, in which the longitudinal motion traditionally is assigned to the workpiece, was a dierent conguration occasionally adopted: that of a lathe with an inclined bed at the rear. Thus the longitudinal motion is executed by the grinding head. Gear-cutting machines are in their nature single-purpose machines with a fully automatic sequence. Therefore, their conguration was kept completely the same during the transition to numerical control. No entirely new conguration for machine tools with a completely dierent structure appeared until after CNC control systems with high-performance computers became available: machines in which the tool was positioned via a parallel kinematic system ( Part 3 , Section 1.6 ). Here the command position values specied in the Cartesian coordinate system had to be converted quickly into the command values for the lengths of the individual jointed arms. Because of the low masses being moved, this kinematic system allows very rapid responses but has serious disadvantages when it comes to the range of motion that is possible, especially for swivel motions.

5.2. Machine Frames

The requirements placed on machine frames are essentially identical to those for conventional machine tools. However, the higher precision required means that optimization of the static and dynamic stiness is necessary. For trouble-free automatic production, maximum thermal stability and low thermal drift are also important. Temperature changes from the environment or owing to heat sources in the machine should not lead to gradually increasing positional deviations in the machine. The heat sources in the machine can cause particularly noticeable negative eects as a result of high power conversion. These include hot chips that heat up the machine frame locally, or high loads on the main drive motor, or the heat generated by the bearings of a rapidly rotating main spindle. Machine frames made of cast mineral composites are useful here owing to their large mass and the poor thermal conduction of the concrete (Figure 5.2 ).

Figure 5.2. Machine frame made of cast material composites.

A certain scope for free design of function-related machine frames comes from the fact that today CNC machines, especially small and medium-sized ones, generally have a machine enclosure on all sides. Thus the visual eect can be ignored in design of the frame. Machine parts that are moved in closed-loop position control are subject to particular requirements with regard to their weight, especially those positioned by a linear drive. For machine slides, optimization of stiness using nite-element method (FEM) analysis and weight reduction by means of topology optimization can produce considerable benets not only in cast constructions but also most notably in welded designs. Because of their cost, ber composite materials have not achieved much success so far in series production (Figure 5.3 ).

Figure 5.3. Cast-metal machine frame.

5.3. Guides ( Figures 5.4 and 5.5 )

Figure 5.4. Hydrostatic guide with identical dimensions to a linear roller guide in order to ensure interchangeability. (Image courtesy of INA.)

Figure 5.5. Damping test: On the left side, a roller guide; on the right side, a hydrostatic guide. (Image courtesy of INA.)
As a general rule, guides, especially motion guides that are moved during machine operation, are subject to the following requirements: Low friction and no stick-slip eect so as to allow precise positioning High stiness, in order to absorb operating loads without excessive displacement High damping to suppress vibrations Low wear to ensure precision over a long time period Low costs. In conventional machine tools, these requirements were met adequately by sliding guides with a wide variety of designs. They could handle heavy loads, were reliable under operational conditions, and provided good damping. Low friction and the no-stick/slip eect could be achieved by lining them with plastic low-friction liners. In contrast, closed-loop position control requires particularly low friction and freedom from stick/slip eect in order to achieve high positioning accuracy. Therefore, today, diverse types of rolling guides are used in numerous controlled machines. These guides are supplied by specialist manufacturers and have become quite inexpensive. This trend is supported by the high rapid traverse speeds that are being introduced to save time. Here the lower

friction allows lighter feed drives. Additional improvements have been achieved using hydrostatic guides, especially with regard to damping characteristics. Some manufacturers of rolling-contact guides oer these as mass-produced products.

5.4. Main Drives

When planning main drives with closed-loop control, a fundamental decision has to be made as to whether to use synchronous or asynchronous motors. The decisive factor here is whether the motor will be operated only with closed-loop speed control (e.g., as a spindle drive for drilling and milling tools) or with closed-loop position control (e.g., with turning machines with an additional C-axis drive). Today, all spindle drives in machine tools without exception use electric motors with closed-loop speed control. These have two main tasks: 1. To provide the torque and speed needed for the work process 2. To allow interpolation of the speed of the main spindle with the feed drives, if operation as a C axis is required in turning or machining centers The automatic work sequence in CNC machines means that the main drives have to satisfy some additional requirements that exceed the requirements placed on drives for conventional machines. These are in particular Automated speed changing. The automatic work sequence also requires programmable, automatic changing of the speed. Speed changing in very small steps, preferably continuously adjustable. CNC machines are capital-intensive items of equipment with a high cost per hour. Therefore, it is important to make optimal use of the performance of state-of-the-art tools. For example, to keep the cutting speed constant during face turning or taper turning, continuously adjustable speed changing will be necessary for technological reasons. Large speed adjustment range. CNC machines are universal machines that are intended to process various types of workpieces using various tools. To do this, the main spindle has to cover a large range of speeds without any intermediate transmission; that is, the entire required

adjustment range is provided by the motor alone. Very fast speed changes. Every change in speed represents a loss of time. This is especially noticeable when there are frequent tool changes on machines with recirculating tools, such as in machining centers. These are equipped with an automatic tool changer, and the spindle has to be stopped for each tool-changing operation. As a result, a spindle motor with the shortest possible run-up and braking times is required. High drive output. The automatic execution of the machining process in CNC machines makes them independent of manual control and reaction speeds. This allows a completely enclosed working space. It is thus possible to achieve working speeds that make full use of modern tools' performance potential. This requires drive outputs that exceed those of conventional machines by a large factor. Large range with constant output. The high drive output should be available over as large a range of speeds as possible. High torque at low speeds. As high torque as possible should be available at lower speeds. Compact dimensions and low weight. In many CNC machines, the main drive motor is part of a larger mechanical assembly and constantly moves along with it. There is thus a requirement for motors that are as light and compact as possible so as not to compromise the acceleration that can be achieved by the entire assembly. Low heat generation. The adverse eects that localized heating of the machine has on precision were already been mentioned earlier (Part 2 ,

Section 1.3 ).
5.4.1. Types of Main Drives ( Figure 5.6 )

Figure 5.6. Types of main drives.

In principle, the same types of motors are available as for feed drives. Speedcontrolled asynchronous motors are preferred for use as standard main drives owing to their positive features, such as low price, their simple, rugged design, and their low maintenance requirements. For speed adjustment, they receive their power from a frequency converter. By now they have supplanted the previously dominant direct-current (dc) motors. They appear in various designs. Depending on the nature of the main drive ( Figure 5.6 ), they can take the form of housed motors or kit motors with a hollow shaft (Figure 5.7 ).

Figure 5.7. Three-phase asynchronous motor as a kit motor with hollow shaft.
In order to ensure the full torque at low speeds and even down to a speed of zero, housed motors for main spindle drives are always designed with external ventilation or liquid cooling. Kit motors for direct installation in the spindle are as a rule always liquid-cooled because it is necessary to ensure both high power density in a reasonably small space and a motor with a thermally neutral signature. 5.4.2. Designs for Main Drives The classic design of the main drive involves the coupling of a housed motor to the tool spindle via a geared or belt transmission, in some cases with multiple stages. This arrangement has the advantage that the motor is thermally decoupled from the machining space and from the spindle. The motor can be installed in a location outside the machining space, meaning that main spindle motors with standardized installation dimensions can be used. However, the belt drive limits the speed, stiness, and dynamic characteristics of the drive and thus the productivity of the entire machine tool. These disadvantages have led to the use of directly driven spindles. The belt or gear drive is eliminatedthe torque is transmitted via the rotor of the drive motor directly to the spindle shaft. This makes the speed of the system very stable and allows high amplication factors and short acceleration and braking times. In order to clamp the workpiece, the motor is equipped with a hollow shaft. Because the heat input from the motor does not go directly into the spindle, the motor can have external ventilation. Liquid cooling is possible as an option; this can be used to further increase the motor's use. This arrangement is especially benecial in machining centers. Integrating the drive motor directly into the spindle created the so-called motor spindle . This direct installation generally requires liquid cooling. This type of main spindle-drive design is increasingly becoming the standard in the modern machine tool industry. In both these direct-drive designs, the lack of speed adaptation means that the following requirements become particularly important:

High power density Large speed-adjustment range Large range with constant output High torque at low speeds High maximum speed 5.4.3. Three-Phase Asynchronous Motors Speed-controlled asynchronous motors have developed into standard main drives owing to their positive features, such as low price, simple and rugged design, and low maintenance requirements. The speed of three-phase asynchronous motors can be changed over a broad adjustment range by changing the output frequency and output voltage of the converter that is supplying the power. The speed/torque characteristics of three-phase asynchronous motors operated with converters are provided in the form of characteristic curves (Figure 5.8 ).

Figure 5.8. Speed-adjustment ranges of synchronous and asynchronous motors with the same output and torque.
Using purely mathematical calculations, the speed-adjustment range then would be "innite" and up to 1:12 in the eld-weakening range, that is, at constant power. The behavior of the characteristic curves is determined by the strength of the intermediate-circuit voltage and by the corresponding motor-specic data, such as inductivity, resistance, motor constants, and breakdown torque. Figure 5.8 provides a comparison of the two dierent motor principles. In the basic speed range, the voltage and frequency increase proportionally up to the rated speed. If externally cooled, the motor generates a constant torque. Once the voltage reaches its maximum value at the rated speed, it is only possible to increase the frequency. From that point onward is the beginning of the so-called eld-weakening range. The eld-weakening range

begins with a range of constant output, in which the torque decreases hyperbolically, that is, inversely proportional to the frequency/speed (rpm). If the speed/supply frequency is increased further, the breakdown torque or stability limit of the motor will be reached. The breakdown torque of an asynchronous motor decreases as the square of the frequency/speed (1/n 2). In contrast to operation from power mains, with modern converters and an appropriate control system, the stability limit of the motor initially does not represent any real limit because loss of stability of the motor (a drastic reduction in torque and even motor standstill) is prevented. The maximum speed thus is limited only by mechanical components, such as bearing, rotors, rotor mountings, and so on. The characteristic curves generally are indicated for continuous operation (operating mode S1) with various duty cycles, frequently 25, 40, or 60 percent. The closed-loop control and control structure of main-drive motors are largely the same as those of a modern feed drive. The main-drive controllers encountered today merely have a few supplementary functions, for example, for special eld regulation. Thus C-axis operationthe interpolation of the main spindle with the feed drive, as is often required today, especially in turning machinesrepresents no problem. 5.4.4. Three-Phase Synchronous Motors In machine tools, synchronous motors are as a rule used primarily as feed drives ( Part 2 , Chapter 1 : Implementation of Dimensional Data ). In special cases, demands for greater power densities and temperature stability have led to the use of permanent-eld three-phase synchronous motors even in main drives. In the meantime, state-of-the-art practical motor principles and closed-loop control methods have made it possible to implement such drives in series-produced machines. More extensive use is unlikely at present, however, owing to the higher costs. At present, speedcontrolled synchronous motors are used primarily as main drives when the following requirements have to be met: Extremely high requirements as to machining quality, precision, and smooth operation

Extremely short times for run-up or speed changes Standstill torque Limited installation space This is especially the case in high-quality turning machines and turning/milling centers when high-quality drilling and milling operations have to be executed on the end faces or lateral surfaces of the workpieces. Two main types of synchronous motors are available: High-speed motors. These primarily involve four-pole synchronous motors that are used for milling applications. These motors have been optimized for high maximum speeds of up to 40,000 rpm and a wide speed-adjustment range. These motors are used mainly with closed-loop speed control via frequency converters. The speed-adjustment range is about 1:3 in the eldweakening range. Using purely mathematical calculations, the overall speed-adjustment range would be "innite." High-torque motors. Six-pole/eight-pole synchronous motors are available that have been developed for turning and grinding machines with moderate maximum speeds. These motors are characterized by very high torque utilization. High-speed synchronous motors are much more important and widespread than torque motors, which have very high prices, if nothing else, owing to their low production quantities. Speed control of synchronous motors is likewise implemented via the voltage and frequency of the three-phase current that is fed in. For continuously adjustable closed-loop speed control of a synchronous motor, a frequency converter has to be connected upstream of the motor. Both the speed and the rotor position are measured and reported to the converter by a rotary encoder. From this the control electronics determine the necessary "electronic commutation" to advance the rotating eld and also the actual speed. 5.4.5. Benets Compared with the lower-priced asynchronous motors, synchronous

spindle drives oer the following benets: High eciency Low mass moment of inertia and thus good dynamic characteristics Low maintenance (in the case of rotors without slip-ring rotors) Speed independent of load No electrical power necessary for eld excitation Up to 60 percent higher torque and thus more compact machine designs Extremely short run-up and braking times (50 percent) thanks to the torque High standstill torque High torque even during standstill and change of direction of rotation Compact construction (e.g., for turning machines and vertical milling machines) thanks to the elimination of mechanical components such as pivoting motor bases, belt drives, gearboxes, and spindle encoders High power density when water-cooled Maximum speeds of up to 40,000 rpm, torques of up to 820 Nm or greater Low rotor heating owing to equipment with permanent magnets (The result: Signicantly less power loss in the rotor in the lower speed range and thus less bearing heating and spindle expansion.) Extremely high precision on the workpiece thanks to smooth, even spindle operation even at extremely low speeds, because there are no transverse drive forces Interpolating C-axis operation with the feed drives, for example, in turning machines Larger internal rotor bores than cage rotors of asynchronous motors with the same external diameter (This is an advantage for the bar capacity of automatic lathes and for greater spindle stiness owing to the greater shaft diameter for milling spindles.)

Increased stiness of the spindle drive thanks to mounting of the motor components between the main spindle bearings Less cooling output necessary for the same power output compared with asynchronous motors, that is, greater eciency Only one encoder (hollow-shaft measuring system) for detecting the motor speed and spindle position Easy servicing by exchanging complete motor spindles Further potential for improved eciency, such as faster part machining times and smaller footprints, can be achieved through the optimized combination of synchronous spindle motors, drive controls, and CNC controllers. On the other hand, there are a few disadvantages: Expensive magnet materials, therefore high procurement costs for permanent magnet motors Elaborate closed-loop control requirements (frequency converters) Possibly an annoying whistling noise from the motor

5.5. Machine Enclosures

During our discussion of main drives, we have already noted that automatic work sequences are necessary for full utilization of the high-performance characteristics of state-of-the-art cutting tools. One result of this is that chips are thrown outward at high speeds, presenting a risk of injury to persons in the vicinity. This fact must be addressed through the use of appropriate enclosures and by securing the working space. On small and medium-sized machines, such enclosures generally are a sheetmetal construction attached to the body of the machine, often combined with the electrical cabinet and even enclosed on the top. Thus they form a single transport unit together with the machine, a so-called machine suitable for single-point lifting. In such cases, the machine enclosure not only serves as protection against chips but also retains the vaporized coolant and provides good protection against process noise. These are a key means of preventing accidents and thus are subject to a large number of regulations. On the other

hand, they are also intended to make operation, servicing, and maintenance of the machine easier. All this means that they have to satisfy a number of extensive requirements that are often mutually conicting. For example, machine enclosures have to make the working space easily accessible for setup work and tool changing. For this purpose, they generally have large doors to allow access to the working space. These doors, however, must be locked when the machine is operating, or at least the work sequence has to be interrupted immediately when they are opened. The doors and often other parts of the xed enclosure are provided with windows to allow safe observation of the work sequence. These windows have to withstand "bombardment" by chips without becoming obscured. This is only possible with silicate glass. Then again, in the event of collisions that cannot be avoided completely, they have to be able to survive impacts by large parts, such as ying workpieces, clamping equipment, or tools. This works better with elastic plastic windows. Therefore, composite windows are often used in such cases. It is also important for the window to be rmly anchored in its frame to prevent it from being pressed out too easily. Coverings that enclose the entire machine often obstruct access to areas that have to be accessible for cleaning and maintenance work. They thus have to be easy to remove or open. Frequently, the operator panel with the keyboard, equipment for the CNC, and additional control elements for manual actuation of the machine motions for setup and maintenance work are also integrated into the machine enclosure. After all, the coverings are decisive in determining the external appearance of the machine and therefore display an important starting point for design. Like all components of the machine, they are naturally also subject to heavy pressures to reduce costs, all the more so because it is easy to view them more as a necessary evil and not as an important functional component.

5.6. Coolant Supply

Because in CNC machines the tool can move freely in the working space, the coolant has to be coupled with the tool. In turning machines, this is done by feeding the coolant over the turret to the tool holder that is located in the working position, which, in turn, feeds it to the cutting edge via a

preadjusted tube. For recirculating tools, the coolant is fed to the tool via the main spindle. Owing to heavy misting, however, there is at present a trend toward dry machining.

5.7. Chip Removal

As a consequence of the high productivity of numerically controlled machine tools, large quantities of chips are produced in any given time interval. These chips have to be removed from the machine without adversely aecting the work sequence. The issues associated with free chip clearance and installation of the associated chip conveyors in the machine have already been discussed in connection with the machine conguration. Various types of conveyors are used depending on the shape of the chips. The most common and widely distributed ones are hinged belt conveyors. Scraper conveyors are more suitable for very small and friable chips. Magnetic conveyors can only be used for steel chips.

5.8. Summary
The automatic work sequences made possible by numerical control have extensive eects on the design of machines because there is no need for continuous tending and observation by workers. This makes it possible to focus the design of the machine on optimal execution of machining, making full use of the increased performance of modern tools. This requires a main drive with correspondingly high output and a completely enclosed working space. The high productivity of such machines results in a high level of chip generation, and the chips have to be removed automatically. Automatic work sequences require a higher level of precision, which has to be taken into account, especially in the design of machine bodies and guides. CNC closed-loop position-control systems also place requirements on machine designs. Moving parts have to be as light as possible, especially when driven by linear motors. The guides should have low friction and be free from stickslip eects. Machine designs also must take into account automatic tool changing and workpiece changing, which are often associated with considerable space requirements.

5.9. Eects of CNC on Machine Components

Important points to remember: 1. CNC machines are machines that operate automatically. They do not have to be tended by a worker. For this reason, they often have a dierent conguration than conventional machines. In particular, their working space should be completely enclosed on all sides. In part, this is due to their very high cutting speeds. 2. Machine frames should have high static, dynamic, and thermal stability in order to achieve trouble-free automatic production. 3. The demanding requirements on guides have resulted in increased use of rolling guides. 4. Main drives are primarily frequency-controlled three-phase asynchronous motors. 5. Increasing use is being made of directly driven motor spindles, especially when positioning tasks or synchronization with feed motions is demanded at the same time. 6. Machine enclosures have a very wide range of functions: Protection against ying chips Containing the coolant vapor To allow observation of the work sequence To allow machine setup and clamping of the workpiece To contain ying parts resulting from collisions 7. The coolant in-feed has to be coupled with the tool; with recirculating tools, it must be fed through the spindle. 8. The chips have to be removed in such a way that they do not interfere with the work sequence and so that they do not cause local heating in the machine frame.
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Hans B. Kief; Helmut A. Roschiwal: CNC Handbook. Eects of CNC on Machine

Components, Chapter (McGraw-Hill Professional, 2012), AccessEngineering

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