Astronomy

THE GREAT IDEAS
INTRODUCTION
immense persistence. They calculated and pre-
dicted. They turned their predictions to use
through the priestly office of .prophecy'to 'fore-
teH.eclipses, .tides, and floods, and! they em....
ployed their calculations in the mundane arts of
navigation and surveying to guide travel and
fix boundaries. Bnt theydid not, like theGreeks,
develop elaborate theories which sought to or....
ganize all the observed facts systematically.
With the Greeks, the down-to-earth, every-
day utility of astronomy. seems to count for
less than its speculative grandeur. The dignity
which they confer upon astronomyamong the
disciplines reflects the scope and majesty of its
subject matter. The Greek astronomer, con-
cernedas he is with figuring motions that radge
through.. the whole of space and are'as old as
tilneor as interminable, takes for his object the
structure of the cosmos.
Aristotle and IJlato pay eloquent tribute to
the special worth of astronomy..ln the opening
chapters of his Metaphysics, Aristotle associates
astronomical inquiry with the birth of philos"
ophy. "Apart from usefulness;" hesays,"men
delight ... in the sense of,sight" and, he adds,
"it is: owing to their wonder that men both now
begin and at first began to ph:ilosophise." They
wondered first about "the obvious
but little by little they advanced to "greater
matters," and "stated difficulties ... about the
phenomena of the moon and sun and stars, and
about the genesis of the universe.'' In his own
philosophical .thought, Aristotle's treatiseOn
the Heavens is not only one of the basic natural
sciences, but certain of its principles have gen....
eral significance for all the other parts of his
physical science.
A wider viewof the importance
is taken by Plato. In the Timaeus, he dweUs
i
Ol1
"the higher use and purpose for which God has
given eyes to us.. '.. Had We never seen the
87
Chapter 5: ASTRONOMY
RQNOMY could take its place in thiis
catalog of ideas on the ground that several
great books are monuments of astronom....
ience,. exemplifying the imaginativeand
ical powers which havemade it oneof the
emarkable triumphs of the human mind.
ni 111ight further be supported by the
that other great books-of mathematics,
ies, theology, a context
ol1omical imagery and theory. But the in....
n.ofastronomycanbe justified by whatis
pS'an even more significant fact; namely,
tillat astronomical speculation. raises problems
sllggests conclusions which have eritical reI....
evance for the whole range of the great ideas.
an has usedastronomy tomeasure,not only
assage.of time or the courseofavoyage,
lilt also his position in the world, his power; of
owing; his relation to God. When man first
tlltlmsfrom .himself and his immediate earthly
s'llrrollmdimgs to the larger universe of which he
is apart, the object which presses on his vision
istille overhanging firmamentwithits luminous
bomies,moving with great basic regularity and,
llpom closer observation, with certain perplex-
img irregularities. Always abiding and always
cillamgimg,. the firmament, which provides man
with the visible boundary of his universe, also
becomes for him a basic, in fact an inescapable,
object of contemplation.
GJareful and precise astronomical observa-
tioms antedate the birth of astronomy as a
sciemce. The early interest in the heavenly bod-
ies amd their motions is often attributed to the
usefulness of the predictions which can be made
a knowledge of celestial phenomena.
Whether .. their motive was entirely .utilitar....
iam, or partly religious and speculative, the
Egyptians and Babylonians, we learn from
Id.erodotus,undertook patient study of the
heavens. They observed and recorded with
LOTZE. Mcrocosmos, BK VIII, CH 3
BURCKHARDT. The Civilization ofthe Renaissa
Italy
RUSKIN. Modern Painters
--. The Stones of Venice
--. Sesame and Lilies
TAINE. The Philosophy of Art
E. HARTMAN. Philosophy ofthe Unconscious, (
ARNOLD. Essays in Criticism
VAN GOGH. Letters
MORRIS. Hopes and FearsforArt
-.-. Art and Socialism
--. The Aims of Art
GUYAU. L'art au point de vue sociologique
NIETZSCHE. The Will to Power, BK III (4)
BRUNETIERE. An Apology for Rhetoric
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART I, CH 17
GROSSE. The Beginnings of Art
SHAW. The Sanity of Art
HIRN. The Origins of Ar{
MANN. Tonio Kroger
SANTAYANA. Reason in Art
CROCE. as Science of Expression
--. The Essence of Esthetics
HARRISON. Ancient Art and Ritual
BOSANQUET. Three Lectures on Aesthetic, II
T. VEBLEN. The Instinct of U10rkmanship, and
State ofthe Industrial Arts, CH 2-4, 6-7
--. The Vested Interests and the State ofthe Ina
trial Arts, CH 3
ALAIN. Systeme des beaux-arts
MARITAIN. Art and Scholasticism
--. An Introduction to Philosophy, PART II (
ABERCROMBIE. An Essay .Towtllrds a Theory of
LALO. L' art et la morale
ORTEGA Y GASSET. The Dehumanization
RANK. Art and Artist
H. DELACROIX. Psychologie de I' art
GILL. Art-Nonsense
COOMARASWAMY. The Transformatiof} of Nature
Art
DEWEY. Art as Experience
MUMFORD. Technics and Civilization
ADLER. Art and Prudence
86
TOLSTOY. lVhat Is Art?
FREUD. Leonardo da Vinci
-._..-. The Theme ofthe Three Caskets
--. The Atloses of Michelangelo
--. A Childhood Memory from "Dichtung und
Wahrheit"
II.
EPICURUS. Letter to Herodotus
HORACE. The Art of Poetry
VITRUVIUS. On Architecture
QUINTILIAN. InstitutioOratoria (Institutes ofOratory),
BK XII
BONAVENTURA. On the Reduction ofthe Arts to The-
ology
LEONARDO DA VINCI. Notebooks
--. A Treatise on Painting
CELLINI. Autobiography
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XLIV (13)
CORNEILLE. Trois discours sur l' art dramatique
--. Examens
J. HARRIS. Three Treatises. The First Concerning Art.
The Second Concerning Music, Painting, and Poetry.
The Third Concerning Happiness
BURKE. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of
Our Ideas ofthe Sublime and Beautiful
VOLTAIRE. "Fine Arts," in A Philosophical Diction-
ary
LESSING. Laocoon
BEATTIE. An Essay on Poetry and Music
HERDER. Plastik
JOSHUA REYNOLDS. Discourses on Art
SCHILLER. Letters upon the Esthetic Education ofMan
SCHELLING. Philosophie der Kunst
COLERIDGE. Biographia Literaria, CH 4
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL I,
BK III; VOL III, SUP, CH 34-36
WHEWELL. The Philosophy ofthe Inductive Sciences,
VOL II, BK XI, CH 8
EMERSON. "Art," in Essays, I
E. DELACROIX. Journal
BAUDELAIRE. Curiosites esthetiques
COMTE. System ofPositive Polity, VOL I, General View
of Positivism, CH 5
THE GREAT IDEAS CHAPTER 5: 88
stars, and the sun, and the heaven," Timaeus
says, "none of the words "rhich we have spoken
about the universe \voul<i ever have been ut-
tered.... God invented and gave us sight," he
continues, "to the end that \ve might behold
the courses of intelligence in the heaven, and
apply them to the courses of ouro\vn .intelli-
gence which are akin to them, the unperturbed
to the perturbed; and that we, learning. them
and partaking of the natural truth of reason,
might imitate. the absolutely unerring courses
ofGod and regulate our own vagaries."
For Plato, then,man'sintellectual relation to
the heavensdoes more than initiate philosophy.
Man's self-rule, his purity and peace of soul, is
at stakeinthatrelation..That is one reason why,
in both the Republic and the Ilatvs, Plato makes
astronomy a required part of the curriculum
for the education of rulers. "He who has not
contemplated the mind of nature which is said
to exist in the stars ... and seen the connection
of music with these things, and harmonized
them all \vith laws and institutions, is not able,"
the Athenian Stranger says in the Laws, "to
give a reason for such things as have a reason."
PIato considers the opposi tion to astronomy
on religious grounds by those who think that
men who approach celestial phenomena by the
methods of astronomy "may become godless
because they see ... things happening by ne-
cessity, and not by an intelligent will accom-
plishing good." I-Ils answer points out that one
ofthe "two things which lead men to believe in
the gods ... is the argulnent from the order. of
the motion of the stars and of all things under
the dominion of the mind which ordered the
universe." It was a false understanding of these
matters which "gave rise to much atheislU and
perplexity. "
THE ISSUES RAISED by Plato concerning the im-
portance of astronomy for purification and pi-
ety, foreducation and politics, run through the
tradi tion of western thought. Though they are
somewhat transformed in the context of Jewish
and Christian beliefs, and altered by later de-
velopments in the science of astronomy itself,
they remain as matters on which an author's
strong assent or dissent forcefully reflects his
whole intellectual position.
On the one hand, astronomers like Ptolemy,
Copernicus, and Kepler, for all their differences
on points of scientific theory, seem to concur in
reaffirming Plato's conception of the bearing of
their science on religion and morals. Lucretius
and Augustine, on the other hand, while not
agreeing with each other, seem to disagree \vith
Plato. In the tradition of\vestern thought, they
represent different types of opposition to the
PIatonic vie\v.
Where Plato and his followers, including re-
ligious Christians like Copernicus and Kep-
ler, hold that true piety profits fromastronom-
ical study, Lucretius hopes that astronomy may
help to free men from religious superstitions. If
when they' 'gaze on the heavenly quarters of the
great upper world" and direct their thoughts
"to the courses of the sun and moon," they do
so with "a mind at peace" because they see only
the workings of naturalla,v and no evidences of
a controlling power in the will of the gods, then
men achieve- the natural piety of the scientist
-different in the opinion ofLucretius from the
false worship which is based on fear.
From his own experiences in dealing with the
astronomy of the Manichean sect in relation to
their religious doctrine, Augustine insists that
the teachings of religion in no way depend upon
astronomy. He denies that such knowledge is in
any way essential totrue piety. Though a man
does not kno,v "even the circles of the Great
Bear, yet is it folly to doubt," he writes, "that
he is in a better state than one who can measure
the heavens and number the stars, and poise the
elements, yet neglecteth Thee hast made
all things in number, weight, and measure.' "
When Faustus, the leader of the Manicheans,
"was found out to have taught falsely of the
heaven and stars, and of the motions of the sun
and moon (although these things pertain not to
the doctrine of religion)," his religious
ings, according to Augustine, inevitably suffered
ridicule because of his pretension that they
rived support from a science of the heavenly
bodies. Augustine would disengage theolog
from astronomy. His position anticipates that
later taken by Cardinal Barberini \vho, during
the controversy over the Copernican
sis, is reported to have told Galileo that. as
tronomy and religion have quite separate task
the one teaching how the heavens go, the othe
how to go to heaven.
Still another point of vie\v on the importance
ofastronomy is represented in the skeptical and
humanist attitude of Montaigne. "I am very
well pleased \vi tli the 11ilesiangirl,"he remarks,
"who ... advised the philosopher Thales rather
to look to himself than to gaze at heaven." In
saying this, or in quoting with approval the
guestionasked of Pythagoras by Anaximenes-
"To what purpose should I trouble Inyself in
searching out the secrets of the stars, having
death or slavery continually, before my eyes?"
-Montaigne intends more thana preference
for the moral over the 'naturalsciences. He're-
gards astronomical inquiry as a prime example
of man's "natural and original disease-pre;..
sumption." It is presumptuous to suppose that
our minds can grasp and plot the course of the
heavens when we fail to comprehend things
much nearer at hand. Hence. :Montaigne ad-
vises everyone to say, in the spirit of Anaxi-
menes: "Being assaulted as I am by ambition,
avarice, temerity, superstition, and having so
many other enemies of life, shall Igo ,cudgel
mylJrains about the world's revolutions?"
Kant can be as critical as Montaigne of the
frailty of human knowledge.. "Theinvestiga-
tions and calculations of the astronomers," he
wri tes, have sho\vn us "the abyss of our igno..
ranee in relation to the universe." But Kant--.,;an
astronomer himself as well as' a moralist----does
not, therefore, advise us to forsake the study(f)f
the heavens. On the contrary, he recommends
it not only for ,its scientific value, but for its
moral significance.
"Two things," Kant declares in a passage
which has become famous, "fill the mind with
ever new and increasing admiration and awe,
the oftener and more steadily we reflect on
tHem: the starry heavens above and the moral
law within. " The two fit together to produce a
single effect. Astronomy with its vie\v "of a
countless multitude of worlds annihilates,as it
were, my importance as an animal creature."
Morality "elevates my worth as an intelligence
0)' my personality, in which 'the moral law re-
veals to me a life independent of animality and,
even of the whole sensible world."
Kant's association of the starry heavens with
the moral life is not so much an echo of, as 'a
variant upon, Plato's precept that we apply
ut.b:ecourses of intelligence in heaven .... to the
89
courses of our own intelligence." But in one
passage of Freud we find an alrnostcomplete re-
turn to the Piatonicjnsight ... "Order has. been
imitatedfrolTI nature;" he writes; "man's ob-
servations of the great astronomical periodici-
ties not only furnished him with a model,but
formed the ground plan of his first attempts to
introduce order into his own life."
ASTRONOMY HAS connections with biology and
psychology, as well as \vith mathematics and
physics.The obvious fact thatthe sun supports
terrestrial life-operating here as a unique and
indispensable cause-occasions the inference by
Aquinas that it may also operate as a cause in
the production of new species by sponta.neous
generation from putrefying, matter. Thisno-
tion bears some resemblance to the theory in
contemporary genetics of the effect of cosmic
radiations upon gene mutations.
Unlike these notions in biology, speculations
concerning celestial influences upon psycho-
logical phenomena seem to cross the line be-
tween astronomy and' astrology. Sometimes the
influence upon man and his actions is found in
the constellations attending a nativity; some-
times it is a particular influence of the sort still
signified by the meaningof the word "lunacy";
and sometimes omens and auguries are read in
the aspect of the heavens.
The chapters on PROPHECY and SIGN AND
SYMBOL deal with the issues raised by astrol-
ogy. Problems more closely associated with
astronomical science and speculation are treat-
ed in other chapters. The cosmological prob-
lem of the origin of the material universe
is discussed in the chapters on ETERNITY,
TIME, and WORLD; the question of its size in the
chapter on SPACE; the question of whether the
celestial spheres are themselves alive or are
moved by intelligences or spiri ts in the chapters
on ANGEL and SOUL; and the question of the
nature of the heavenly bodies in the chapter on
MATTER.
This last problem is ofcrucial significance in
the history of astron0111y;itself. Opposed the-
ories of the motions of the heavenly bodies be...
come correlated with opposed theories con-
cerning their rnatter--'-whether that is different
in kind from terrestrial matter or the same. It
is with reference to these related issues that what
J:HEGREAY" IDEAS
CHAPTER 5:-.ASTRONOMY
90
has come to be "called "the Copernicanrevo...
lution", represents .oHeof the great:crises,Ger'"
tainly one of the most dramatic turningpoints,
in the development of ci'stF@uomy, and of'phys':'
ics and natural __-science generally.
The Copernican revolutiondid not. take place
by the, improvementandenlargementof astror
nomical observations alone, nor even by theef-
feet of these on alternative mathematical for'"
mulations. lfit hacinot been accompanied by
the radical shift fromancierit to modern;physics
-especially with regard to the diversity or uni-
formity of the world's matter-the.Cbpernican
hypothesis concerning the celestial motions
\vould have been no more than a mathematical
alternative to-the Ptolemaic hypothesis. Coper'"
nicus seems toadvance it only as SUGh, but in
hands of Kepler, Galileo, and Ne\vton it /be-
comes much more-than that.
Copernicus, seem-_ to accomplish the revolution
connected wi th his name.
\Vhen their cOl1tributionisneglectedorin...
adequately grasped, the CQpernican revolution
appears to -be, as -is: often' popularly supposed,
merely a shift in astronomical theory. The
lem being to organize mathematically the ap..
parent illotions of the heavens, Copernicus-of...
fers an alternative-solutioH to that: of Ptolemy.
Instead of _treating the earth as stationary and
central in the cosmic system, --_ Copernicus at..
tributes three motions to the earth by trea.ting
it as a planet which revolves around the sun,
spins on its axis, and varies the inclination of its
axis with reference to the sun.
What is usually supposed to be revolutionary
about this hypothesis is its effect on man's esti-'
rnate of himself and his place or rank ',- in the
universe. On either of the rival hypotheses, the
apparent motions of the heavens remain unal...
tered, but not man's -conception of of
his earth, or of the, universe in which the earth's
orbit cuts so small a figure. As Kant suggests,
man's stature seems He becomes "a
mere speck in the universe" which has been en'"
larged to infinity, or at least to anunima.ginable
immensity. He is displaced from, itscenter -to
become a his planet. Humanity'$
self-esteem, according to Freud, was, thus for
the first time deeply wounded ; he -refers to -the
theory that "isassociated in our minds with the
name ofCopernicus" as the "first great outrage"
which humanity "had to endure from 1
hands of science."
It has been questioned whether this interp
tation of the Gopernican
i
revoHl tion fits all
documents in the, case. Freud may be accurat
reportinga popular feelillgwhich, since the I'
century, has become'awidespread con:seque
ofCopernican and post--Coperhicanastrono
But in earlier centuries when the Ptolem
system prevailed, or even after Copernicus,
appraisal of man's rank seems to _depend mo
uponthe position he'occupies in the hierarc
ofGod's creatures-:-below'the angels and'abo
the brutes-than upon .the place or motion
the earth, or the size of the world.
Boethius, for example, finds the Ptolem
universe large, enough to remind man of t
infinitesimal space he occupies. Dante,t
comments on the smallness. of the' earth in t
scheme of things. When in his visionary _tray
Dante .reaches the Empyrean, he looks do
upon the earth sight," he tells:
"I returned through all and each of the sev
spheres, and saw this globe, such that I smiled;
its mean' semblance; and that coun.sel I appr
as best which holds it of least account."
Kepler, a passionate Copernican deeply co
cerned,wi th the human significance of astro
omy, can he found arguing that the new h
pothesis involves. something mQrefitting
man than the old. In his last argument in
fense of the Copernican-view against that
Tycho Brahe as well as that oPtolemy,hecl
clares, "it was not fitting that man, who w
going to be the dweller in this world and -- i
contemplator, should reside in one place as i
closed cubicle. .. It was his office to _mo
around in this very spacious edifice by means:
the transportation of the Earth his home."
order properly to view and measure the pa
of his world, the astronomer "needed to ha
the Earth a ship and its annuaLvoyagearou
the sun."
Yetthe very fact that Kepler argues in t '
manner may be interpreted as indicating
sense of the drastic implications for man oft
altered structure of the universe. Kepler m
even be thought to announce the problemof t
so... called "Copernican revolution" when, in d
nying that the earth can any longer "be rec.
oned _among the primary parts of thegrea
rId," since it is only a part of apart, i.e., the
etaryregion, he deliberatelyadds the quali-
ion: "But I am speaking now of the Earth
Jar as it is apart of the edifice of the world,
d not -of the dignity of the governing -crea...
res which inhabit it."
hetherornot it was the traumatic blow to
human ego which Freud conjectures, there
be little doubt that the shift from Ptolemy
tu(bopernicus involved a realshock to the imag-
ination. The Ptolemaic system conforms to the
look of the world, which is indeed the reason
why it is still the one used in practical courses in
navigation. Here again Kepler defends Coperni-
eIils by explaining why "OUi" uncultivated eye-
sight" -cannot be other than deceived and why
it "should learn from reason" to understand
that things are really different fromtheway they
Elflpear.
certain disillusionment -- may result, from
this affirmation-repeated by every schoolboy
;who is taught the Copernican system-that,de-
spite what we see, the sun does not movearound
the earth, and the earth both r0tates and re-
volves. It undermines the trust men placed in
their senses and the belief that science would
describe the world as they saw it. In order to
4'savethe appearances," that is, to account for
the phenomena, science might hencefor\vardbe
expected -to destroy -- any naive acceptance of
them' as the reality.
Furthermore, though the Ptolemaic world
;was very large, the Copernican universe-was
much larger. Whereas in the former, the radius
of the earth was deemed negligible in relation to
tme radius of the sphere of the fixed stars, in the
new universe the radiu's of the earth's orbit
around the sun was negligible in relation to the
same radius of the sphere of the fixed stars. It
can hardly be doubted that this intensified some
men's sense of almost being lost in an abyss of
infinity. "I see those frightful spacesoftheuni-
verse which surround me," Pascal wei tes, "arid
I find myself tied to one corner of this vast ex-
panse, without knowing why lam put in this
place rather than in another." When he regards
tme world's immensity as "the greatest sensible
mark of thealmighty power ofGod," Pascalex-
periences an awe which for him is qualified 'by
lteverence. Other men may experience the same
reeling, but less with reverence than with a
91
gnawing loneliness, born of the doubt that so
vast a cosmos-if cosmos it-is rather than chaos
been beneficently designed asman's
habitation.
WHATEVER tHE TRUTH about the effect of the
Copernican-theory in the order of opinion, im...
agination, and feeling, it did produce a direct
result on the intellectual plane. It, more than
any other single factor, led to the overthrow of
certain crucial doctrines which had been linked
together in the physics and astronomy of
tode; it thus radically changed the fundamen...
tal principles in terms of which man had under...
stood the order and unity of nature. That scien...
tific event deserves not only the name but the
fame of the "Copernican revolution."
The revolution in the realm of theory -' goes
much deeper than the substitution of one math...
ematical construction for another to describe
the motions of the,\\Torld's great bodies. As
Freud points out, the heliocentric hypothesis
associa.ted with the name of Copernicus; -was
known to the Alexandrian astronomers of anti...
quity. It is, for example, attributed to Aris...
tarchus by Archimedes in the Sand-Reckonerr
As far as the earth's rotation is concerned,
Ptolemy admits it is quite "plausible" to sup--
pose "the heavens immobile and the earth turn"
ing on the same axis from west to east very
nearly one revolution a day. !. As far. as the
appearances of the stars are he goes
on, "nothing would fronl
being in accordance with this simpler.con-
jecture."
Why, then, does Ptolemy reject asupposi-
tion which is not only plausible but also, in
accounting for the appearances, simpler? In part
the answer may be that he does so because the
contrary suppositionconforms to our ordinary
sense-experience of the earth's immobility and
the motions of the heavens from. east to west.
But that is far from being the most important
part of the answer. Ptolemy indicates the cru'"
cial part \vhen he tells us that the otherwise
plausible supposition of' a rotating earth be-
cOlues"altogether absurd" when we consider
the speed and direction ofthe motions ofbodies
within the earth's own atmosphere. His strong'"
est count against the supposition is that it does
not conform to the i\ristotelian physics which
IDEAS
93
Ignoring the supposition that simplicity must
be,judged differently "in different:'spheres, Go'"
pernicus challenges Ptolemy on his owngrounds
,vhen he propQses "simpler hypotheses'" to fit
"the movements of the heavens." But in doing
so,heseems to adopt the traditional vie\vof the
rnathernatical character of astronomical; ".. hy...
potheses.i :Yet, as will appear, he does not adopt
this view in the. unqualified form in which
Osianderstates it in his Preface to the Revolu-
tions ofthe fleavenly Spheres.
"It is tht job of the astronomer,";'Osiander
\vrites, "to use painstaking' and skilled observa-
tionin gathering" together thee history of the
celestial movements,and then-since he cannot
by any line of reasoningreachihe true causes
of thesemovements-t() think or . construct
whatever causes orhypotheses he pleases, such
that, by the assumption of these causes, these
same movements can be calculated fronl" the
principles of geometry, for the past and for the
future" too.
"It is not necessary," he adds, "that these
hypotheses should be true, or even probable;
it is enough if they provide a calculus which
fits the observations. When for one and the
same movement varying hypotheses are pro-
posed, as eccentricity or epicyclefor the
ment of the sun, the astronomer much prefers
to take the one which is easiest to grasp."
What distinguishes Kepler from both Ptob
emy andOsiander is the way. in which he is
concerned with the truth of alternative hypoth...
eses in astronomy. He looks upon the truth of
an hypothesis as something to be judged not
n1erely in mathematical terms according to the
adequacy and simplicity of a calculating de-
vice, but to be measured by its confonnity to
all the physical realities. At the very beginning
of his Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, he
flatly declares that "astronomy is part of phys-
ics." And in the opening pages of"the, fourth
book, he insists that astronomy has not one,
but "two ends: to save the appearances and to
contemplate the true form" of the edifice of the
World." He follows this imh1ediately by ob-
serving that, if astronomy had only the first
end, Tycho Brahe's theory would be as satis...
factory as that of Copernicus.
Early in his scientific career, before writing
the Epitome, Kepler asserts that "one cannot
CHAPTER.) : .A.STRON0
our arguments in especial: (I) Ftbfi1 the na.;
e of moveable (2) From. the nature
the motorivirtue. (3) From the nature of the
ce in which the movement occurs. (4)Frdm
perfection of the circle. '.' He then statesea.ch
these arguments, andans\verseach in" turn.
WHAT IS EXTRAORDINARY about Kepler's attack
tlflOn the Ptoieinaic astronoinycannot be urr-
derstoodwithout examining Ptolemy's defense
othis theory, a defense which Copernicus meets
in ptolemy's o\\'n terms rather than, as Kepler
loes, by going outside them.
Though his expressed intention was to c'on'"
struct a mathematical theory of the celestial
motions which would also... conform to Aris..
notle's physics,Ptoleiny, when he finished,
recognized that the complications he had been
compelled to add in. order "to savt the appear-
ances" left him with a theory that did not con-
form to A.ristotle's doctrine of the perfect cir-
cular motion of the heavenly spheres. Instead
ofabaridoning Aristotle'sphysits, he defended
nistheory on the ground that astronomy, being
mathematical rather than physical, could ad..
mit, such "unrealistic" complications if they
served the purposes of calculation and of "sav-
ing the appearances."
In the thirteenthand last book of the Alma.;
gest, when he faces the fact thathis mathemat...
ical devices have become exceedingly difficult
-and strained from the point of view of the
i\.ristotelian reality-Ptolemy \vrites: "Let no
one, seeing the difficulty of our devices, find
troublesome such hypotheses.... It is proper
to try and fit as far as possible the simpler
nypotheses to the movements of the heavens;
and if this does not succeed, then any hypoth..
eses possible. Once all the appearances are
saved by the consequences of the hypotheses,
,vhy should it seem strange, that such compli...
cations can come about in the movements of
neavenly things?" We ought not to judge the
Simplicity of heavenly things by comparison
with what seems to be simple in the explanation
of earthly phenomena. "We should instead
judge their simplicity from the unchangeable...
ness of the natures in the heavens and their
movements. For thus they would all appear
simple, more than those things which seem so
here wi th us."
Two other observations exercise a
influence on Aristotle's theory. The naked ey
sees no type of change in the heavenly bodies
other than local motion or change of place. Un+
like terrestrial bodies, they do not appear to
come into being or perish; they do not
in size or quality. Furthermore, \vhereas the
natural local motion of sub-lunary bodies
pears to approximate the path of a straight line,
the local motion of the celestial bodies appears
to be circular rather than rectilinear.
To cover these observations, Aristotle's the-
ory posits a different kind of rnatter for celestial
and terrestrial bodies. An incorruptible matter
must constitute the great orbs which are sub-
ject to local motion alone and have the mas
perfect kind of local motion-that of a circle.
Since they are subject to generation and cor-
ruption, to change of quality and quantity,and
are in local motion along straight lines, terres-
trial bodies are of a corruptible matter.
The interconnection of all these points i
marked by Aquinas when he summarizes Ari
totle's doctrine. "Plato and all who precede
Aristotle," he writes, "held that all bodies ar
of the nature of the four elements" and can
sequently "that the matter of all bodies is th
same. But the fact of the incorruptibility
some bodies was ascribed by Plato, not to th
condition of matter, but to the will of the
artificer, God.... This theory," Aquinas con-
tinues, "Aristotle disproves by the natural
movements of bodies. For since he says that
the heavenly bodies have a natural movement,
different from that of the elements, it follows
that they have a different nature from them
For movement in a circle, which is proper t
the heavenly bodies, is not by contraries, where-
as the movements of the elements are mu
opposite, one tending upwards, another down..
wards.... And as generation and corruptio
are from contraries, it follows that, whereas tn
elements are corruptible, the heavenly bodi
are incorruptible."
'The same points which Aquinas relates in hi
defense of the Aristotelian theory, Kepler also
puts together when he expounds that theory in
order to attack it and the Ptolemaic
which tries to conform to it. "By what arg
ments did the ancients establish their opini
\vhich is the opposite of yours?" he asks. "B
92
distinguishes between natural and violent mo-
tions, assigns certain fixed directions to the nat-
ural motions of each of the four. elements of
matter, and denies that these elementary kinds
of terrestrial matter enter into the composition
of the heavenly bodies.
That Aristotle's physics and cosmology lie at
the very heart of the issue is confirmed by the
way in which Kepler later argues for the Coper-
nican theory against Ptolemy. He does not de-
fend its truth on the ground that it accounts for
observable facts which the Ptolemaic hypoth-
esis cannot handle. Nor does he prefer it merely
because it is mathematically the simpler hy-
pothesis. On the contrary, he specifically notes
that anything which can be claimed on rnath-
ematical grounds for Copernicus over Ptolemy
can be equally claimed for Tycho Brahe over
Ptolemy. (Brahe's theory was that while the
other planets revolve around the sun, the sun,
with its planets, revolves around a stationary
earth.) According to Kepler, the truth of these
competing theories must finally be judged phys...
ically, not mathematically, and when the ques...
tion is put that way, as it is not by Copernicus
himself, Copernicans like Kepler, Galileo, and
Ne,vton take issue with what had been asso-
ciated with the Ptolemaic theory-the physics
of Aristotle.
IN ORDER TO EXAMINE this issue, it is necessary
to state briefly here certain features of Aris-
totle's physics which are more fully discussed
in the chapters on CHANGE, ELEMENT, ME'"
CHANICS, and PHYSICS.
Just as Ptolemy's astronomy conforms to
\vhat ,ve see as we look at the heavens, so Aris-
totle's physics represents a too simple conform-
ity with everyday sense-experience. We observe
fire rising and stones falling. Mix earth, air, and
water in a closed container, and air bubbles will
rise to the top, while the particles of earth ,;yill
sink to the bottom. To cover a multitude of
similar observations, Aristotle develops the
theory of the natural motions and places of the
four terrestrial elements-earth, air, fire, and
water. Since bodies move naturally only to at-
tain their proper places, the great body which
is the earth, already at the bottom of all things,
need not move at all. Being in its proper place,
it is by nature stationary.
tfHE. GREA IDEAS
BOOK.S of astronomy most lucidly
exhlblt the essentlalpattern of that kind ofnat-
ural science which has, in modern ,times, come
to be called "mathematical physics." Though
t phrase be modern, the ancients recog"
nlzed" the speclal character of the sciences which
apply mathematics to nature and which consult
to choose among hypotheses ,. arising
from dtfferentmathematical formulations.
Outlining a curriculum for'liberal education
Plato, in the Republic, groups music and
omy along with arithmetic and geometry as
mathematical arts In that context
treats them., as pure mathematics. Astronomy
IS namore concerned wi ththe visible heavens
than. music is \vith audil:He. tones. Music', is
rather the arithmetic ofharmonies, astronomy
the geometry of motions. But in the 'Pimaeus
Plato turns mathematical formulae and calcula..
tions to use ,in telling what he calls ;"a likely
story" concerning the formation and structure:
of the sensible world of becoming. Here rather
in the Republic we hav:e, according to
Whltehead, the initial conception of mathe-
matical physics as well as deep insight into its
nature and pattern.
Aristotle' criticizes the notion of astronomy
asa purely mathematical science. Just as. "the-
things ,of which optics and .rnathelllaticalhar..
monies treat" cannot be divorced from the
sensible, so the objects of astronomy are also
visible heavens. "Astronomicalexperience,"
Anstotle writes, "supplies the principles of
astronomical science." Yet,
matter is physical and its rnerhodisin
pirical; 'astronomy like opticsapd harmonics
takes thefonn ofmathemarrcal'demonstration
and it is for this reason that
such disciplines "mixed and intermediate
sciences."
94
leave totheastronomerabsolute license to
no matter whathypothe&es.''. Hecomplains;tjhat
astronomers ."too often; . ;' .. ',. constrain their
thoughtfromexceeding,thelimitsofgeometry."
It is necessary togo beyond geometry into
physics to test the consequences of compeiting
hypotheses which aFe equally good wathemat..
ically. "You must seek. the foundations of your
astronomy," ,he tells .. his. fellow' scientists,
a more elevated science, .I, mean ." in' physioso17
metaphysics. "
Because Kepler: .. thus conceives the; task,and
truthof astronomy, Duhem in hisgreat history
ofastronomy calls him a"realistic Copernican.. "
Galileo' also, Duhenl thinks, was' a realistic
Copernican.. "To confirm ,by,phlfsicsthe
pernican hypotheses," he writes, "is the center
towards which converge: Galileo's obsetvations
as an astronomer and his. terrestrial mechanics."
Newton was the third m.ember of this trium-
virate. For him there remained the. solution of
the problem of deducing Kepler's formulation
of the planetary orbits in a manner;consistent
with Galileo' s laws ,of motion' in the dynamics
of bodies falling on the earth's surface. But the
very posing of this problem itself depended on
the insight that terrestrial and celestial,me-
chanies can proceed according tothe sameprin-
laws. That insight entailed the c,om"
plete overthrow of the ancient physics, with its
division of the universe into two distinct parts,
having different. kinds of matter and different
laws of motion.
COPERNIcus,;cWHo, Jespite Osiander's, apolo...
getics,believ:edhis theory to be true, did not
face the great ,. paint at issue. in. the
Copernican material uniform..
ity of the physical universe. We shall subse-
quentlyconsider thequestiQn of.the truth of
astronomical hypotheses, but whether .ornot
Copernicus and the Copernicans. had in their
own day a right to believe, their theory .. true,
it was the acceptance of the Copernican hy-
pothesis as true which led Kepletf and Galileo
to deny the truth of Aristotelian physics.
.If the earth is not at the center and station..
ary, then the basic doctrine of a .natural. direc-
tion in motion and a natural.place of rest ,for
the various clements is completely upset. If the
earth is one' of the planets, .' then anything true
on the earth-or of the earth,such Gilbert'
theory of the magnetic fields generated by t
earth's axial rotation-could be equally true
all-the other planets.
"Read the philosophy of magnetism of t
Englishman William. Gilbert," writes
"for in that book, although the author did not
believe that the Earth moved ... nevertheless
he attributes a magnetic nature to it .. by
many arguments. Therefore"it is by no mea
absurd or incredible that anyone of thepri
mary planets should. be, what one of thepri
mary planets, namely, the Earth, is." Such
statement plainly shows that when the. eart
becomes a planet, as it does in Copernica
theory, no obstacle remains to the assertion
a homogeneity between the earth and theoth
planets both in matter and '. motion. The. ol
physical dualism of a supralunar and a sublun
world is abandoned.
"Not the movement of the earth," Whit
head remarks, ' 'but the glory.of the heave
was the point at issue," for to assert the heave
to be of the same stuff and subject to the sa
laws as the rest of nature brings them down
the plane of earthly physics. That is precise
what Newton finally does when, in theenu
ciation of his Third Rule of reasoning in natur
philosophy, he .dryly but explicitlycomplet
the Copernican .RevolutiQn. Those "quaJiti
of bodies .. which are found tp belong to
bodies within the reach of our experiments,
are," Newton maintains, "to beesteemedt
universal qualities of all podies whatsoever.'.'
In the bifurcated .world of ancient tl1eor
astronomy. had a very special place among .. t
natural sciences, proportionate to the
of the heavens." But with Newton it could
completely merged. into a general mechan'
whose laws of motion have universal appli
tion. That merger, begun by Ne,vton, has be
perfected since his day., The last obstacle toJ
generalization lay in the apparent discrepanc'
between electrical phenomena on the
scale and gravitational phenomena.onthe astr
nomic scale. But inour own time the unifiedfie
equations. of Einstein's.theory of relativity e
brace the very large and the very small motio
of matter within a single conceptual sche
with-radical consequences. for the revision
the Newtonian or classical mechanlcs.
CHAPTER,5:ASTRONOMY 95
But the unification of nature which Kepler Darwin argues, if it has the power to explain
JJeg
an
and Newton completed, when set against several large classes of faets, which "it can
Aristotle's physics, may be ,even more radicaL hardly be supposed that a false theory would
Newton's theory, because of the amazing way explain" in so satisfactory a manner. Darwin
in which it covered the \videst variety of phe.. defends the theory of natural selection as having
nomena by the simplest, most universal for.. such power. To those who object that "this is
mula, is considered by Kant to have "estah.. unsafe method of arguing," he replies-
lished the truth of that which Copernicus at Clting an exanlple from astronomy-that "it
first assumed only as an hypothesis."But the has often been used by the greatest natural
larger' contribution, in Whitehead's opinion, is philosophers."
"the idea of the neutrality of situation and the
universality. of physical laws .... holding.indif..
fereritly in every part."
Whatever position we take today concerning
the kind of truth \vhich is possessed by hypoth..
eses in lnaihematical physics, we now demand,
in the spirit of the three Copernicans-Kepler,
Galileo, and, above all, Newton-that physical
'hypotheses account at once for ai/the phenom..
ena of the inanimate. universe. ,Whatever. the
truth of modern as opposed to ancient physics,
the Newtonian universe is so thoroughlyestab"
fished in our minds and feelings that,whenwe
are. reminded of the other universe. in'which
men lived before the Copernican revolution,
we tend to think it quaint,.incredible,prepos"
terous,superstitious; none of which it was,;
Finally, from the point of view. ofour under..
standing of natural science itself, the astro..
nomical controversy we have been
is almost an archetypical modeL It is necessary,
ofcourse, to 'appreciate the real achievement of
Btolemy,as well as of Copernicus and Kepler in
order to realize ho:w genuine and, difficult the
issues were. Facts unknown to all of them may
now have closed the dispute decisively, but
issues in other spheres ofmodern science, almost
identical in pattern with that great
icalone, are not yet closed; and to the degree
rnat 'we are able to re-enact in our minds the
of thought on both sides of the Coper..
nICan controversy,\ve can confront compaFable
scientific issues-still open minds.
Darwin, for example,finds,in the
cal' controversy a precedent to which he can
the defense of naturalselection against
Its adversaries. "The belief in the revolution of
th.eearth on its own axis,' 'he writes" "was until
lately not supported by any direct evidence."
But the absence of direct evidence does not
leave a scientific theory "vithout foundation,
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
4. The relation of astronomy to the other liberal arts and sciences: the place of astronomy
in the educational curriculum
5 Astronomy and cosmology: the theory of the \vorld or universe as reflecting astronomi...
cal conceptions
97
99
PAGE
esis was devised. The \vord "consilience" has
been used to nalne the property of an hypoth-
esis \vhich, in addition to saving a limited field
of appearances, succeeds in fitting many other
phenomena \vhich seem to have becoille related
-tohavejumpedtogether under its covering ex-
planation. The heliocentric hypothesis, as de-
veloped by Newton's la"rs of motion and theory
of gravitation, certainly has this property of
consilience to a high degree, for it covers both
celestial and terrestrial phenomena, and a wide
variety of the latter.
Is the hetiocentric hypothesis true then? If
the truth ofan hypothesis depends on the range
of the phenomena it fits or saves, it might seem
to be so, for by its consilience it accounts for
phenomena that the Ptolemaic theory. cannot
handle. But though this may cause us to reject
the unsuccessful hypothesis, does it establish
beyond doubt the truth of the successful one?
Or, to put the question another ,vay, is not our
judgnlent here a comparative one rather than
absolute? Are we saying more than that one
hypothesis is more successful than another in
doing what an hypothesis should do ? Are \ve
logically enti tled to regard that success as the
sign of its exclusive truth, or must we restrict
ourselves to the more modest statement that,
as the better hypothesis, it simply tells a more
likely story about reality?
CHAPTER 5: ASTRONOMY
1. The end, dignity, and utility of astronomy
2. The method of astronomy
2a. Observation and measurement: instruments and tables
2b. The use of hypotheses: the heliocentric and geocentric theories 100
2C. The relation of astronomy to mathematics: the use of mathematics by astronomy
3. Causes in astronomy 101
3a. Formal archetypal causes: the number and the music of the spheres
3b. Physical efficient causes: gravitation and action-at-a-distance
The logic of such verification has already
been suggested in the discussion of the geo-
centric and heliocentric hypotheses. It is fur-
ther considered in the chapter on HYPOTHESIS.
fa be satisfactory, an hypothesis must-in the
language used ever since Simplicius-"save the
appearances, " thatis, account for the relevant
phenomena. But two hypotheses (as for exam-
ple the geocentric and heliocentric) may, at a
certain time, do an equally good job of saving
the appearances. Then the choice between them
bec01nes a matter of the greater mathematical
elegance of one than the other.
That, however, does not give the mathe-
matically superior theory a greater clailn to
truth. So far as reality is concerned, it is only,
in Plato's words, "a likely story"; or as Aquinas
paints out with reference to the geocentric
hypothesis, "the theory of eccentrics and epi-
cycles is considered as established because there-
by the sensible appearances of the heavenly
movements can be explained; not ho,vever, as
if this reason were sufficient, since sonle other
theory might explain them."
Two hypotheses may be equally satisfactory
for the range of phenomena they were both de-
vised to fit. But only one of them may have the
quite amazing virtue of fitting other sets of
observations not originally thought to be re-
lated to the phenomena for \vhich the hypoth-
in the Nlilky Wayan infinity of small stars \vho
s
more abundant splendor has nlade us recogniz
the real cause of this \vhiteness."
BECAUSE IT IS a mixed science, both empirical
and mathematical, astronomy advances no
only with the improvement and enlargemen
of observation, but also with ne\v insights Or
developments in mathematics. Kant gives Us
striking examples of ho\v the work of the pure
mathematicians contributes to the advance of
physics and astronomy. Their discoveries are
often made wi thout any knowledge of theirap-
plication to natural phenomena. "They inves-
tigated the properties of the parabola," He
writes, "in ignorance of the law of terrestrial
gravitation which \vould have shown them its
application to the trajectory of heavy bodies.
... Soagain they investigated the properties 0
the ellipse \vithout a suspicion that a gravitatio
was also discoverable in the celestial bodies, an
without knowing the lawthat governs it as tHe
distance from the point ofattraction varies, and
that makes the bodies describe this curve in free
motion."
So amazing are such mathematical anticipa-
tionsthat Kant thinks Plato may be pardoned
for supposing that pure mathematics "coul
dispense with all experience" in discovering t
constitution of things. Whether or not Plato
goes to this extreme, he does, in the Republic,
seem to suggest the reverse of Kant's concep-
tion of the relationship between mathematics
and astronomy. "The spangled should
be used as a pattern," he writes, "and with a
view to that higher knowledge"-mathemat-
ics. Astronomy should be used to instigate dis..
coveries inpuremathematics by suggesting good
problems and by requiring fornlulations whicn
transcend an interest in the truth about tHe
heavens.
This t\vofold relation bet\veen mathematical
discovery and empirical observation is pres-
ent in the development of astronomy itself, ana
of all branches of mathematical physics. But
there is another aspect of the reIationship whicn
must be taken into account if we are to conside
the problem of truth in such sciences. The wa
in \vhich mathematical formulations fit tH
phenomena measures the truth of rival hypotH
eses wi th respect to the same reali ty.
THE GREAT IDEl\S 96
The development of astronomy from Plato
and Aristotle through Ptolemy, Copernicus,
and Kepler to Galileo and Ne\vton thus con-
stitutes an extraordinary set of "case histories"
for the study of \vhat J. B. Conant calls the
"tactics and strategy" of science, and especially
mathematical physics. But astronomy has one
peculiar feature which distinguishes it from
other branches of mathematical physics. It is
empirical rather than experimental. The astron-
omer does not control the phenomena he ob-
serves. He does not, like the physicist, chemist,
or physiologist, produce an isolated system of
events by means of the laboratory arts.
I-Iarvey comments on this aspect of astron-
omy \vhen he proposes an experiment that\vill
enable the physiologist to do what theastron-
omer cannot do, namely, deliberately prepare
phenolnena for examination by the senses. The
astronomer must be content with .the
ances as they are given. Defending psycho-
analysis against attack "on the ground that it
admits of no experimental proof," Freud points
out that his critics "might have raised the same
objection against astronomy; experimentation
wi th the heavenly bodies is, after all, exceedingly
difficult. There one has to rely on observation:"
Since the invention of the telescope, the
astronomer has had instruments of all sorts to
increase the range and accuracy of his observa-
tions; but the fact that the place where he uses
such apparatus is called an observatory rather
than a laboratory indicates that these instru-
ments do not make astronomy an experimental
science. Nevertheless, as Bacon points out, the
telescope enabled Galileo to do more than im-
prove upon the accuracy of prior observations.
It brought within the range of observation
certain celestial phenomena, hitherto imper-
ceptible to the naked eye, such as the phases of
Venus, the satellites of Jupiter, and the con-
stitution of the 11ilky Way.
Concerning the last of these, Pascal later re-
marks that the ancients can be excused for the
idea they had of the cailse of its color. "The
\veakness of their eyes not yet having been
artificially helped, they attributed this color to
the great solidity ofthis part of the sky"; but it
would be inexcusable for us, he adds, "to retain
the same thought now that, aided by the ad-
vantages of the telescope, we have discovered
13. The history of astronomy
12. The ,vorship of the earth, sun, moon, and stars
99
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theolagica, PART I, iQ 32,
AI, REP 2 115d-118a
21 l)ANTE: Divine Com:edYi PARADISE, 1I [46-148]
1<\8b-l09b; x
25 MONTAIGN,E: Essays, 69d-l0c;
251d-259d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, I, 76c
32, MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VIII
236b
33 PASCAL:
34 NEWTON:
36 SWIFT: Gulliv'f!;r, PART 94b-l03apassi
11l
.
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy,,229a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299b-c
42 KANT: :Rure'Reason, 17Sb [fnIl/Practical
Reason, 360d-361c
46 HEGEL: Philosophyof/{.ight, ADDITIONS, 120,
136c
48 MELVILLE: }YIQbyDick, 36Sb-361a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 562c /. Civiliza-
tionand Its Discontents, .. 119c / New Intro-
ductory Lectur,es, 832a; 816b-d
2. The method of astronomy
2a. OBservation and measurement: instru-
ments and taBles
7 PLATO: Republic, B,K VII, 394d-396b/ Thnaeus,
455a-b
CHAPTERS: -ASTRONOMY
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are thevolume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the
number 4 is the .number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTH)NS : When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to' the
upper and lower halves ofthepage.For example, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed int\vo columns, the letters a and b refer to the upperandlo\ver halves of the left-
handside ofthe page, the letters c andd to the upper and lower halvesoftheright-handside of
thepage. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lowerhalf
of the left-hand side of page163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more ofthe of a work (such as PART, BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the line numbers, in brackets, are given in cer.;
tain cases; e.go:, Iliad, BK:II J?-65-283] 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicatedbya (D), follows; e.g:, OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45-(D) I[Esdras; 7:16.
SYMBOLS:' The abbreviation "esp"calls the reader's attention to or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
Foradclitional information concerning tthe style of the references, see the:'Explanationof
Reference Style; for general guidance iri ,the use of The Great Ideas,tonsultthePreface.
1. The end, dignity, and utility of astronomy
OLD TESTAMENT: fob, 38:4--'38
7 PLATO: Symposium, 156d I Gorgias,254c /
Republic, BK VII, 394d-396b / Timaetfs, 44;7a-
452b; 455b-c / Laws, BK VII, 7281?-c;'129d-
130d; BK XII, 191c-198b .. - . ,
8 ARISTOTLE,: Metaphysics,BK I,QH:2 ,t982'bII-
I71500d;BK XI, CH6 [I063aIO-i7]S91b; BK
XII, CH 8 [I073bI-7] 603d,'. :,'
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Anilnals,' 'BKI, GH 5
168c-d
10 HIPPOCRATES : Airs, Places, par 2
9b-c ,.,!
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK. I,812.b-813a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v.[509-77I]
67d-l1a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations,BK SP;CT 2/;30pb
13 VIRGIl,: Aeneid, BK VI [847-853]
14 PLUTARCH: Nicias, 435b-d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, Sa..6b; BK III, 83a;
BK IV, 135b; BK IX, 210b-213a; BKXIII,429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: . Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, 50Sa-506a; 509a,.b; BK I, 510a-511a
16 !(EPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 846a-851a;852a-
853a; 888b-890a; 929a-b; BK v, 961a-965a /
Harmonies ofthe World, 1080a-b .,
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, 3-6 21c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine, BKII, CH 29650d-651c
1
9
TI-IE GREAT IDEi\.S
6. Astronomy and theology: astronomy affecting views of God, creation, .the divine
- plan, and the moral hierarchy
7. Astronomy and the measurement oftime: calendars and clocks; days and seasons
8. The heavenly bodies in general
8a. The special character of matter in the supra-lunar spheres
8b. Soul and intellect in the heavenly bodies
8c. Celestial motion: periodicity and the great year
(I ) The eternity of celestial motion . ,
(2) The form of celestial motion: circles, the equant, ellipses
(3) The laws of celestial motion: celestial mechanics
8d. The creation of the heavens
I I. The influence of the stars and, planets upon the character and actions of men
9. The particular heavenly bodies
9
a
. The sun: its position, distance, size, and mass.
9b. The moon: its irregularities
gc. The planets: their eccentricities, retrogradations, and stations
9
d
. The earth: its origin, position, shape, and motions
ge.Thefixed stars: the precession ofthe equinoxes
91 The comets and meteors
10. The influence of the heavenly bodies upon terrestrial phenomena
loa. The influence of the heavenly bodies on living matter: generation and corrul?.:.
tion
lob. The influence of the heavenly bodies on the tides
98
THE GREAT IDE1\5
4. The relation ofastronomy to the other liberal
arts and sciences: the place of astronomy
in the educational curriculum
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 254b-c / Republic, BK VII,
391b-398c esp 394d-396b / Laws, BK VII,
728b-730d; BK XII, 797b-798b
8 A.RISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 2 [I93b25-
I94
aI
I] 270a-c / Metaphysics, BK XI, CH 6
[I063
BIO
- I 7] 591b; BK XII, CH 8 [I 073bl-7]
603d
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK I, 812b-813d
VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [847-853] 233b-234a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 5a-6a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK I, 510a- b
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 29,
651b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 9,
A 2, REP 3 424b-425a
23 HOBBES: Let/iathan, PART I, 72a-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I,
29c; BK n,82c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69d-70c; 257d-259d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 80 120a-b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, I, 76c
5. Astronomy and cosmology: the theory of the
world or universe as reflecting astro-
nomical conceptions
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447a-452b; 455a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK IV, CH 5 [2I2b7-2I ]
291d-292a / Heavens 359a-405a,c / Meteor-
ology, BK I, CH 1-3 445a-447d / Metaphysics,
BK XII, CH 8 603b-605a
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand-Reckoner, 520a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK I [951-1 I 13]
12d-14d; BK II [148-114] 28b-29a; BK VI
[647-652] 89a
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 55a-b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, lOb
16 COPERNICUS: Ret/olutions of the. Heavenly
Spheres, BK I, 511b; 516a-529a esp 516a-517b
16 KEPLER: Epito111e, BK IV, 853b-857b;882a-
88Gb
to 5 CHAPTER 5: i\.STRONOl\1Y 101
30 BACON: ..4dvancement of Learning, 37b; 46b-c 32 1'hLTON: Paradise Lost, BK III [573-5
8
7] 148a;
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, I, 76c BK VIII [122-158] 234b-235b
34 NEWTON: Principles, la-2a; BKIII 269a-372a 34 NE\VTON: Principles, BK III, PROPI-9 276a-
36 S'VIFT: Gullit'er, PART III, 94b-l03a. passiln 284a esp PROP 7 281b-282b; PROP 35, SCHOL
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 36lc / Judgement, 320b-324a; GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a /
551a-552a Optics, BK III, 531h; 540a-541b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 102-108
432d-434a passim
35 HUME: HUlnan Understanding, SECT I, DIV 9,
454c-d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 94b-l03a; l18b-
119a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d [fn 2]
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 670a-673d;
817a-b; 824a-b; 832b [fn I]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 694c-
695c
3- Causes in astronomy
34. Formal archetypal causes: the number and
the music of the spheres
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241b-242b / Republic, BK VII,
395d-396b; BK X, 438c-439a / Timaeus, 447a-
452b
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK I, CH 2-5 359d-364a;
BK II,CH 1-12 375b,d-384c / .lvfetaphysics, BK
I, CH 5 [985b22-986a21] 503d-504b; CH 8
[989b29-99oaI2] 508a-b; BK XII, CH 8 603b-
605a
IINICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK I, 811a-814b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest" BK I, 8a; BK IX, 270b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the I-Ieavenly
Spheres, BK I, 51lh
16 KEPLER: Epiton'le, BK IV, 846a-847b; 857b-
860b; 863b-887a passim; 913a-b;
925b-928a; 932a-933a / Harmonies of the
World, 1016b-l018a; 1023b-l085b esp 1049b-
1050b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK V, par 3-6 27c-28c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, I [76- 126]
107a-c; XXVIII [1-78] 148d-149c
30 BACON: Novum Organurn, BK II, ApH 48,
185c-d
31 SpINOZA: Ethics, PART I, APPENDIX, 371d-372a
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity [117-14] 4b-Sa / At
a Solemn Musick 13a-b / Arcades [54-83] 26b-
27a / Comus [238'-243] 38b / Paradise Lost,
BK IV [660-688] 166b-167b; BK V [153-184]
l78b-179a; [616-627] 188b-189a; BK VIII [15-
168] 232b-235b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK III, GENERAL SCHOL,
369b-370a
35 HUME: Hunzan Understanding, SECT I, DIV 9,
454c-d
36S\\TIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 96b-97a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE (243-246] 7a
3b. Physical efficient causes: gravitation and
action-at-a-distance
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK II, CH 8 381a-382a;
CH 12 [292b26-293aI2] 384b-c / Meteorology,
13K I, CH 4-8 447d-452d / Metaphysics, BK XII,
CH 8 603b-605a esp [I073bI7-I074aI7]604a-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [509-533]
67d-68a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 895b-905a; 922a-b;
935a-952a passitn; 959a-960a; BK V, 965a-967a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK VI l06a-121a,c
30 BACON: flot'uln Organum, BK II, APH 35-37
162a-169c; ApH 45 176a-177c; APH 48, 183b-c
31 DESCARTES: Rules, IX, 15c / Discourse, PART V,
55b-c
2b to 2c
67d-68a; [720-730] 70c
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 55a-b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 7a-8b; 9a-12b; BI(
III, 83a; 86b-93a; BK IV, 120a-122b; BK IX,
270b-273a; 291a-296a; BK XIII, 429a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heat/enly
Spheres, 505a-506a; S07a-508b; BK I, 513b-
515b; 517b-521a; BK III, 628b-629a; 653b-
656b; BK IV, 675b-678a; BK V, 740a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitonte, BK IV, 852a-853a; 857b-
860b; 887a-890a; 907b-916a; BK V, 964b;
966a-967a / HarJnonies of the World, 1014b-
1016a
19 AQUINAS: Sum.rna Theologica, PART I, Q 32,
A I, REP 2 l75d-178a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 257d-261c; 276c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK VI, 107c-116a
30 BACON: Novurn Organum,BK II, APH 5, 139a;
APH 36, 165c-166b; ApH 46, l78b-c; ApH 48,
l86b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK III [552-587] 147b-
148a; BK IV [589-597] l65a-b; BK VIII [66-178]
233b-236a esp [122-158] 234b-235b
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, l65a / Vacuum,
368b-369a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK III, PHENOMENON III
273d-274a; GENERAL SCHOL, 37lb-372a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 226b-227a
42 KANT: PU1'e Reason, 8d [fn 2]
43 MILL: Liberty, 284a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 239c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 563a-b;
EPILOGUE II, 694d-696d
2e. The relation of astronomy to mathematics:
the use of mathematics by astronomy
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VII, 394d-396b I
Timaeus, 451b-c; 455b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH 13
[78b3r-.:-79RI6] 108b-c / Physics, BK II, CH 2
[I93b25':"I94BII] 270a-c / Heavens, BK 1I, CH 14
[297
B
3-9] 388c /Metaphysics, BK III, CH 2
[997bI3-998aI9] 516b-d; BK XII, Cl-I 8 [I073bI-
17] 603d-604a; BK XIII, CH 3 [1078B9-14] 609c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Anintals, BK I, CH I
[639b6-I2] l61c-d
11 N ICOMACHUS : Arithmetic, BK I, 813d-814a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 5a-6a; l4a-24b;
26a-28b
Spheres, 507a-508a; BK I, 510a-b; 532b-
556b
16 KEPLER: Epitonte, BK v, 964b-965a; 968a-
986b passim
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v,par 3-6 27c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine, BK II, ClI 29, 65lb-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa 7'heologica, PART I, Q32,
A I, REP 2 l75d-l78a; PART I-II, Q 35, A 8,
ANS 779c-780c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q9,
A 2, REP 3 424b-425a
100
(2. The "Iethod of astronomy. 2a. Observation and
1neaSltrement: instruments and tables.)
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK I, CH 30
[46aI8-27] 64a / Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH 13
[78b3I-797] 108b-c / Heavens, BK I, CH 3
[27obI-24] 361c-362a; BK II, CH 4 [287a3I-bI4]
379a; cH II 383b; CH 12 [292a2-9] 383c /
Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 8 [I073bI7-I074aI7]
604a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK I, CH I
[639b7-I2] 161c-d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 24b-26a; BK I-III,
29a-86b; BK III-IV, 93a-119b; BK IV-:-VIII,
123a-269a; BK IX, 273a-290b; BK IX-XIII,
296a-465b
Spheres, BK II-III, BK III, 631b-
652b; 657b-674b; BK IV--V, 680a-739b;' BK v,
744b-812a; BK VI, 818a-838a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 907b-908b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK V, par 3-6 27c-28c
/ Christian Doctrine,BK II,CH 29, 651b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 32,
A I, REP 2 175d-178a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy,PARADISE, II [46--15]
108b-d
22 CHAUCER: Franklin's Tale [11,58.2-65] 360b
23 l-IoBBEs:Leviathan, PART IV, 267a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 29c
28 I-IARVEY: Circulation ofthe Blood, 320b
30 BACON: Novurn Organum, BK I, APH 109,
129b; BK II, APH 39, l70b-c; APH 45, 176a;
APH 46, l78a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK I [284-2911 99b;
BK III [588-59] l48a; BK V[26I-'2631181a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK III, PHENOMENA 272a-
275a; PROP 41-42 342a-368b / Optics, BK I,
412a-423b
35 BERKELEY: Human Knowledge, SECT 58--59
424a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 102a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 36Sb-367a
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 815a
2b. The use of hypotheses: the heliocentric and
geocentric theories
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241c-242b; 247c / Republic,
BK VI, 386d-387d; BK VII, 395c-396b; BK X,
438c-439a / Timaeus, 447b-d; 452a-b / Laws,
BK XII, 797d-798a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK I, eH 3 [27ohI- 2 4]
361c-362a; BK II, CH I 375b,d-376a; CH 8
381a-382a; CH II [29IbIO]-CH 13 [293
b
33]
383b-385b; CH 14 [296324-297a9] 387d388c I
Meteorology, BK I, ClI 7 [344
a
5-9] 450b. /
Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 8 [1073bI7-I074ai7]
604a-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion of Anitnals, CH 3234a-c
THE GREAT IDEf\S
CHAPltBIt,5:' ASrFRONOMY
102
(;. Astronomy and cosmology: the theory of the
worldor universe as reflecting astrono1nical
conceptions.) ,
17 PLOTINUS : Second Ennead, TR 135a-39d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, x [7-21]

25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213d... 215a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART Y, 54d-56a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [89-920] 130b-
131a; [IOIO-I05S] III
144b; [501-539] 146b-147a; [552-587] 147b-
148a; BK VII [261-273] 222b... 223a; [551-557]
229a; [617-625] 230b; BKVIII [66-178] 233b-
236a; BK x [282-329] 280b-281b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72181a-184b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK III, HYPOTHESIS 1-
PROP 12 285a-286a
35' LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK IV, CH III,
SECT 24 320c..:d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 360d-361a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II,
695c-d
54 FREUD: GeneralIntroduction, 562c
6. Astl"Onomy and theology: .. astronomy as
affecting views of God, creation, the
divine plan, and the moral hierarchy
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis,I :1-191 joshua, 10:12-
I3-(D) josue, 10:12-13 1job, 9:6-9; 38 :1""'38
1 Psaz'ns; 147:4---.,(D) Psalms, 18:1--7;
146:4 / Jeremiah, 33:22; SI:IS--(D) jeremias,
33:22 ; 51 : 15
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43-(D) Ecclesi-
asticus, 43 1 Song of Three Children, 34-51-
(D) OT, Daniel, 3 :56-73
NEW TESTAMENT: I Corinthians, 15:40-41
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VII, 396a 1 Timaeus,
455b-'c / Statesman, 586c-58ge 1 Laws, BK VII,
729d-730d; BK XII, 797d-798b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 4 [I 96a25-b4]
272d-273a; BK VIII 334a-355d esp CH 4-6
338d-346b, CH 10 353b-355d 1 Heavens, BK
II, CH I 375b,d-376a / Metaphysics, BK XII,
CH 6-8 601h-60Sa
11 N Arithmetic, BK I, 811a-814b
61d-71a esp [55-234] 61d-64a; [1161-1217]
76b-77a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK XI, SECT 27306b
14 PLUTARCH: Nicias, 435b-e
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK ,V, 295c
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 5a-6b passim
Spheres, BK I, 510a-511a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 853b-854a;915b-
916a; 933a 1 Harmonies of the World, 1017b-
1018a; 1025a-b; 1048a; 1061a; 1071b; 1080b-
1085h
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR II, CH I 40a-
41a; TR IX, CH 8-9 70a-72a / Fourth Ennead,
TR III, CH 17 150d-151b
18 Confessions, BK v, par 3-627
28e; BK xIII,par 6-48 112a-124a 1 Christi
Doctrine, BK II, CH 16, 644d-645a; eH'
650d-651e
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q2
A 7, ANS and REP 2 138d-140a; Q 50, A .3, A
and REP 3 272a-273b; Q 58, A I 300c-301
Q63, A I, REP 2 325e-326c; A7, ANS 331e..:332
QQ 66-68 Q 70 362c-367a; Q 10
A 2, REP I 525a-'526a; Q 110, AI, REP 2
564c-565d; Q 115, AA .3-6 588e-592d-
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III, Q
A 2 736d-737c; PART III SUPPL, Q 77,'AA 1-
943a-947a; Q 91, AA 2-3 1017c-1022c
21 DANTE: Divine Cornedy, HELL, vn [67-9
lOb-e; XXXIV [100-139] 52b-d; PARADISE,
[94-142] 107b-d; II [46-148] 108b-109b; I
[22-6.3] 110d-111h; VIII [16-39] 116d-117a
[91-148] 117d-118e; X [1-45] 120b-d; XIII [52
84] 126a-b; XXII [124-154] 140d-141b; XXVII
[97-120] 148b-e; XXVIII 148d-150b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 213d-215a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I,
SC III 109a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 89 124a-
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54d-56a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK III [694-732] 1500-
151h; BK V [153-184] 178b-179a; BK VIII
[66-178] 233b-236a esp [66-84] 233b-234a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72 181a-184b; 194, 2070
242 217b-218a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK III, GENERAL SCHOU
369b-371a 1 Optics, BK III, 542a-543a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 226a-b; 227b-c:
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 360d-361a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [243-266] 7a-b
49 DARWIN: Origin of Species, 239c-d
51 TOLSTOY: TVar and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 695d-
696d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 562e 1 New In-
troductory Lectures, 832a; 876b-d
7. Astronomy and the measurement of time:
calendars and clocks; days and seasons
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:4-5,14-18 1 Isaiah,
38 :7-8; 60:I9-21 -(D) Isaias, 38 :7-8; 60:19-
21 1Jeremiah, 33 :2o,25-(D) Jeremias, 33 :20,
25
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43:6-8-(D) aT,
Ecclesiasticus, 4.3 :6-8
NEW TESTAMENT: Revelation, 21:23-24; 22:5-
(D) Apocalypse, 21:23-24; 22:5
5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [454-461]
44e-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [67-626] 496a-b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 49d-50a; 7ge
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK V, 487d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VII, 394d-396b1Timaeus,
451a-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK IV, CH 14 [223
bI2
-
224ar] 303e-d 1 Metaphysics, BK X, CR, I
[I052b34-1053aI2] 579b-c
8b
-9 ARISTOTLE .. Generation of Animals"B-K'
10 [777bI6-778a9] 319d-320a,c '
12 LUCRETiUS: Nature afThings, BK V {614...;.i50]
69a-70d
,t4PLUTARC:a: Numa Pompilius, 'Solon,
74a 1 Caesar, 599d-600a
16'PTOLEMY:Almagest,' BK n,34b-38a;' BK III,
77a-86b; 104b-l07a
iaCOPERNIC'US :' .:: ',Revolutions of, the, Heavenly
Spheres, BK I, II,
646a"652b;672a-674b-' -'-- " '
1'1 PLOTINUS:: ThirdEnnead,TR VII, OH
124c; CH 11-,'-13 :l:26a-129a,
18 AUGUSTINE:' Confessions, BK-'XI, 'par 29-30
95d...96e I City of God,B'KXl,CH'6325e-d;
BK XII,CH IS
19 AQUINAS:. Summa Theologica,:pARTt,cQ 10,
A 6,ANs45C"'46d; Q 67, A 4, ANS and REP 2-3
352a-354a; Q 70, A 2,ANS andREP3,5364b-
365a '
'20 PART nISUPPL,
Q77, A2, ANS 945a:"946b; Q91, A2, REP 1-3,
5,8 1017e-1020e
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy,HELL, 1- [37-45] ID-c;
PURGATORY, 1 [13-21] 53a-b; II [I-9fS4e; IV
[55-841 58a-b; IX [r"':12]>65d-66a;xv' [1-,15]
,'75b-e; xxv [1-:-9] 91b-c;XxVIt 94e;:PARA-
DISE, I [38-48] 106e; X [28-33] 120c;XXVII
[97-120] .148b-,e
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART IV, 267b
24RABELAIS: Gargantua' and Pantagruel, BK II,
69b;d-70a ';
25 MONTAIGNE:Essays, 491b... c
30,BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 46,
177e-178b
32 MILTON:. Paradise 8K:' HI [40"':44] 136b;
[555-023] -l47b-149a;[726-732] ISla; BK V
[166-179] 17'9a; BK vln
BK X [651-679] 288b-289a
34 NEWTON: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SGHOL,9b-
lOa; BK III, PROP 20 291b-294b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK Il,CHXIV,
SECT 158a-162a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART IV, 169a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 229a
41 GIBBON: Decline andFall,3,16a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy 0f'History, PART 1, 219a-b;
251a-b '
8. The heavenly bodies in general
8a. The .special character of matter in the
supra-lunar spheres
NEW TESTAMENT:l Corinthians, 15:4.....41
7 PLATO: Phaedo, 247b-248e I Timaeus, 448a-
44ge; 451d-4S2a, 1 Laws, ,BK XII, 797d-798a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [27oaI2-b26]
361b-362a; BK I, CH 9 [279aI2]-BKrI1r CH 1
[284b6] 370b-376a; BK II, CH 7 380c-d 1 Meta-
physics, BK VIII, CH 4 [r044b2--8] 569a-b;BK IX,
CH 576b-d; BK XI,CH6:[1063aIO-
17] 591b; BK XII, CH 2 [r069b24-27l598d-599a
103
9 BK. I, ,CH. 5
,- -' .... "
12 Nature oj Things, '13KTf418-448]
6b-c;[10S2-T094]14a-e; BK rv[S34-563]
68a-b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest,BK..I,5a"6a;8b;10b":11b;
BK XIII, 4,29a-b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions ,of, the Heavenly
Spheres,BK I, 517b-518a;519b;..520a
16 KEPLER:: Epitome, BK IV,
890b';894a,.bf904
931b-93'2a;934b-935b
17PLOTINUS :,Second Ennead,TR I '35a-39d /
Third:Ennead, TRY, CH 6 103b,..104a
, Summa Theologica, PART I, Q:,IO,
A 5, ANS '44b-45c; A 6,'REP 245e-46d,; Q 46,
A I, REP 2-3,5 250a-252d;Q 55, Ai, ANS
289d-290d; Q S8"AI, ANs,300c-301a; !A, , 3,
ANS 301d-302d;. Q ;63, AI,. REP 2; 325c:'326e;
Q66, A2 345d-347b;Q68,A I,ANS 354a'-355e;
Q70 ,A3, ANS andREP2 75, A6,
ANS 383e-384e; Q 84,A'3, REP1443d-444d;
Q 97, A I, ANS, 513c...:514c.;:Q104, AI,'
S34e-536c;QIV5, A], ANS, S88e-S890;' QII9,
AI, ANS 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica,
A4, ANS Sa-6a; PART\III, QS,A 2, ANS and'REP
3 736d-737c; PARTIII.SUPPL,Q 91, A3, RThP 3
1020d-1022e
;, 21 'Divine Comedy, PtJRGATORY,
30] 56a; PARADISE, II [19-45] 108a;[I'12-148]
109a-b;xxvIIli[I-78l148d-14ge
25 MONTAIGN,E: Essays, 213d.. 215a; ,257cl':'258b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK VI,
30 BACON: Novum Organum;BK II, APH ]3', 146c-
147a
33 PASCAL: Vacuum,358a
34 NEWTON: Principles,:, BK III, RULE III 270b-
271a; PRoPP-"7276a-282b esp PROP, 7281b-
282b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fail, 226b
sh. Soul ,and, intellect in the
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124e-d 1Apology, 204d-205a
1 Timaeus, 449b-'450c; 451d-452b I Philebtts,
618b-61ge 1 x, 762b.. 7650 esp764a-
765e;BK
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK II, CH I-2375b:;d-
377e;cHI2'383b384c IMetaphysics, BK XII,
cR8 603b-605a l Soul"BK I, CH 3 [406b26-
407bI3] 636b-637b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [76"':9]
62a-b; [IIO-I45l62c.;63a
13 VIRGIL: J.4.eneid, BK VI [724-738] 230b,
16 KEPLER: Epitome,BK'lv, 854b-856R;: 890a-
895b; 896a-897a; 914a-b; 930h; 932ar933a;
959a-960a 1 Harmonies of the World,1080b-
1085besp 1083b-1085b
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, 1
Third Ennead, TRII, CH 3,84b; TR IV, CIt 6,
99d; TR V,CH 1 Fourth ,Ennead,
TR IV, CH 6-8161b-162d; CH 22-27168d-172a;
9a. The sun: its position, distance, size, and mass
OLD TESTAMENT: Joshua, IO:I2-,,14-(D) Josue,
10:12-14 / Psalms, 136:7-8-(D) Psalms,
135:7-8 / Isaiah, 13:9-11; 30:26; 60:19-20-
(D) Isaias, 13:9-11; 30:26; / Joel,
2:10,31; 3:15 / Amos,8:9
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 43:1-5--(1)) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43 :1-5
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 24:29.;..3 / Mark,
13:24-25 / Luke, 23:44-45
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 53d-54b; 79c;
BK IV, 130d-131a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK 11, 394c
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 98a / Apology, 204d-205a /
Republic, BK vI,385c-386e / Timaeus, 451b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK 11, CH 7 [289826-35]
380d; CH 12 [29Ib29-292b27] 383e:..384b; CH 13
[293b34-294aI2] 385e / Meteorology, BK I, CH 8
[34SbI-9] 451e-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature ofThings,BK V [564'-;574]
68b-c; [592-74] 68d-70b; [7SI-771] 70d-71a
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 138d
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK III 77a-107a; BK V,
171b-182b; BK VI, 215a-222b
Spheres, BK I, 520b-529a; BK III, 646a-674b;
BK IV, 710b-714a; 716a-731a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 854b-856a; 857b-
860b; 873a-876a; 882a-883b; 885b-886b;
895b-905a; 907b-916a passim /Harmonies of
the World, 1014b-l016a; 1080b-l085b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH I5,176d-
177a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q70, AI,
REP 5 362c-364b; Q 119, A I, ANS 604c-607b
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL,
Q 91, A I, REP I 1016b-lOI7e; A 2 1017e-1020e
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, IV [55-
84] 58a-b; PARADISE, I [38-63] 106c-d; x
[1-48] 120b-d
9. The particular heavenly bodies
c(3) to 9a CHA.PTER 5: ASTRONOMY 105
16 KEPLE-R: Epitome, BKIV, 888b-893b; 929a- CH 19--21 332b-333d; CH 23 334e-335<:.; BK
933a; BK v, 968a-979b esp 975a-977b; 984b- XII, en 15 351b-352tl
985h / Harmonies ofthe World, 1018a-b 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 46,
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead,: TR I, CH;8;3ge-d A I, REP 2-3,5 A3, ANS and REP I
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q66, 255a..d; Q 66, A I, ANS and REP to
A 2,ANS 345d-341b 343d-345c; A3 347J:)..348d; A 4, ANS and REP 5
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, 348d-349d; Q 67, A 4 352a-354a; Q68, A I
Q 77, A 2, ANS 945a-946b 354a-355c; Q 70,AA 1"':'2362e-365a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone,BK VI, 110b-d 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [73481] lOb;
28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FOURTH. DAY, PARADISE, VII. [121-148] 116b-c; X [I;....()] 120b;
245b.. d . XXIX [13-4S]150b-c
30 BACON: Novum Organum,BKu,APH 48, 28 GALILEo:TwoNew Sciences, THIRD DAY, 214d
186b-d 30 BACON: Advancement ofLearning, 17b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK V [616-6271188b-31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART V, 54b-56a
189a 32 j\1ILTON: Paradise Lost, BK III [708-735] 150b-
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72, 18la 151b; BK VII [192-386] 221b-225b; BK VIII
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK I, PROP II 42b-43b; [15-178] 232b-236a
PROP 17 48b-50a 34 N E\VTON: Optics, BK III, 542a-543a
8e(3) The laws of celestial motion: celestial
mechanics
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 888a-895b passim;
897a-907a passim, esp 897a, 904b,"905a; 933a-
952a passim; BK v, 975a-979b / Rarmonies of
.the World, 1018a-b; 1019b-1020b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK I, PROP 1-3 and SCHOL
32b-35b; PROP 4, COROL VI 36a; PROP 11-13
42b-46aesp PROP II 42b-43b; PROP IS 46b-
47a; PROP 17 48b-50a; BKII, PROP 51-53 and
SCHOL 259a-267a; BK III 269a-372a passim, esp
RULE I-;-III 270a-271a, PHENOMENON I-PROP 7
272a-282b, PROP 13 286a-b, PROP 3.S, SCHOL
320b-324a, PROP 40 337b-338a, GENERAL
SCHOL, 369a, 371b-372a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 9,
454c-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 8d [fn 2]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 563b;
EPILOGUE II, 694d-695c
ad. The creation of the heavens
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:1-8,14-19; 2:1-4 /
Nehemiah, 9:6-(D) II Esdras, 9:6/ Job, 26:7;
37:18 ; 38 / Psalms, 8:3-4; 19:1; 89:11; 102:25;
I36:S-9; I48:I - 6-(D) Psalms, 8:4'-S; 18:2;
88 :12; 101 :26; 135:S-9; 148 :1-6 / Proverbs, 3 :19;
8:27 / Jeremiah, 31:35; SI:IS-(D) Jeremias,
31:35; SI :IS / Amos, 5:8
NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 14:15; 17:24-(D) Acts,
14: 14; 17:24 / Hebrews, 1:10 / II Peter, 3:5 /
Revelation, 14:7-(D) Apocalypse, 14:7
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 450c-452b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VIII, CH I [2SlbI3-I9]
335b / Heavens, BK I, CH 10-12 370d-375d
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK I, CH I
[64IbI3'-291 164c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [416-58]
66e-67c;
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XI, par 4-1 I
90a-92b; BK XII, par 2-9 9ge-101c; par 14-40
102b-ll0a;BKxlIl,par 6-48112a-124a / City
a/God, BK XI,CH 7 326a-c;cH:9326d-327d;
Be to 8c(2
30 B4.CQN: Novum Organuln, u, APH 46,177d
APH 48, 185e-d
32 ,MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK III [726-732] ISla,
BK VII [339-386] 224b-225b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK II, .PROP S3, SCHOI.,
266a-267a
35 LOCKE: lIuman Understanding, BK II, CHXIV,
SECT 19-22 158b-159d passim
54 FREUD: Civilization. andIts Discontents, 71ge
Be(l) The eternity of celestial motion
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447b-e;450b-451a; 460e-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BKVIII, CH 1-2 334a-337b;
CH 8-9 348b-353b I Heavens, BK I, cn: 2
[269b2-IO) 360e-d;cH 3 [27obI7-26j 361d-
362a; CH 9 [2798I2-b4] 370b-d; BK II, CH I
375b,d-376a; CH 6 379c-380e I Metaphysics,
BK IX, CH 8 [IOSO
b
20-27] 576e-d; BK XII, CH 7
603a-b; CH 8 [173826-38] 603e
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BKV [S5-70 ]
61d-62a; [IIO-12S] 62c-d; [23S-246]
[351-379] 65c-66a; [129-1217] 76d-77a; BK
VI [601-607] 88b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 28 293d-
294a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK XIII, 429a-b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 846a-848b; 888b-
891a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR IX, CH 67b-
68b; CH 7-8 6ge-70d / Third Ennead, TR. VII,
CH 7-8 122d-124c; CH 11-13 126a-129a /
Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 7-8 161d-162d
A2, REP 2 41d-42c; A 4, ANS 43b-44b; A 5,
ANS 44b-45c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL,
Q77, A2, ANS 945a-946b;,Q 91, A 21017e-l020c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, I [73-81]
107a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35,
163a-b '
34 N E'VTON: Principles, BK III, PROP 10 284a-
285a / Optics, BK III, 540a-541b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 98a-b
Bc(2) The form of celestial motion: circles, the
equant, ellipses
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VII, 394d-396b; BK x,
438e-439a / Timaeus, 451a-452b / Laws, BK
VII, 730a-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VIII, CH 8-9 348b-353b
/ Heavens, BK I, CH 2-5 359d-364a; BK II, CH 4-
[287a2-31] 378e-379a; CH 5 379b-e; CH 8 381a-
382a; CH 12 [29384-14] 384e / Metaphysics, UK
XII, CH 6 [I07Ib32}-CH 7 [1072a22] 601d-602b;
CH 8 [1073bI7-I074aI4] 604a-e
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 7a-8b; BK III, 83a;
B6b; BK V, 148b-157a; BK IX, 270b; 291a-296a
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the fIeavenly
Spheres, 507a-508a; BK I, 513b-514b; HK III,
BK IV, 675b-678a esp 677b-678a;
BK V, 740a-b; 784b-785b
THE T IDEf\S 104
(8. The heavenly bodies ingener:al. Soulatld
intellect in.. the heavenly bodies.)
eH 30 174b-c; CH 35, 177c; CH 42
TR VIII, CH 2, 202a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK VII,CH 6 248a- b
AI, REP I I04c.. 105c; Q47, A I, ANS 256a-257b;
Q 50, A 3272a-273b; Q SI, A 3, REP 3 277a-
278C;Q52, A ,2 2.79b-"280a; Q:66, A 2, ANS
345d;.347b;Q A 3 365b-367a; Q 110, A I,
REP 2-3 564c-565d;A 3, .ANS> 566d-567b; Q
IIS,A 4,REP I 589d-590e;Q 117, A 4, REP I
PART I-II, Q 6, A S, REP2648b-649a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART IIISUPPL,
Q 79, A I, ANS 951b-953b; Q 91, A 2, REP 10
1017c-l020c
21 DANTE: Divine Co11'1edy, HELL, ViI 167--96]
10b:-c; PARADISE, I [log-l26] 107b-e;1I [112-
138] 10ga; VIII
118a; XIII [S2-;-72] 126a; XXVIII 148d-150b;
XXIx137-;-45] 150e
25 Essays, .213d-215a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BKII, 38b; BKV, 104b-
105d
33 PAscAL:Pensees, 482 258a
41 GI BBON: Decline and Fall, 226b
47 GOETHE : Faust, PROLOGUE [243-27] 7a- b
8e. Celestial motion: periodicity and great
year
7 PLATO: Repttblic,BK x,438e-"439a /Timaeus,
451a.. 452b /States1nan,,586c-,587b I Laws,BK
VII, 730a-e:
8" ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK I-II 359a-389d /
Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 8 603b-605a
9 ARISTOTLE: A10tion ofAnimals, CH 3 [699811]-
CH 4 [7008S] 234a-235a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [s09-S33J
67d-68a; [614-649] 69a-c
12 AURELIUS,: Meditations, BKVI, SECT 13 271b;
BK XI, SECT 27 306b
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK I, 7a-8b; 12b-14a;BK
IV, 109a-112b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heat1enly
Spheres, BK I, 513b-514h
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR II, CH I40a-41a
/ Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 8, 162b,"d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK V, par 3...:..6 27c-28e
/ Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 29, 651
19 AQUINAS: Summa Tlteologica, PART 1, Q 32,
A I, REP 2 175d-178a; Q lIS, A 3, ANS 588c-
58ge
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 2,
A 3, ANS 392d-393c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, 11 [112-
148] 109a-b; XXVII [97-;-120] 148b-c; XXVIII
[1-78] 148d-149c
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, .BK VI, 110b-e
28 GALILEO: TtIJoNewSciences, FOURTH DAY,
245b-d
THE GREAT'
107
91. The comets ari.dmeteors
8 ARISTOTLE: ... Meteorology, BK\ I, CH 4 4f7.d-
448d; CH 6-8 449b-452d
14 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 358d....359c
1.6 KEPLRR:Epitome,BKIv,856b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy,. PARi\DISE, xv [13-24]
128e
30;BACON: Novu1nOrganum, BKII, APH 30
159c-d; APH 35, 163a-b; APH36,
32 MILTON: ParadiseLost,BK 1 105a;
[742-7461109b; BKII [76-711] 126b; UK IV
[555-560]1641>;BKXII [632-644] 333a
33 PASCAL: Vac..uum, 358a
34 NEWTON: Principles,BK III, LEMMi\. 4-PROP 42
333a.,368b; GENERAL SCHOL, 369a
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 98a-b; 102b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 68c-69a;615a-b
[n
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK
341a,c
lO.. The influence of the heavenly bodies upon
terrestrial phenomena
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 79c
7 PLATO: Theaetetus, 518b / Statesman, 586c-
589c
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens,BK I,CH 9 [;279822-3]
370c; BK II, CH 3 377c-378a I Meteorology,
BK I, CH 2 445h-d / Metaphysics, BK xu, CH 6
602a
10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, par 1-7
9a-12a passim; par 10-11 13b-14hi
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica,HAR';f I, Q 18,
A I, REP I 104c-l05c; Q 19, A6, ANS 113c-114d;
Q 65, A 4, REP 3 342b-343c; Q 67, A 3351b-
352a; Q 82, A 4, ANS 434c-435C;Q86, A 4,
REP 2-3 463d-464d; Q103, A 5, REP J 531b..
532b;.QIIO, A I,REP2-;3 564c-56?<:1; Q II 5,
AA; 3-6 588c-592d; Q 116, A I, ANS, S92d-

l to; 10 ASTRONOi\ifY
Isaiah, 45:12 ; 48 :1 3-(D) Isaias, 45a2;;48:I3 16 KEPLER: Epitome, ,UK IV, 882a-887a; 887b-
/ Jeremiah, 51 :IS-:-(D) Jeremias, 5-1 :15 888a;918a
NEW TESTAMENT:lJebrews, 1:10 19 AQUINAS: Summa'Theoldgita,'PARTi, Q 70,
.dli.PLATO: Phaedo, 241b.;,242b;247b-e/Tt'inaeus, A I, REP 5 362c-364b
.21 DANTE: PARADISE, II [4
6
- 148]
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BKH,HI3-I4 r.384d- .;108b-l09b
389d 24 RABEL;"IS :,Gar;gantua and I,
9 ARISTOTLE: Motion'ofAnimals,: CH 29c;BK II, 69d}Oa
CH 4 [699
b2
9J 234b-235a 28Gn.BERT:J"'O,adstone,UK VI, J07c...l16a; 117c..
:';11]\RcHIMEDEs:-Sand";Reckoner;S20a-1Y 121a"c' . ,
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature '30BACQN: NOt/U111 Organum, 'BK ,APH 3
6
,,165c-
66c-67c; [534'-563] 68atb 166b; APH 48, 18Sc-Q.,
14 PLUTARCH: NumaP()mpiliits, '55a-b 32 MILToN:l?aradiseLost,BKIII
;.16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BKI, Bb-12b; BK;II, :40a- BK IV [641-676] 166b-167a; BK VII [34
6
-35
2
]
. '44b 224b; BK [15-38] 232b-233a; BKX [(5SI-
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the: Heavenly 667] 288b-289a
Spheres, BK I, 511b-513a;514b-521a; 529a- 34 NEWTON: Principle$,BK; J, PROP 66, COROL
532a XX:,:xXI 126b... 127b; BK'III; PROP
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BKlv,854a-b; 873a.,876a; LEMMA. I-PROP 39 329a.;.333a! Optics, I,
911b-928a 419a-b
,17 PLOTINUS:, Fourth Ennead, TR IV, 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III,102a
171b-172a
.28 GILBERT: .Loadstone, BK I, 23b-:25d; ,BK VI
106a-121a,c
30 BACON: Novu1n Organum, BK II, APH 36,
165c-166b
,31 !?ESCARTES :Discourse,PART V, 54d-56a pas-
SIm
32 MILTON: Paradise,Lost,BK III [702-734] 150b-
151b; BKIV[996- Io04] 174a;'BK V [577-579]
187b-188a; BK VII [216-337] 221b-224b; BK
VIII [15-38] 232b-233a; [66-1681 233b-235b;
BK IX BKX
33 PASCAL: Provincial Lettets,'165ajPensees, 72,
181a / Vacuum, 368b-369a
34 NEWTON: Principles, BKI, PROP 66, COROL
XXII BK III,PROP 18-21 288b-294b
35 BERKELEY: lfuman Knowledge, SECT 58
424a.,b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 819d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BKXIII, 563b;
EPILOGUE II, 695d-696d
fle. The fixed stars: .. the precession of the equi-
noxes .
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:14-18 / Psalms,
I36:7-9-(D) Psalms, 135:7-9
ApOCRYPHA: Ec.clesiasticus, 43 :9-10-(D) OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43 :9-I I
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 451d-452a
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BKII, CH 7-12
384c I Meteorology, BKI,CH8 [345bl-"9] 451c-a.
11 ARCHIMEDES : Sand-Reckoner, 520a- b
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK v [509-533]
67d-68a; f585-59I] 68d
l4 PLUTARCH: Lysander, 3S8d-359c
16 PToLEMv:Almagest, BK I, 7a-8b; BKIII, 77a-
b; BKVII-VIII223a-269a ... .. '
16 COPERNICUS: Rev,olutio1JS of the Heavenly
Spheres, BK I, 517b-520b; 13K II,. 585b-621b;
BK III, '622a-p52b esp622a-646a
VIn [122-1'581 234b-235b I Samson Agonzkt
[86-89j 341b f
33 PASAL: Provincial Letters, I Pensees, I
,i74b-17Sa ;'817, 330b
34 NEWTON:. Principles, BKI,PROP 43....45 921>-
lOla; PROP 66118a-128b'; BKI:H,
VI 275a; PROP 3-4 arrd SCHOL276b-2\781>;
PROP 22-38 294b-329a
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH I,
9c. The planets: their
dations, and stations
7 PLATO: Republic, BK x, 438c-439a I Timaeus
'451a.. d
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK II, CH 2 [28sb28-33
377b-c; CH 7-12 380c-384c / Metaphysics,'B
xu, CH 8 603b-605a
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BKIX-XIII 270a-465b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenl
Spheres, 'BK I, 521b-529a;BK
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 860b-872b; 878
'882a; 888b-905a;907b-910a;' 928a-952apa
'sim; BK v 961a-l004a /Harmoniesiof t
World,
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR III,CHS, 44a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 32 ,
A I, REP 2175d-178a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, n[46-I48]
108b-l09b; x [1-27] 120b-c; XXII [124-154
140d.. 141b
24'RABELAIS: Gargantuaand Pantagruel, BK I
29c
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BKII, APH 36
165c-166b
31 !?ESCARTES: Discourse, PART v, 54d-56apas..
Sim
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK III [481-4831146a
[573-587] 148a; BK V[166-17] 179a; [618-627
188b-189a; BK VII [557-564] 229a.. b; BK VII
[122-152] 234b-235b; BK IX [48--51] 248b;B
X [657-661] 288b
33 PASCAL: Vacuum, 368b-369a
34 NEWTON: Principles,BK I, PROP 1-3 and
'SCHOL 32b-35b; PROP 4, COROL VI 36a; PROP
II 42b-43b; PROP 15 46b-47a; PROP 17
50a; PROP 57-63 I11b-115a; 'PROp 65-69
116b-130b; BK HI, PHENOMENON
275a; PROP 1-2 276a-b; PROP 5-6
281b; PROP 8-10 282b-285a; PROP 13-19 286a..
291b
34 HUYGENS: Light, CH I, 556a-557b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III,102a
36 STERNE: Tristral11. Shandy, 227a
45 FOURIER: Theory of Heat, 171b
45 FARADAY: Researches in Electricity, 632b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 563b
9d. The earth: its origin, position,. shape, and
motions
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, I :1-10 I Job, 38:4-70
Psalms"90:2; 102:25; II9:90-(D) Psalm
89:2; 101 ;26; 118:90/ Proverbs, 3:19; 8:23-29
,106
(9. The particular hea1(enly bodies.. 'Qa. The sun:
size, and mass.)
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays,257d'-258b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK.Vl,.112d..113a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, J3K.II,APH 36,
165c-166b
31 DESCARTES: Di-scourse, PART V, 54d-56a pas-
Isim1 Objection'S and Replies,.. 231a;.233c
32. [55S-,-623].147b-
149a; BK IV [539-543].164a; BK VIL[354-373]
224b-225a; BKVIII [66-168] 233b-235b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 72, 181a '
34
BK III, PHENOMENON III 273d-274a;PROP 2
I-PROP 12 285a-286a;
PROP 25 299b-300b; PROP 36:3-24a-b; ,PROP 40
337b-:338a I Optics, B'K. III, 518a-b
45 FARADAY: Researcnes in Electricity, 8l9a.
9b. ..The moon:. its irregularities
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:14...:..18 j; Psalms,
135:7-9 / Isaiah, 13 :9-
II; 30:26; [saias, 13:9-11;
3:26;.60:19-20 Ifoel, 2:10,31; 3:15
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, OT,
Ecclesiasticus, 43:6-'-9
NEW TESTAMENT:
13 :24-,-25
7 PLATO: Cratylus,98a-b /Apology,204d-205a
/'Timaeus, 451b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BK II, CHI! [29IbI8-23]
383b; CH 12 [29Ib29..... 383c-384b; CH 14
[Z97b2I-3I]389b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V[471-479]
67b; [575-584] 68c; [629-649] 69b-c; [705-
77I ]70b-71a
14.PLUTARCH: Solon,74a / AemiliusPaulus,
220d-221b I Nicias, 435b-d I Dion, 789b-
790a
16 PTOLEMY:Almagest,BK IV:"'VI 108a.. 222b
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heat/enly
Spheres, BK IV 675a-731a
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BKIV, 876a-878a; 918a-
928a; 952a-960a
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead,. TRIll, CH 5, 43d-
44a
19 AQUINAS: SununaTheologica, PART I, Q 70,
A I, REP 5362c-364b
21 DANT;E: Divine:Comedy,PARADISE, II [46-148]
10Bb.. 109b
24 RABELA1S: Gargantua and Pantagruel,BK III,
188e
26 SHAKESPEARE: ROlneo and Juliet, ACT II, SC II
[17-110] 295b jMidsummer-Night' s Dream,
ACT II, SC I [103'.... 114] 357a-b
30 BACON: NovumOrganum, BK II, APH36,
167a-b
32 MILTON: ParadiseLost,BK II [662-666] 125b;
BK III [708-735] 150b-151b;BKv [457-266]
180b-181a; BK VII [346-386] 224b-225b; BK
109
14 PLUTARCH: Aemilius Paulus, 220d-221b
15 TACITUS: Anna/'s,BKXV, 176a
16 KEPLER: Hflnnonies of the rVorld 1080b
1085b . .," -
.,
17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead TR IV CH 24- 6
170b-171d ,,2
19 AQUINAS: SUlnl'na Theologica PART 1 Q
A 3 4 . , ... , II,
, REP I 9a-c; Q 67, A. 4, ANS 352a.-354a
Q 115, A 3, REI' I 588c-589c '
21 DANTE; Divine Con'zedy, PARADISE, IV [49--63]
111b; VIII [1-12]116d
22 CHAUCER" K . h' T l
"?oUr t s 1. a e [2209-2482J 196b-
200b / FranklIn sTale [11,.339-393] 356b:-3S7a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essavs, 246d-247c
27 SHAKESPEARE: and Cleopatra ACT IV
SC IX [5--18] 340c-d .... ,'
35 BERKELEY: Hun1an Knowledae S
431b-c b , ECT 94
GIBBON: Decli,!e and Fall, 81d 9"3 b-
d;346d':347a , '.'
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall 226a:b 227
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofHi;tory, c238d_
239a; 252a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [7900-7950] 192b-
193b; [834-843] 195b; [8078-8081] 196b;
[8285-8302] 202a
13. The history of astronomy
5 AESCHYLUS : Prometheus Bound [442 46 ]
44c-d . .." . - I
6 HERODOTUS: History, UK II,49d-SOa; 6Sb; 79c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 138c-d I Apology,204d-205a
/ Statesrnan, 586c-589c / Laws, BK VII, 728b-
730d; BK XII, 797b-798b
8 ARISTOTLE: Heavens, BKI, CH .3 [27obI2--'") 6]
361d-362a; CH 10 370d-371d; UK II, CH ;-2
375b,d-377c; cn 12 [292S6-9] 383c; CII 13
384d-387d / Meteorology, BK I, CH 6 449b-
450b; cH8 451b-4.S2d; BK II, CH I [354a27-32]
460b / MetaphySICS, BKI, CH 2 [982bll-I7]
500d; BK XII, CH 8 603b-60Sa
11 ARCHIMEDES: Sand-Reckoner, S20a-b
12 Nature of Things, BK v [720-730]
14 ROlnulus, 20b-c I NumaPompi-
bus, / Solon, 74a I Pericles, 138d
/ Aemtltus Paulus, 220d-221b / Lysander
358d-359c / Nicias, 435b-d '
16 PTOLEMY: Almagest, BK III 77a-83 .
109 11 b ,a, BK IV,
a- 0 ; BK VII, 223a-232b passiln BK IX
272a-b ' ,
16 COPERNICUS: Revolutions of the Heavenl'
Spheres,508a )
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 861b-863a; 888b-
891b; 907b-910a; 929a-933a passim; 955a
18 Confessions, BK v, par 3-6 27c-
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I Q
A I, REP 2 175d-178a ' -",
22 CHAUCER: Miller's Tale [3187-3212] 212b-213a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel
69d-70a ' BK II,
CHAPTER 5
DISE, IV I11b; VIII [1-12] 116d;[9I-
148] 117d-118c; XIII [S2-7B]126a-b; XXII [112-
I23]140d
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [2438- 248:z]200a-b
/ Tale of Man o/Latlf [4?IO-4623] 231b;
[4715-4735] 239b-240a / Wife of Bath's Pro-
logue [6187-6202] 266a
24 RABELAI5: Gargantua and Pantagruel, B.K I,
66b-67d; BK II, 69b,d-70d;BKIII, 136c-137c'
176a-b; BK IV, 267c-d '
25 11oNTAIGNE: Essays, 18d-20d;213d-215a;
246d-247c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT .. I,SC II
[139-141] 570d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, SC I [113-125]
I Othello, ACT V, SC II [l0S-Ill] 240b
/ King Lear, ACT I, SC II [112-166] 249a-c'
ACT IV, SC III [34-37] 272a '
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK III, 73a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote PART I 94
II, 222c " C, PART
30 BACON: Advancement ofLearning 14b- . 54
55a ,. c, c-
32 MILTON: Christs Nativity [125-14] 4b-5a /
Arcades J61-73] 26b / Comus [93-144] 3Sb-36b
I ParadISe Lost, BK 1[594-599] 106b; BK VIII
[511-514] 243b; UK x [65T-661] 288b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 173 203b-204a
36 S\VIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 98a-b
36 STERNE: Tristraln Shandy, 194b-195a' 332 -
334b; 407b-408b . ... , .. a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [4947-4976] 122b-
123a; 163b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace BK V 340d
341a,c ,III,-
12 to 13
12. The worship of the earth sun m d
stars ' , .. 000, an
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis 37"9-10 / D . t '" . eu eron..
?:3 / II 23=4-5,II-(D)
gs, .23"4-5,11 / jeremtah, 8:1-2; 10:2-
(D) 8:1-2; 10:2/ Ezekiel, 8:r6-(D)
Ez:chtel, 8:16 / Zephaniah, I :4-s-(D) So
omas, 1:4-5 p
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Sololnon, I3:1-9-(D)
OT, Book of Wisdom, 13 :1-9 / Baruch, 6:60-
69-(D) aT, Baruch, 6:60-68
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-34] 134a
5 EURIPIDES: Orestes [1625-1693] 410b-d
5 ARISTOPHANES: Clouds [563-626] 495c-496b
I Peace [46-4 I 6] 530d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I 31a-b" 48 "
VII, 226c " C, BK
7 PLATO: .<4pology, 204d-20Sa I Latvs BK VII
728b-730d; BK XII, 797b-798b ' ,
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK XII CH 8 [1074bI-
14] 604d-605a '
9 ARISTOTLE: Generation ofAnimals, BK I CH 2
[716aI5-20] 2S6b '
12 i.Vature of Things, BK II [581-660]
BK V [396-411] 66b; [821-836] 71d-
lOa te lE
11. The influence of the stars and planets upon
the character and actions of men
OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 47:13-(D) Isaias,47:13
/ Jeremiah, 10 :2-(D) jeremias, 10:2
ApOCRYPHA: Baruch, 6:60-69-(D) aT, Baruch,
6:60-68
6 HERODOTUS : I-listory, BK II, 65b; BK
223b-c; BK IX, 289d-290a
6 THUCYDIDES: Pelop0 nnesia1z War, BK
552a-c
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 20b-c I Nicias, 435b-dr
Dion, 789b-790a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 9a-b; 9d; BK IV, 79n;
BK VI, 91a-d / Histories, BK I, 195b-c; BK v,
295c
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR III 42a-50a t
Third Ennead, TR 1, CH 2 78d-79b;CH 5-
80a-81b; TR II, CH 10 88a-b I Fourth Ennea
TR IV, CH 30-45 174b-183a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IV, par +-620a-
BK VII, par 8-10 45d-47a / City ofGod,BK II
CH IS, 176d-177a; BK v, CH 1-7 207d-212c
Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 21-23 647a-648
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 7
A2, REP I 364b-365a; Q 86, A 4, REP 2-3 46
464d; Q 96, A 3, ANS 512a"c; Q 115, A 4 58
590c; A 5, REP I 590d-591c; Q 116, A I,
592d-593d; PART 1-11, Q 9, A 5 660d-662a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VI1 [67-
10b-c; PURGATORY, XVI 77b-d; PAR
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 340b
30 BACON: Not1umOrganurn,: BK II, APH I I,
140d-141a; APH 12, 141d; APH 35, 162b-c
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK IV [634-688] 166a-
167b; BK VIII [66-178] 233b-236aesp [9-97]
234a; BK IX [99-113] 249b
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 256c
1ob. The influence of the heavenly bodies on
the tides
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 53d-54b
16 KEPLER: Epitome, BK IV, 919b
19 AQUINAS: Sumn'la Theologica, PART I, Q lOS,
A 6, REP 1 543b-544a; Q 110, A 3, REP I 566d-
567b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q2,
A3, ANS 392d-393c
22 CHAUCER: Frankjin's Tale [11,355-3
88
] 356b-
357a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK II, 47a-b; BKVI,
113a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH
164b-165c; APH 45, 176b; APH 4
6
, 178c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART V, 55c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 817, 330b
34 NEWTON: Principles, BK I, PROP 66, COROL
XVIII-XIX 126a-b; BK III, PROP 24 296a-299b;
PROP 36-37 324a..,328b
35 BERKELEY: HUlnan Knowledge, SECT 14
433a-b
THE GREAT .IDEAS
(10. The influence of the heavenly; bodies upon
terrestrial phenomena.)
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL,
Q 7
6
, A I, REP 2 939d-941a; Q 77, A I, jANS
943a-944d; Q 86, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 993c-
994d; Q 91, A. I, REP I 1016b-1017c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, pARADISE, II [112-
14
8
] 109a-b; vn [121-141] 116b.:c; VIII [97";'114]
118a; x [1-27] 120b-c; XIII [52--7
8
] 126a-b
22 CHAUCER: Miller's Tale 212b-
213a; [3513-3533] 218a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II,
72c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I,
SC III [85-101] 109a
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK I, 14a
32 MILTON: Arcades [61-73] 26b! Paradise Lost,
BK III [606-612] 148b; BK IV [660--688] 166b-
167b; BK VIII [85-106] 234a-b; BK x [64
1
-7
1
9]
288b-290a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 226b
lOa. The influence of the heavenly bodies on
living matter: generation and corruption
7 PLATO: Cratylus,98a I Theaetetus, 518b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 2 [194
bI
3] 271a
/ Heavens, BK I, CH 9 [279S22-30] 370c; HI<. II,
ell 3 377c-378a I Generation and Corruption,
BK II, CH 10 437d439c I Metaphysics,BK XII,
CH 5 [I07ISI2-17] 600c; CH 6 [1072S9-18] 602a
9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 5
[680S3
0
-35] 210d / Generation- of Animals, BK
I, CH 2 [7I6S15-20] 256b; BK 11,CH 3 [73
6b
30-
737S5] 277c-d; CH 4 [73
8S
9-25] 278d-279a; BK
IV, Cll 2 [767S2-9] 308b; CH 10 [777bI5-778alo]
319d-320a,c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [7
6
-
81
]
62a
A 2, REP 2 144c-145b; Q 70, A I, REP 4 362c-
364b; A 3, REP 3 365b-367a; Q 7
1
, A I, REP I
367a-368b; Q82, A 4, ANS 434c-435c; Q 86,
A 4, REP 2-3 463d-464d; Q 9
1
, A 2, REP 2
485b-486b; Q 92, A I, ANS 488d-489d; Q
I
05,
AI, REP 1538d-539c; Q 115, A3 588c-589c; A5,
REP 1 590d-591c; Q 118, A I, REP 3 600a-601c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-I1, Q 60,
i I, ANS 49d-50c; PART III SUPPL, Q 7
6
, A I,
REP 2 939d-941a; Q 84, A 2, REP 3984c-985d;
Q 86, A 2, ANS and REP 1--2 993c-994d; Q9
1
,
A I, REP I 1016b-1017c; A 2, ANsand REP 1,4
1017c,-1020c; A 3,REP 2 1020d-l022c
21 DANTE: Divine Co1nedy, PARADISE, VII [121-
14
1
] 116b-c; x [7-21] 120b-c; XIII [5
2
-7
8
]
126a-b
22 CHAUCER: Franklin's Tale [11,34.3-347] 356b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK v, 105a-b
28 HARVEY: On Anima/Generation, 427b-
d; 428c-429a
108
111 CHAPTER S: ASTRONOMY
ADDITIONAL READINGS
I.
II.
Listed below are works not included in Great Books ofthe Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics \vith \vhich this chapter deals. These works are divided into t\VO groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings \vhich follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
LAPLACE. The System ofthe World
--. Mecanique.celeste (Celestial Mechanics)
GAUSS. Inaugural Lecture on Astronomy
WHE\VELL. Astronomy and General Physics Considered
with Reference to Natural Theology
COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, UK II
A. HUMBOLDT. Cosmos
HERSCHEL. Familiar Lectures on Scientific Subjects, II
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART IV, BK III, CH 7-9;
pART V, NOTE (Pliades in Primitive Calendars)
G. H. DARWIN. The Evolution ofthe Satellites
--. The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar
System
SANTAYANA. Reason in Society, CH 4
DREYER. History ofthe Planetary Systems
POINCARE. The Value of Science, PART II, CH 6
--.. Science and Method,. UK III, CH 3; BK IV
KAPTEYN. Recent Researches in the Structure of the
Universe
DUHEM. Le systeme du monde
ARRHENIUS. The Destinies ofthe Stars
T. CHAMBERLIN. The Origin (jfthe Earth
E. HUNTINGTON. Earth and Sun
DINGLE. Modern Astrophysics
SHAPLEY. Starlight
The Internal Constitution -ofthe Stars
--. Stars and Atoms
JEANS. Problems of Cosmogony and Stellar Dynamics
-.-. Astronomy and Cosmogony
TOLMAN. Relativity, Thermodynamics, and Coslnology
H. N. RUSSELL. The Solar System and Its Origin
ABETT!. The Sun: Its Phenomena and Physical
Features
HUBBLE. The Realm ofthe Nebulae
GAMOW. The Birth and Death ofthe Sun
B. RUSSELL. Human Knowledge, Its Scope and
Limits, PART I, CH 2
PTOLEMY. Tetrabiblos
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK III,CH 84-87
On the Trinity of Boethius, Q 5
.li)ANTE. Convivio (The Banquet), SECOND TREATISE,
CH 3-4
CHAUCER. A Treatise on the Astrolabe
()OPERNICUS. Commentariolus
..........-. Letter Against Werner
I&EPLER. Mysterium Cosmographicum
............-:-. De Motbus Stellae Martis
........--. Hannonices Mundi, BK I-IV
GALILEO. The Sidereal Messenger
..............--. Dialogo dei massimi sistemi
]DESCARTES. The Principles of Philosophy, PART III,
5-47, 13-120, 126-157
HOBBES. Concerning Body, PART IV, CH 26
I&ANT. Cosmogony
A. SMITH. The History of Astronomy
A.RlsTARCHUS. On the Sizes and Distances ofthe Sun
and Moon
EPICURUS. Letter to Pythocles
_.-. Letter to Herodotus
IBN EZRA. The Beginning of Wisdom
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART II,
CH 8-12,24
R. BACON. Opus Majus, PART IV
RHETICUS. Narratio Prima
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XIII (10-13),
XV (3)
FONTENELLE. Conversations on the Plurality ofWorlds
VOLTAIRE. "Astrology," "Astronomy," in A Philo-
sophical Dictionary
LAGRANGE. Alecanique analytique
35 BER'KE:LEY: Human Knowledge, SBCT
SECT 104 433a.:b
35 HUME: fluman Understanding, SECT ,I,DIV

36 STERNE : Tristram 'Shandy, 227a
41 GIBBON: Decline and:Patl, 68c-69a; -2260'
299b-c; 664d [n 55-56] . '
42 KANT: PuteReason, 8d [fn 2J; 175b [fnl]1
Practical Reason, 361'b-c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofHistory, PART I, 219a-1J;
251a-b '
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VIII, ;340d-
-34Ia,c; BK XIII, 563b; EPILOGUE II, 694d-696d
THE; GR.-EAT IDEAS
(13. The history oj astronomyce)
2S'MoNTAIGNE: Essays, 257d-258b
28 GILBERT: Loadstone, BK VI, I07c-d; 117c-d;
118d-119c
30 BACON: Advancenzent of Learning,: 2i4dJ/ .. J:-.!o-
vum Organum,BK I, APfi86 120a-b; APH 89
124a-d; UK II,
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, "13KI. [284-291] 99b;
BK v [26F-263] 181a; BKVIIl [66-168] 233b-
235b / Areopagitica, 400a
33PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 165a / Vacuum,
358a; 368b..369a'
110
The disfussionof MATHEMATICS; MECHANICS ; PHYSICS.
The consideration of see MATHEMATICS Sb; MECHANICS 3;
I b, 3; SCIENCE -
Other treatments of observation and measurement in natural science;,seeExPERIENCE 5--5c;
MECHANICS 2a; PHYSICS 3,4a, 4cl ;QUANTITY 6-6c; SCIENCE sa-sb; SENSE S.
The logic of hypotheses and their verification in scientific method, see HYPOTHESIS 4b"::'4d;
PHYSICS 4b; PRINCIPLE3c(2); ?CIENCE se. .._ '.' , .... .' .
The general of scientific method, see ;LOGIC 4b;REASONING6c; SCIENCE
s-se.
The distinction between causes, JeeCAUSE Ia; and for the role of causes
and causal explanation in naturaLscience, see CAUSE Sb; NATURE 3C; PHYSICS 21:>;
SCIENCE 4c.
The consideration.of certain matnematical forms used in astronomy, see QUANTITY 3b(1)-
3b(2), 3e(2).
Otherdiscqssions of celestial ,and terrestrial mechanics, see MECHANICS 4a, Sf-Sf(2), 6c.
The theory of gravitation and ,the problem of see MECHANICS.6d(t)-r
6d(2); SPACE 2C.
The issues concerning matter and',soul or intellect in relation to the heavenly bodies, see
ANGEL 2a; MATTER Ib; SOUL Ia; WORLD 6cl.
Other discussions of the measurement of time, see QUANTITY Sb; TIME 4.
The interpretation of celestial phenomena in divination and augury, see LANGUAGE 10;
PROPHECY 3b; SIGN AND SYMBOL Sb.
Criticisms of astrology, see RELIGION 6a.
The cosmological and theological implications ofastronomy, see ANGEL 2a;CHANGE 13-14;
2; INFINITY 3d-3e ; SPACE 3a; TIME 2b; WORLD 4a, 4e, 5, 7.

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THE GREAT IDEAS

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