1

National Territorial Delimitation:

Its Origins and Influence on Central Asian Nationalities

History 350 Lu e !o"an 3151#11# Octo$er %3rd& %013

% T'e (rocess $y "'ic' t'e ne"ly formed )o*iet go*ernment reorgani+ed t'e administrati*e and economic di*isions of t'e former !ussian ,m(ire in Central Asia "as called t'e National Territorial Delimitation& and it "as officially im(lemented in 1#%- in order to .in t'eory/ grant t'e 0+$e & 1'a+a' & 1yrgi+& Ta2i & and Tur men nations t'e self3determination (romised $y t'e 4ols'e*i (arty5s (re3re*olution (olicies t'at "ere used to gain t'e su((ort of nationalists around t'e !ussian ,m(ire61 In t'eory& t'is (rocess "as also meant to ma e t'e region easier to go*ern& im(ro*e t'e material and cultural "ell3$eing of t'e in'a$itants& and allo" more effecti*e utili+ation of t'e resources a*aila$le to t'e )o*iet 0nion6 T'is (rocess 'as $een (ortrayed in some inter(retations as t'e monolit'ic )o*iet administration deciding to di*ide u( Central Asia in an attem(t to (re*ent its in'a$itants from causing trou$le and to ensure t'e region could (roduce as muc' as (ossi$le for t'e )o*iet 0nion5s !ussian core& in a colonial fas'ion6% 7'ile t'ere "as "it'out a dou$t a serious strain of colonialism in )o*iet attem(ts to $ring 8(rogress9 to t'e (eo(le of Central Asia& t'is is not all t'at "as going on6 T'is essay "ill (ro(ose t'at t'e (rocess of National Territorial Delimitation "as not sim(ly a$out nationality& and t'at it "as not a unilateral (rocess carried out $y t'e )o*iet aut'orities6 T'ere "as a great deal of (artici(ation on t'e (art of $ot' local elites and 8common9 (eo(le& and t'e ne" territories created and nationalities (romoted "ere also meant to im(ro*e economic (roduction in t'e region and (reser*e t'e integrity of t'e ne" and unsta$le )o*iet 0nion6 After t'e esta$lis'ment of t'e :ro*isional ;o*ernment follo"ing t'e <e$ruary !e*olution of 1#1=& et'nogra('ers in !ussia $egan to ad*ance t'e idea t'at t'e ne" go*ernment

1 Dina >isserman34rods y& Constructing Ethnopolitics in the Soviet Union: Samizdat, Deprivation, and the Rise of
Ethnic Nationalism .Ne" ?or : :algra*e @acmillan& %003/& %16 % <rancine Hirsc'& ATo"ard an ,m(ire of Nations: 4order3@a ing and t'e <ormation of )o*iet National Identities&A Russian Review 5#& no6 % .A(ril %000/& %0%6

3 could im(ro*e its strategic (lanning and 'el(ed t'e state5s strained "artime economy $y im(ro*ing t'eir understanding of et'nic grou(s $ot' on t'e country5s $orders and in its interior6 T'ese et'nogra('ers "ere organi+ed $y )ergei <6 Ol5den$urg "'o (etitioned state ministries for financial su((ort and argued t'at a (o(ulation5s e*eryday customs determined "'at sort of role t'ey "ould $e most (roducti*e in63 !esearc' of minority grou(s around t'e country "ould 8'el( t'e state 2udge "'ic' (eo(le are most suita$le for (artici(ation in t'e "ar and ot'er state o$ligations69- 7'en (resented in t'is lig't& e*en t'ose communists "'o sa" nationality as a 8$ourgeois tool9 to di*ide t'e masses too eB(ressed interest6 A Commission for t'e )tudy of t'e Tri$al Com(osition of !ussia and t'e 4orderland .1I:)/ "as organi+ed $y Ol5den$urg and colleagues from t'e !ussian Ant'ro(ological )ociety and t'e Linguistic De(artment of t'e :'ilological )ociety& and t'is commission $egan de$ating t'e most effecti*e "ay to determine 8nationality96 )ome (ro(osed to use language to differentiate grou(s& "'ile ot'ers argued t'at t'e commission must also consider 8('ysical ty(e965 T'ese arguments o*er 'o" to classify 8nationalities9 "ere not sim(le& as t'e Cuestion 'ad not $een seriously considered $y t'e Tsarist regime6 T'e 1D#= All3!ussian Census 'ad only as ed for nati*e language .rodnoi iazy / and confessional grou(Ereligious affiliation .veroispovedanie/ and sim(ly categori+ed most of t'e non3!ussian (o(ulation of Central Asia as aliens .inorodtsy/F6 T'e Tsarist regime "as $y no means ignorant of national and et'nic issues& $ut officials of t'e go*ernment (referred to em('asi+e and encourage t'e loyalty t'at all su$2ects of t'e Tsar "ere meant to s'are and s'o" for 'im6 !at'er t'an identifying "it' a nation& (eo(le "ere to
3 <rancine Hirsc'& A)tate and ,*olution: ,t'nogra('ic 1no"ledge& ,conomic ,B(ediency& and t'e @a ing of t'e 0))!& 1#1=31#%-&A in Russian Empire: Space, !eople, !ower, "#$$%"&'$& ed6 Gane 4ur$an & @ar *on Hagen& and Anatolyi !emne*& .4loomington& IN& Indiana 0ni*ersity :ress& %00D/& 1-%6 - Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1-%6 5 Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1-36 F Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1-36

identify "it' t'e !ussian state and its monarc'y6 <or o$*ious reasons& t'e 4ols'e*i s could not a((roac' t'e issue in Cuite t'e same "ay for $ot' (ractical and ideological reasons6 T'e Tsarist a((roac' certainly couldn5t "or in t'e long term& as educated elites in many regions .suc' as 0 raine and Transcaucasia/ 'ad su((orted t'e !e*olution "it' strong eB(ectations in regards to national self3determination6= T'ere "as a serious (ossi$ility t'at t'ey "ould cause difficulties for )o*iet administrators6 On t'e ot'er 'and& many (eo(le .usually (easants or (astoralists& $ot' !ussian and non3!ussian/ didn5t seem to understand nationality in t'e same "ay t'at many in 7estern ,uro(e and t'e !ussian Intelligentsia did6D !ussian et'nogra('ers& "'ile some"'at $emused $y t'e "idely differing and inconclusi*e ans"ers t'ey recei*ed from many in'a$itants of Central Asia as to self3 identification& did not 'a*e muc' difficulty in creating t'eir o"n clear categories for t'ese (eo(les6 According to Andree*& :ersian3s(ea ing3mountain3d"ellers referred to t'emsel*es as 8Ta2i s9 "'ile :ersian3s(ea ers in t'e (lains and ur$an areas generally identified t'emsel*es in regional terms6# T'ese :ersian3s(ea ers mig't call t'emsel*es )amar andis and 4u 'ara5is610 According to !ussian *isitors suc' as Andree* and Lt Colonel )nesyareff ."'o *isited in 1#0F/ t'e ('ysical a((earance of t'e mountain3d"elling 8Ta2i s9 "as sur(risingly ,uro(ean& "'ile t'e :ersian3s(ea ers in t'e (lains a((eared to $e 8miBed "it' Tur ic stoc 9611 All of t'is is not meant to suggest t'at t'e in'a$itants of any gi*en *illage or (o(ulation grou( did not no" "'at to call t'emsel*es6 <or eBam(le& "'en )6N6 Andree* *isited t'e region a((roBimating modern ,astern Ta2i istan& t'e ,astern3Iranian3language3s(ea ing in'a$itants
= Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1--6 D Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1--6 # :aul 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan: National +dentity and the ,rigins of the Repu-lic, .London& I646 Tauris& %00=/& 106 10 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 116 11 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 116

5 descri$ed t'emsel*es as 8Ta2i s9 and referred to ot'ers "'o s(o e :ersian .a 7estern Iranian language/ as 8<arsigu96 )ome grou(s on t'e ot'er 'and referred to :ersian s(ea ers as 8Ta2i s96 One grou( mig't call t'emsel*es 8?ag'no$is9 "'ile t'eir neig'$ours mig't refer to t'at same grou( as 8;'alc'a961% T'e "ay in "'ic' t'e )o*iets "ould redra" t'e lines of t'e ne" states t'at needed to $e created in Central Asia "as not uni*ersally agreed u(on6 )ome mem$ers of t'e go*ernment ad*ocated an et'nogra('ic (aradigm t'at em('asi+ed t'e 8(rinci(le of nationality9 in t'e decision ma ing (rocess613 T'e ot'er dominant (osition em('asi+ed 8t'e (rinci(le of economic eB(ediency9 and argued t'at nationalism "ould dissi(ate once economic sta$ility and "ell3$eing "ere $roug't im(ro*ed (roduction and $etter organi+ed distri$ution of resources6 T'is disagreement came to $e no"n as t'e regionali+ation de$ate6 T'e )o*iet go*ernment "as not of a single mind in t'is issue6 HTsI1 and ;os(lan argued t'at t'e socialist state s'ould $e su$di*ided on t'e $asis of economics and administration& and t'at t'e need for national territories "ould $e eradicated $y ra(id economic de*elo(ment6 In t'eir *ie"& national issues "ould 8manifest t'emsel*es only "'en faced "it' unfa*oura$le IeconomicJ circumstances961Nar omnats on t'e ot'er 'and em('asi+ed t'e im(ortance of et'nogra('ic and 8national9 issues instead& and argued t'at if t'ese "ere ignored in fa*our of (ure economic efficiency t'is "ould lead to t'e eB(loitation and e*entual resistance of 8$ac "ard (eo(les9615 Ideally of course& a de*elo(ed socialist society "ould 'a*e no need of di*erse nationalities6 Instead& all (eo(le "ould treat ot'ers in t'e same "ay no matter "'ere one came from6 Des(ite 'o(ing to one day eliminate nationality altoget'er from society& u(on ta ing
1% 13 115 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 116 Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1-F6 Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1506 Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1-=6

F control of t'e a((aratuses of go*ernment t'ey decided to Cuic ly ta e ste(s in regards to t'e Cuestion of minority nationalities6 @any 4ols'e*i s "ere *ery sensiti*e to t'ese issues& and to a large degree t'e arguements of Nar omnats "ere focused u(on61F T'e sta$ility of t'e former Tsarist state "as K t'e )o*iet leaders'i( felt K at considera$le t'reat from im(erialist ca(italists& li$eral $ourgieous& and social and religious conser*ati*es "'o "ould acti*ely fig't t'e (rogress of socialism6 T'e (rocess of delimitation "'ic' "as meant to (romote t'e social and economic de*elo(ment of regions in'a$ited $y minority grou(s in fact freCuently 'ad t'e effect to c'anging t'e ma eu( of eBisting grou(s and outrig't creating nationalities t'at 'ad (re*iously not eBisted6 As mentioned earlier& t'e 8nationality (ro$lem9 "as not e*en on t'e radar of many "'o t'e )o*iets "is'ed to 'a*e (artici(ate in t'e $uilding of t'e )o*iet state .t'ey "anted t'eir la$our and t'eir man(o"er/6 ,*idence from Tsarist and )o*iet sources& as "ell as direct testimonies from contem(orary in'a$itants of Central Asia& s'o"s t'at "'ile some grou(s 'ad some"'at clear national identities t'at "ere solidified $y t'e delimitation of nationality $ased territories& many in t'e region didn5t 'a*e anyt'ing resem$ling a 8national identity96 In ot'er cases indi*iduals "'o to outsiders a((eared largely t'e same in linguistic& cultural& and religious terms identified t'emsel*es differently61= As late as 1#%1& many (eo(le identified t'eir nationality as 8@uslim96 :rior to t'e 4ols'e*i !e*olution et'nicity "asn5t a common reference (oint for Central Asian communities6 Clan or family loyalties "ere foremost in (eo(les5 minds& "it' religious fait' also $eing im(ortant6 On a more $road scale& t'ose "'o "ere sedentary and culti*ated land sa" t'emsel*es

1F Hirsc'& ATo"ard an ,m(ire of NationsA& %0F6 1= 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 136

= as different from t'e (astoral nomads& and *ice3*ersa61D 7'ile t'e former tended to s(ea :ersian .and "ere often called $y t'emsel*es and outsiders 8Ta2i s9/ t'e latter s(o e *arious Tur ic dialects and "ere less li ely to $e literate& $ut seemed to 'a*e a more co'esi*e form of national identity and many of t'ese (eo(le "ould later $e identified as 0+$e s61# T'is (articular grou( "as of (articular concern to )o*iet administrators and )talin 'imself6 In t'e 1#t' century& t'e $eginnings of a Central Asian Tur ic national consciousness $egan to de*elo(& (articularly among t'e "ealt'y and educated6%0 A clear element in t'is (rocess "as t'e selection of C'agatai Tur is' as t'e language of administration in t'e Tur estan ;o*ernorate3;eneral under t'e Tsars6 )(ea ers of non3Tur ic languages suc' as t'e :ersian .<arsi/ s(ea ing Ta2i s 'ad to learn C'agatai Tur ic& "'ic' remained t'e uni*ersal literary language of Central Asia until t'e )o*iet reforms of t'e 1#%0s on"ards6%1 At t'e time Iosef )talin "as t'e Commissar for Nationalities and it is "idely acce(ted t'at 'e "as largely res(onsi$le for ultimately carrying out t'e National Territorial Delimitation (lan6%% T'ere is good reason to $elie*e t'at )talin "as anBious a$out t'e ascendance of Tur is' nationalism6 At t'e time& @ustafa 1emal5s secular 8$ourgeois re*olution in Tur ey as a direct com(etitor to t'e ty(e of re*olution t'at t'e communists "is'ed to (romote6%3 T'is "as certainly a legitimate concern& as many educated t'in ers in t'ese @uslim states 'ad "atc'ed "it' distress as ma2or (arts of t'e Islamic "orld "ere conCuered $y ,uro(ean (o"ers during t'e 1Dt' and 1#t' centuries and 'ad turned to t'e Ottoman em(ire for ins(iration6%- :an3Tur ic ideals elucidated
1D 1# %0 %1 %% %3 %;eorgiy I6 @irs y& ,n Ruins of Empire, .7est(ort& CT& ;reen"ood :ress& 1##=/& #%6 @irs y& ,n Ruins of Empire, #%6 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 156 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 136 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 3#6 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, -06 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 1F6

D $y acti*ists& "riters& and ('iloso('ers in t'e last great Islamic (o"er "ere in almost all "ays more a((ealing t'an t'e !ussian Tsarist regime t'at t'e region "as ruled $y during t'e 1#t' century6 T'ese ideals "ere also (o(ular "it' self identifying Tur s under t'e aut'oritarian rule of t'e 4u 'aran ,mirate& and o*er time& (an3Tur ism came to $e associated "it' (rogress "'ile t'e languages and customs of ot'er grou(s suc' as Ta2i s ."'ose language "as associated "it' t'e 8un2ust feudal9 ,mirate of 4u 'ara/ came to $e seen as $ac "ards and e*en reactionary in socialist terms6%5 ,ncouraging t'e de*elo(ment of distinct nationalities amongst t'e Tur ic (o(ulation in Central Asia "ould t'eoretically (rotect t'e region from (an3Tur is' nationalism6 )o*iet su((ort for t'ese nationalities and t'e ))!s $ased on t'em "as also 2ustified $y go*ernment administrators as a necessary met'od to integrate t'ese eBtensi*e territories into t'e de*elo(ing economic and administrati*e infrastructure of t'e )o*iet 0nion6 It 'as also $een suggested t'at one factor in )talin5s decision to (us' for a (lan to create ne" (olitical entities to control Central Asia "as 'is dissatisfaction "it' t'e unre*olutionary concessions t'at grou(s suc' as t'e ?oung 4u 'arans and ?oung 1'i*ans .su((orted $y @osco" in t'eir efforts to o*ert'ro" t'e local 1'anates $ecause t'e communist (arties in t'e region "ere so small and "ea / made to local conser*ati*e *ie"s6%F In 4u 'ara t'eir ne" constitution (rotected t'e rig't to (ri*ate (ro(erty and guaranteed t'at no la"s could $e made t'at conflicted "it' Islamic la"6 T'is ind of trend sim(ly "as not acce(ta$le in t'e long run in t'e eyes eit'er )talin or @osco"6 0ltimately& in 1#%- Central Asia "as com(letely reorgani+ed $y t'e @osco" go*ernment and di*ided into )o*iet re(u$lics $ased largely on $ot' et'nicity and economic efficiency6%=
%5 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 1=6 %F 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, -06 %= Adee$ 1'alid& ANationali+ing t'e !e*olution in Central Asia: T'e Transformation of Gadidism& 1#1=31#%0&A in State of Nations: Empire and Nation%.a ing in the /ge of 0enin and Stalin& ed6 !onald ;6 )uny and Terry

# Neit'er t'e Nar omnats nor ;os(lan "on t'e regionali+ation de$ate6%D T'e tem(orary Tur estan Autonomous )o*iet )ocialist !e(u$lic and t'e :eo(le5s )o*iet !e(u$lics of 1'ore+m and 4u 'ara "ould $e delimited into fi*e ne" re(u$lics& eac' $earing t'e name of a nation6 T'ese $ecame t'e 0+$e & 1a+a '& 1irg'i+& Ta2i & and Tur men re(u$lics6 7'ile t'e (rocess of National Territorial Delimitation could $e *ie"ed as a unilateral attem(t to di*ide t'e largely Tur ic (eo(les of Central Asia into distinct national grou(s and (re*ent t'em from causing trou$le& t'is (ers(ecti*e transforms Central Asians into (assi*e *ictims of )o*iet mac'inations6 T'e situation created $y t'e )o*iet National Territorial Delimitation "as not sim(ly im(osed u(on t'e (eo(le of Central Asia& and "'ile t'ere "as some *iolent resistance to t'e )o*iet im(osition of communism& t'ere "as also many eBam(les of traditional society in t'e region ada(ting to fit t'e ne" regime6%# Des(ite numerous (eo(le facing discrimination& assimilation& and loss of land $y $eing delimited into t'e "rong national re(u$lic .for instance& 1a+a ' nati*e s(ea ers finding t'emsel*es on t'e 0+$e side of t'e $order/& many of t'ese same (eo(le learned to communicate "it' )o*iet leaders in "ays t'at caug't attention 'ig'er u( t'e 'ierarc'y6 :etitioners from Tas' ent "'o self3identified as 81a+a 's9 a((ealed to )talin& 1amene*& and 1alinin and claimed t'at t'ey "ere $eing discriminated $y officials in t'e 0+$e ))!6 T'ey reCuested t'at t'e $order $e re3dra"n as t'eir *illage& t'ey asserted& 8s'ared close economic and cultural connections9 "it' t'e 1a+a ' ))!630 :etitions from 80+$e s9 li*ing in t'e 1irgi+ A))! told a similar story6 T'ey "ere underre(resented in t'e local go*ernment and could not (artici(ate in t'e local communist (arty $ecause t'ey did not understand 1irgi+6 T'ey "ere 8struggling against 1irgi+ c'au*inism96
@artin& .Cary& NC& OBford 0ni*ersity :ress& %001/& 1-56 %D Hirsc'& 8)tate and ,*olution9& 1F06 %# @irs y& ,n Ruins of Empire, #16 30 Hirsc'& ATo"ard an ,m(ire of NationsA& %156

10 According to Hirsc'& 8it "as largely in con2unction "it' $order3ma ing and census in t'e 1#%0s t'at t'e (o(ulation 5learned5 t'at 50+$e 5& 51a+a '5& and 5Ta2i 5 denoted se(arate national identities6 )ome (eo(le "ere a$le to acti*ely use t'ese 8ne"9 national identities affect t'e (rocess of state and nation3$uilding631 :rior to t'e national territorial delimitation in 1#%- it is clear t'at national identities in most of Central Asia "ere *ague6 <indings e*en from t'e second 'alf of t'e %0t' century su((ort t'is6 T'e )o*iet sociologist O6A6 )u 'are*a found t'at $y t'e late 1#50s& many Ta2i 3s(ea ers .t'e language 'ad $een more clearly defined in (art due to t'e )o*iet affirmati*e action (olicies $eginning in t'e 1#%0s/ self3identified as 0+$e s and cited long3standing family traditions63% )u 'are*a suggested t'at t'ere mig't 'a*e $een a tendency to identify as suc' $ecause t'e 0+$e s 'ad $een t'e far more (restigious military caste of t'e former 4u 'aran emirate6 In ot'er areas t'ere "ere re(orts of Ta2i families $eing forced to register as 0+$e s in order to mani(ulate t'e census results to cause t'e )o*iet aut'orities to assign certain territories to t'e 0+$e ))! t'at may not ot'er"ise 'a*e $een633 T'e National Territorial Delimitation underta en $y t'e )o*iets in 1#%0s .t'oug' t'e official im(lementation of t'e (olicy occurred in 1#%-/ 'ad a definite $ut com(leB effect u(on t'e identities of t'e affected in'a$itants of Central Asia6 To say t'at it immediately more clearly defined eBisting national identities "ould $e an o*ersim(lification6 To a large degree& grou(s "'o did not identify "it' any of t'e fi*e nationalities "'o e*entually recei*ed t'eir o"n re(u$lics came to see t'emsel*es as mem$ers of t'e nation in "'ic' t'ey "ere settled at t'e time of delimitation6 Ot'ers 'o"e*er 'ad strident *ie"s on t'eir o"n nationality and "ere not
31 Hirsc'& ATo"ard an ,m(ire of NationsA& %1F6 3% 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 1%6 33 4ergne& (he )irth of (a*i istan, 1F6

11 satisfied $y t'e results of t'e )o*iet decisions6

4i$liogra('ical )ources:
4ergne& :aul6 (he )irth of (a*i istan: National +dentity and the ,rigins of the Repu-lic6 London: I646 Tauris& %00=6 Hirsc'& <rancine6 A)tate and ,*olution: ,t'nogra('ic 1no"ledge& ,conomic ,B(ediency& and t'e @a ing of t'e 0))!& 1#1=31#%-6A In Russian Empire: Space, !eople, !ower, "#$$% "&'$& edited $y Gane 4ur$an & @ar *on Hagen& and Anatolyi !emne*& 13#3F56 4loomington& IN: Indiana 0ni*ersity :ress& %00D6 Hirsc'& <rancine6 ATo"ard an ,m(ire of Nations: 4order3@a ing and t'e <ormation of )o*iet National Identities6A Russian Review 5#& no6 % .A(ril %000/: %013%F6 1'alid& Adee$6 ANationali+ing t'e !e*olution in Central Asia: T'e Transformation of Gadidism& 1#1=31#%06A In State of Nations: Empire and Nation%.a ing in the /ge of 0enin and Stalin& edited $y !onald ;6 )uny and Terry @artin& 1-53F%6 Cary& NC: OBford 0ni*ersity :ress& %0016 @irs y& ;eorgiy I6 ,n Ruins of Empire6 7est(ort& CT: ;reen"ood :ress& 1##=6 >isserman34rods y& Dina6 Constructing Ethnopolitics in the Soviet Union: Samizdat, Deprivation, and the Rise of Ethnic Nationalism6 Ne" ?or : :algra*e @acmillan& %0036