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[_!X!_INDEX

ll

To chapter

2 ll
1

prof. oruonve Home paq

CHAPIDR
COST ESTIMATION FOR AN EXCAVATOR

Prt

A. Ownership cost
1. Depreciation: same as a truck, except that no tires are involved. Purchase price is estimated at $l10,000/yd3.

Include: erection costs, ballast costs, trailing cable costs, extras. Freight: estimate shovel weight as 54,000/yd3 (dead load)
2. fnterest: same as a truck

B. Operating costs
L. No

tire replacement

2. No tire repair cost 3. Repairs and maintenance and supplies (such as cables and parts): same as truck. 4. Power:.Assume 55 hp/yd3

to 66hp/yd3.

I hp: 746watts: .746kW

Power cost

: (Power use)(load factor)($/kW-hr)

: (gaUhp-hr)(load factor)(hp)

: (kWX$/kW-hr): $/hr
5. Fuel consumption 6. Labor cost: same as truck, and include oiler.

Follow same procedure for estimating truck haulage.

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EXAMPLE
For a l5-yd3 (t t m3) power shovel. Estimate the total hour cost and unit cost if the desired output is 10,000 tons/shift. Assume operating conditions average. Power cost: 7,lkW-hr,lubrication oil: $4.00/gal ($1.06/L), operator wage $16.00/hr, and oiler wage $12.001hr. Assume an 8-hr shift, 50 minute per hour; and material weighs 2.0 tons/yd3 b.nk measure.

Solution
Refer to following table. Follow the procedure outlined for truck, Calculations requiring explanation
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are summarized below.

A. Ownerqhip costs

a. Purchase price

l5

yd3

x $l10,000 /yd3 : $1,650,000.

b. Salvage value:0.15 x $1,650,000

c. Weight

: $247,500. : $32,400. : $3240.

15 yd3

x 54,000 lb/yd3: 810,000 lb.

Freight

810,000 lb x ($4.00/100lb)

d. Unloading and moving cost:0.10 x $32,400

e.

Delivered price

: a-b+c+d:
I

$1,438,140, say $1,438,000.

f. For operating period of

shift/day, use 2000 hr/yr.

g. For average conditions, use economic life of 18,000 h + 2000

: 9 yrs.

2.

Nl

calculations are self explanatory.

B. Operating Costs
3. Select repair factor :70Yo (average conditions).
Repair

cost:0.70 x $79.89: $55.92lhr.

4. Power rating

15 yd3

x 55 hp/yd3 :825 hp x0.746: 615 kW.

Select load factor

:60Yo (avg conditions). Power use: 15 kW x 0.60

: 369 kw.

Power cost:369 kw x $0.07lkW-hr: $25.85/tr.

5.

If

diesel, fuel oil consumption

0.059 gaVhp-hr x 0.0 x 825

hp:29

gal.

Lubrication oil cost

29/lO0 gaVhr x $4.00/gal

: $1.16/hr.
$272.5811r.

C. Overall ownership and operating costs

: A*B:

D. Unit Cost: hour production: 10,000 tons/shift + unit cost

I h :7250 tonsr;

: (527258[hr)K1250

ton/hr)

$0.22/ton

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Cost Estimation Form

ffSsyel

Mining Equipment Unit

A. Ownership Costs
1.

DEPRECIATION

a. Purchase

price: $1.650,000

b. Salvage value (15%)

c. Freight 810.000 lb

: - 247.500
cost: 3.240

@$4.oD/cwt:32.400

d. Unloading and moving

e. Delivered

price:

1.438,140 say $1.438.000

f Operating period 2000hrlyr

g. Economic live 18.000
h.

hr:-1yr(n)

Depreciation: $1.438.000 (del. Prices less tire cost)

:$

79.89 lttr

18.000 hr

2. INTEREST, TAXES, INSURANCE, AND STORAGE

a. Rate = interest 14%

+ taxes 2Yo * other

2o/o

= lSYo
5120/00

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b. Average annual investment

rate: (n+l)/2n: l0l18 :$

55.6 %

c. Average annual investment = $1.438.000 d. Annual fixed charge: $799,528

e. Fixed charge

x 55.6Yo: $779,529
$143.915

xlSYo:

= $143.915

:$ Z-96 /hr

2000tr/yr
TOTAL OWNERSHIP COSTS:$ 151.85
B. Operating Costs

/tr

I, TIRE REPLACEMENT COST

Purchase price

set

oftires:

Tire life hr Tire

cost: $ :$ - /hr

hr
2. TIRE REPAIR COST:

%X$ tire cost:$ - /hr

X $79.89 deprec.

3. REPAIRS, MAIN'TENAI.{CE:70%

:$

55.92\tv

4. FUEL: gaVhr @$_/eal OR POWER: 369 kW @ $ 0.07lkW-hr:$ 25.85 /hr

5.

LUBRICATION: 29/100 gallhr @ $ 4.00 /gal:$J=l /hr

6. ALDilLIARY FUEL:

:$ - /hr

7. LABoR:_operator @ $ 16.00

/hr:

$ 16.00 /hr

oiler @ $ 12.00

/lr:

$ 12.00 lhr

helper @g_lhr: $ /hr

Total $ 28.00 lhr + 35Yo benefits $ 9.80

/lu:$

37.80 /hr

TOTAL OPERATING COSTS

:$ 120.73 ITV

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TOTAL OWNERSHIP AND OPERATING COSTS :$ 272,58

LINIT COST
S 272.58

lhT

ltu + 1250 ton/hr: $ 0.22 lton

MATCHING LOADING AND HAULING UNITS

is matched to haulage units to avoid either over trucking (where more than the adequate number of trucks is assigned to a loader) or under trucking where inadequate number of trucks is assigned to a loader.

It is crucial that a loading unit

Truck production & fleet requirements are affected by:

Mine plan
Haulage roads

Mine production requirements Loading equipment Truck performance and cycle time
Operating method and practices

Matching of load equipment and trucks

Equipment availabil
The total cycle time

is given as

t.

: t, * tl

+ tf,f + t * tr, + the + tw + tde

where: t, is the spotting time

t_

is the maneuvering time

t"

is the loading time tn. is the time to haul empty is the time to haul loaded

t*

t*

is the waiting time

tu is the dumping time tu" is the delay time

The theoretical number of trucks that can setre a loader is given as:

N=5=
h

to--ta. tr+t

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where

t,.: total theoretical

truck cycle time excluding wait time.

t*:
N:
if

truck spot, and load time.

theoretical number oftrucks

t. n(t, + ts), truck waits for shovel

Wait time is n(t, + rJ - ttc,

where

n:

# of trucks in fleet.

For loading methods where an arriving truck is spotted while another truck is loaded, truck load and spot times are replaced by loader or shovel loading time.

If n is less than If

loader is under-trucked

n is greater than

loader is over-trucked

SYNCHRONTZATION OF LOADING AND HAULAGE UNITS

Four to six swings of the shovel to fill a truck are considered optimum for normal truck sizes (22-130 tons). Five to eight swings for giant truck sizes (150-350 tons).
One final check remains to be made before the choice of loading and haulage units is completed. The synchronization of the loading portion of the cycle must be investigated to be certain that: a. shovel does not wait for the trucks b. truck wait is not excessive (more than a few minutes)

If the synchronization

is unsatisfactory, then the selection of equipment must be modified or the cycle (travel, spot, or dump time) changed.

Load time can be calculated for the equipment selected. Spot and dump times are usually estimated based in operating conditions
Once these elements have been determined and knowing the cycle time, we can check the

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synchronization by the following eq:t where

n(tl + tJ

n:

# oftrucks in fleet

t":
tr:

load time spot time cycle time for one truck

one.

t:

For proper cycle balance or synchroniztionto exist the cycle time for time required to spot and lo.ad truck fleet: n(t" + tr). Truck waiting time

truok must be less than the

n(t" + ts) - t.

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EXAMPTE
Given the following data on a shovel-truck open pit mine: Required production Operating period

10,000 tonVshift

shifl/day (7 hrlshift)

Material: Well blasted rock (2.0 tons/b or 1.3 tonsll,cy

Operating conditions: favorable (80%) Job efficiency:83.3Yo

Load time/truck:3.4 min

Spot

time:0.5 min
time/truck: 15 min

Cycle

Determine size and number of shovels required. Desired

output: l0'0,Ih.fl!

,ffi

oso =

tTtstons/hr

l?r5 tonsitq
2.tl torsiy'd
3

gs?

yd3/h bank

masup

Ideal output

:857/.8: l07l yd3/nr

Select a 15 yd3 dipper on a shovel

Assume: Bucket factor: 90Yo

Trucks available in75,80, 85 ton sizes only Bucket

capac: (ts yd3)(0.9x1.3

tons/yd3)

17.55 tons/swing

4 swings 17.6 x 4 : 70.4 tons

5 swings 77.6 x 5

88 tons (vs. 85 tons) + 5Yo of calculated

6 swings 17.6 x 6 = 105.6 tons (vs, 100 tons) value or overload is okay.

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Number of

trips/shift:
shift:

ffi -

2gs rrs/sttfr

Output per

(88 tons)(23.3

trips):2050 tons saysrnd{s

Numberoftrucks:
Select 85 ton trucks.

ffi

Load + spot:3.9 min

t n (t" + ts), 15 5(3.9)

Wait

19.5

time:

19.5

15

:4.5

min

Cycle is satisfactory (trucks wait for shovel)

ALTERNATTVE APPROACH
cycle time for shovel

load time/truck # of loads/truck

3.4 min/tuck 5 loads/nuck

:0.68 min.
88
Production ofshovel per

tons*

hour:

cycle

cJule *50 min 15 min hmr

Production with 5 trucks = 5 x 293.3 tons/hr

:1466.7 tons/hr

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Because the production of 5 trucks is larger than the production ofone shovel, then trucks wait shovel. This result is consistent with that using the equation,

for

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and Bucket Wheel Excavators

Machine Advantages Disadvantages

Shovel 1. Lower capital cost per yd3

l. More coal damage can result

1m3 of bucket capacity, in lower coal recovery

Although when boom length 2. Susceptible to spoil slides and or machine weight is consi- pit flooding
dered, the capital costs are 3. Cannot easily handle spoil

roughly equivalent having poor stability

2. Digs poor blasts and tougher 4. Cannot dig deep box cuts materials better easily 3. Can handle partings well 5. Reduced cover depth capabil-

4.Large output/hr. ity compared with a dragline

of comparable cost
6.

Difficult to move

Dragline 1. Flexible operation; easy to move

l.

Requires bench preparation

2.Large digging depth capability 2. Does not dig poor blasts well
3. Can handle and stack overburden 3. Higher capital cost per yd3 (m3) having poor stability of bucket capac, although

4. Completely safe from spoil capital costs are roughly

Pile slides or pit flooding equivalent

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during normal operation 4. Reduced capacity (70 to g0%)

5. High percentage of coal of capacity of shovel

recovery; less coal damage 6. Will dig a deeper box cut

7.

Low maintenance cost

8. Can handle partings well 9. Is not affected by an uneven

or rolling coal seam top surface

10. Can move in any direction

Bucket wheel 1. continuous operation; no

l. will not dig hard materials

swinging necessary 2. Some surface preparation

2.Long discharge range required

3. Can be operated on a 3. Lower availability

highwall bench or on the 4.Large maintenance crew

coal seam required

4. Can easily handle spoil with 5. High capital cost compared

poor stacking characteristic with output
and poor

stabil 6. Can be susceptible to spoil

5. Can extend range of shovel slides and flooding

or dragline when operated in 7. Can cause coal damage with

tandem resulting lower coal recovery 6. Can facilitate land reclamation 8. Poor mobility
as

it dumps surface material

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back on top ofthe spoil pile

Source: Anon.,l976a.

Machine Advantages I)isdvantages

Dozer l. Flexible l. Limited to short haul

2. Good gradeability 2. Discontinuous
3. Negotiates rough terrain 3.

Low output, slow

Truck, trailer 1. Flexible and maneuverable

2. Handles coarse,

Requires good haul roads

bloc rock2. Slowed by bad weather

3. Moderate gradeabil 3. High operating cost

Scraper 1. Flexible and maneuverable

l. May require push loading

(rubber-tired) 2. Good gradeability 2. Limited to soil, small fragments

Rail

1.

High output, low cost

l.

Track maintenance costly

2. Unlimited haul distance 2. Poor gradeability

3. Handles coarse,

bloc rock

3. High investment cost

Belt conveyor

l. High output, continuous l. lnflexible

2. Yery good gradeability 2. Limited to small or crushed rock

3.

Low operating cost 3. High investment cost

Sources: Modified from Pfleider, l9'13a, 1973b; Martin et a1.,1982

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EQUIPMENT SELECTION AND PIT DESIGN Strip Mine Shovel

In designing a strip mine operation, the reach and capac of the machine are the two most important factors to be considered.
The reach determines how high an overburden can be mined and how far and high the spoil can be emplaced to establish the technological strip ratio.

SR=

cu Frds of merbudem tons of recmerb minml

The bucket capac determines the productivity of the machine and thus determines the economic feasibility of an operation. The product of reach and capacity represents an overhanging load which must be adequately supported by the main structural frame of the machine.

For

ofthe machine, the reach and capacity are inversely proportional i.e. one can easily be increased by an appropriate reduction ofthe other.
a given main structural frame

The maximum usefulness factor (MUF) is the term used to express the relationship between machine structural weight and its ability to do work (capacity x reach)

MUF:

(nominal dipper, yd3) or (bucket size, yd3) x (dumping reach, ft)

If the gross machine weight for various stripping shovels (draglines) is plotted against maximum usefulness factor for each shovel or dragline, the curve appears to follow a generally straight line regardless of manufacture or size range of machine.
The MUF is usefill in the preliminary evaluation of stripping projects under consideration and approved machine size other than current designs. Using the attached figure, for a machine gross

weight of 27 x 106 lb, usefulness would be36250 ft-yd3 bucket, the dumping reach would be 201 ft. Designing the Pit

In order to design a pit width and find the mineral production in the last cut the following 8 steps could be followed:
1. Determine the

minimum pit width (or minimum clean up radius)

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Wp^in

r/z

width over both crawlers

clearance radius

(or rear end radius at lower edge of frame)

2. Determine the maximum pit width, (or maximum clean up radius)

Wn-o

t/zwidth over both crawlers

radius of clean up.

3. Determine the digging reech

Vzvttdth over both crawlers

m<imum dumping radius.

4. Determine the dumping reach Six considerations in determining the dumping reach

L Depth of overburden, H

ii. Thickness of coal seam, T iii. Width of cut, w iv. Swell of overburden,
v. Slope of highwall, vi. Slope of spoil,
s

::{;"
tf
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('trtgli:t'e

pl

;
f

l,,,ilf *ili*ntJ*rJ as a fincfivn ol

tu-r rr:hne r,ihg '=

$ G tr.r *l

1'

'sk+rnii llii'j tJrllrra'* fi, lclt. sh<inls; .

rShl, <,r*13$rit.

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nage ie

ofoi

Refening to the figure, the area of the spoil, As can be written as

Ar=ar+A.,
The height of the spoil,

can be written as

h=hr+h,
Where h, is the height of area Ar, and h, is the height of area Ar.

Ar:w/2xh,

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A,r= w/2 xwl2 tan

Where: the

angle of repose of the spoil pile or slope of spoil.

ar:wxh,
A,=w(h-h1)

w(h - wl2

tn)

+=#*o+wh-#*u
- *ttur.u
4

$rh

Spoil volume: volume of overburden + ddilisnal volume due to swell.

In terms of bank cut area:

Spoil area,

Ar:

area of overburden + ddilisnal area due

to swell

(or volume per unit depth into the paper)

\:

A" + (s/100)*4.
(1 + s/loo) * A.

4:

where,

s:

o/o

swell

Aa: *H
A,

(1 + s/100) x wH or,

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*t'-$*,u=(t.=r*)*"

o-

*.['.

r' -It-ru=fr. =H cotE 4 r00,

t

*=[(t.=r*J n.f*u].o.u

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Looking at the figure for the dragline, the dragline reach ru will be equal to the shovel reach +
additional amount equal to the horizontal projection of the highwall slope.

rd=r*+Hcot

n = [[t . #J H . *u].o,u

+ H cotg

Where is the angle the highwall makes with the horizontal.

Having tentatively selected a stripping shovel or machine based on reach requirements, appropriate capacity must be attained. Dumping radius ofthe shovel: shovel's dumping reach + 0.5 width over crawlers. Dumping radius of dragline

dumping reach of the dragline + 0.75 (tub diameter)

Theoretical capac of the dragline: bucket capac x fill factor x efficiency x loose weight/yd3 x # of passes/tr.

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The determination ofthe dumping reach in the previous derivation did not take into consideration the thickness of the mineral deposit. If we considered the thickness ofthe seam and referring to the figure below, we obtain the following derivation for the dumping reach.

Insert "surface extraction" figure here

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ACB

:41 + 42 + 43

:whl+wh2+wT

.i*o+w(r-

,^,0)

.*r

#*,o

wh

r*0

wr

ACB: *n- *21"ro+wT

4

ACS: wH

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acB: (r .

-)*n

ACB: (r .

;)

,rcs

Combining equations and

*r, -

+ . St"r.o wr = (t

#)*t

rr-ftano+r=(t.rfu)"

But

h:

r tan, so

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rtano-*u+r.(t.r*a)"

rtaro = *u

. (t . r -t rL*)

'=

a*e['-.u.n['.#) -tl

q=6|u[*'.n['.#) 'l

Where

r:\

For Shovel:

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Dumping radius: dumping reach + 0.5 (width of crawlers)

= .. + 0.5 width over crawlers

r.

l(t

=rrJ

. ,",,o " f l.otu

O = ((t .

#) n . f *u) .oru + u.Swidth mer crau,ler

For dragline:
Dumping radius: dumping reach + 0.75 width of tub

Rd:

rd + 0.75 width of tub

rd:r.+Hcot

-+

((t.

r*=J

H.l*u)

,o,u +Hcot +o.?Swidthorrrh

NOTE:
Maximum Usefulness Factor
Suppose a BE 480w dragline

(MUF):

nominal dipper or bucket size x dumping reach

Dumping radius: 154 ft

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Bucket Size: 18 yd3 Dumping reach: 154 - (0.75)36: 127 ft.

Wish to determine the reach of a 15 yd3 dragline bucket

"rgBtg

MUF:

r1sB15

rra:rrrBre/Brs

: (127)(L8) / ls

152.4

ft

5. Determine the average highwall depth of last cut, H, or the highwall timit of mining.

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r, /cot0 -

E
1 100

tar e

H=

-3 I+-

Thus for a given machine size, considering the material-pit parameters, it is possible to determine the highwall limit of mining. 6. Determine the number of cuts that can be taken. (from 2 and 5)

Limit is when

Hi:

7. Determine

strip ratio per linear ft.

- rmlume of merbrnden ()d1

tonnage of

mlnnal (tru)

$'yH two

xtft+2ift34d3
x p+ 2000 D/ton

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'Where:

t:

thickness of mineral deposit

: average density ofmineral deposit

(co"l:
lS5 lb/ft3)

8. Find monthly production of mineral in last cut.

volunn of mu:burlur fudl

utnsormrrat

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EXAMPLE
In
a level terraiq determine the mo<imum height of highwall that a dragline can strip without rehandling, using the following information:

Dumping radius of dragline: 154 ft. Tub diameter:36 ft. Dragline is offset 0.75 (tub diameter)
Spoil's angle of repose: 37

Highwall's angle of repose:74

The pit

width:50 ft.

The coal is 4 ft. thick Percent swell:3002

Solution
Rdd = Rd + 0.75
154

(Er)

= 154 + 0.75 (36)

Ru = 127 ft.

*u=

#.

n}u((t. #)

r. i'"',u-r)

*, =

#.

#(o.on.

+(-0.?s4)

4)

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127 = 0.287

H+ 1.326 (1.3 H + 9.425 - 4)

2.01 H = 119.8

H:59.6 ft.
Without including t in the formula,

H = 56.96 ft. + 4 ft. of coal

= 60.96 ft.

Remember: Cycle times for these and other equipment can be estimated by conducting time studies.

CHAPTER 2

RArL (LOCOMOTTVE) HAULAGE

Whenever large tonnages have to be transported over relatively long distances on a relatively flat terrain, locomotive haulage is often the most efficient system to use.

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Rail haulage today in mining stands at the cross roads. Radical departures must be made from past practices and new innovations made in order for rail haulage to remain a viable alternative in the face of new developments for the transport of materials in mines. Advantages of
1. Very

Ril Haulage

low production costs where production requirements and volumes justify their installation.

2. Small labor force required.

3. Very versatile as to the type of materials handled. 4.

I\gh tonnage capacity

5. Spillage is minimal
6. Minimum maintenance requirements 7. High loading and unloading costs can be justified by economy of haul and high tonnage. 8. Efficient and cheap over long distances. Increased haul distance does not increase costs proportionally.

9. Traffic control is simple using two-way radios.

10. Can provide a certain amount of regeneration on downhill runs resulting in energy savings.
11. Ability to utilize automatic traffic control systems (CTC) and to operate the locomotives remotely. This increases efficiency and reduces manpower requirements.

12. Good availability

Disadvantages of Rail Haulage

l. Locomotives are limited to fairly shallow gradients (mainline track grades of 2 to 3 percent adverse to the load and 3.5 to 4 percent favorable to the load are generally used).
2. Frictional grip between the driving wheels and the rails also limits the size of train which can be hauled. 3. Mines considering rail haulage must have large reserves to support long life and large production. Capital intensive and on short hauls can't compete with trucks economically.

4. High initial installation costs 5. System is inflexible

6. Special unloading devices required.

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7. Mostly used in ore transport due to

difficu in spreading

waste.

Types of locomotives used in mines today

1. Diesel-electric

2. Trolley-electric

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Tracliw effutsupto Tl, the ryeed can t'e up to Vl, fc tactive effortsh/wTr & Tr, ma:c qpecdisVr

I
--------.t--I
I I

Gcar2

i
Thrce-gcer

Gcar3

Dir*l Lmcnoti'c Chncbristics

Electric - most prevalent because they can be adapted to any track gauge and are available in all sizes from small switch engines to large freight haulers.
1. Diesel

Stationary trolley wire is not required since the diesel engine is the primary power source, and the moving of track and adjacent mining operational conditions are simplified Diesel engines have a traction generator directly connected to them which furnishes po\/er to axlemounted traction motors. This also provides dynamic braking through the electrical system effectively assisting braking capability. Characteristic of the diesel engine is to provide a steady torque over a wide range of speed, the value of the torque depending on the amount of fuel injected per engine cycle whioh is controlled by the drivers throttle oontrol. The graph of available tractive effort against speed is shown above. The tractive effort depending on
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the engine torque and the gear in use. The shaded portions ofthe graph represent the working areas the locomotive. Points d B, and C represent the mrimum power the locomotive can develop usually called the traction rating and are the points normally specified in manufacturer's details of locomotives. a. Size (standard) 2-45 tons b. Must meet schedule24 (u.s.B.M.) must have scrubber

of

ratio of air-fuel specifications; 20-25 parts airl

part fuel.

2. Trolley Electric - have a top mounted pantograph or a side mounted collector to receive power provided by an electrified wire.
can provide a certain of power regeneration on downhill runs. Results in energy savings.

give offno exhaust fumes, an advantage in tunnels and in providing a pollution free environment. fewer problems of cooling motors than diesels. Have speed advantage over diesels because of the trolley wire's large power sources. major disadvantages of electric locomotives is the interference to the mining operation that trolley wire, poles, and structures that carry the wire and close tolerance requirements for these structures
generate.

dump settlement makes the maintenance of trolley wire alignment difficult and the operation complicated.

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final selection of a locomotive type may depend on the availability of electric power as opposed to diesel fuel in certain parts ofthe world. Trolley locomotives (trolley-wire supplied electric)
a.

two types: coal mine tlpe

metal mining type (looks like a square box) b. voltages: 250 V and 500

c. Size range: 2 - 50 tons. In ril. Va. the max is 300 tons.

d. Motors: Series wound traction motor with characteristics as shown below with low speeds at high

current or high tractive effort

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The position of the line depends on the supply voltage and the field connections and by effectively varying these, different characteristics can be obtained as shown below.

At tractive effort T, the speed may be Vl , V2 , or V, depending on the electrical arrangement. Intermediate characteristics are sometimes provided by including resistors in the electric circuit; but these are often short term rated and so cannot be used for continuous operation.

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e. Advantages -

ofD.C. motors: - HiSh starting torque

No charging

f. Disadvantages: - Limited to those headings where the trolley has been strung - hazards of exposed line - rails must be well bonded for efficient operation Types of Rail Cars
a. Side dump

more versatile and usually with capacities that range from 30 yd3 to 50 yd3. employed in hard rock mines and metal mines.
can dump on either side. b. Bottom dump

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more prevalent in coal mines fast unloading higher maintenance costs.

c. Rotary dumping machines

which turn over the rail cars for quick dumping of ore.
d. Rocker type

Locomotives are however limited to fair shallow gradients, and the frictional grip between the driving wheels and the rails also limits the size of train which can be hauled. Factors affecting the selection of a locomotive
The selection of a locomotive to handle a specified daily tonnage depends upon the following:
1. Track - Profile: grade

& length

Condition: wet, dry, sanded.

2. Resistance
3. Distance to be traveled per

trip

4. Time oftrip
5. Tonnage to be handled per trip or shift,

1.

Track

A profile of the track over which the locomotive is expected to operate is necessary for selecting both diesel and trolley locomotives. In the case of either type, we must know the steepest grade, both plus and minus, so that the proper weight of locomotive is chosen for starting and stopping the load. In addition, for the trolley locomotive, the various grades with the distances must be known to determine the heating capacity of the motor(s) in the locomotive.
2, Resistance
Resistance may be considered as coming from six sources.

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a. Resistance of

Trailing Load (bearing & track), R" - The force that the load must overcome to

start it on a level track. The amount of resistance offered by the trailing load is expressed in pounds per ton of load hauled. For mine work it varies between I and2Yo of the gross load. Roller bearings are considered as having a resistance of lYo (20 b/ton). Plain bearings are considered as having a resistance of 1.5% (30 lb/ton).

For example, assun'dng a train of cars with plain bearings and weighing 60 tons, the rolling resistance would be 60 x 30 =' 1800 lb which is the force necessary to start the load on a level track.
Resistance of traihqg [oad,

R"

Iad (tr) x r resbtarre x 2fl00lb/ton

100

RL = L

lristance (%) x 20 lb

=LxRx20
:20LR lb/ton
where: L is the weight of the trailing load in tons.

R is the resistance in

oZ

b. Rolling resistance of Locomotive,

R*

Amount of drawbar pull or tractive effort required to overcome the retarding effect between the wheels and track.
Resistance offered by the locomotive when the motor pinion is removed. Usually taken as 20 lb per ton. Some manufacturers claim l5 lbs/ton to be sufficient.

R":20

lb/ton.

c. Curue Resistance,

R" (effort

required to overcome the resistance of curves)

Resistance due to curves, usually disregarded if the minimum radius of curvature for the curves has been used. Curve resistance depends on a variety of factors:

l. track gage

on the curve 4. speed

2, wheel base 5. radius of curve

3. wheel diameter 6. number of cars (load) on the curve

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A 1 curve is one in which 100 ft of track is l/300 of a complete circle. The radius of I

5730 ft.

s=r
100 =

(r) (t.zas x tO-2)

r:

5730 ft. 0.8 (lb/ton) / degree (Normally used value)

Rc:

Degree of.Curve

5730 / Radius in feet.

as:

Alternative equation for determining curve resistance is given

ps:

225(B+H) bfion

where: B is the wheelbase ofthe wagons, ft, K is track gauge in ft, r is the radius of curve in ft.

d. Grade Resistancer Ra
The grade resistance is the drawbar pull or tractive effort required to overcome gravity in propelling a locomotive up an incline. Expressed in degrees 0, and percentages (%). Grade resistance,

Rr:

Golo

W tons

:20 :20

GW lb
G lb/ton
o/o.

Where W is the weight of the locomotive (tons) and g is the grade in

Grade resistance must be considered for the trailing load and the locomotive. Grades are normally 5%.

e.

Level of Drawbar Pull (DP)

Defined as the force exerted on the coupled load by a locomotive through its drawbar or coupling and is the sum of the tractive resistances of the coupled load.
The drawbar pull which a locomotive is capable of developing is determined by subtracting from the tractive effort, the sum of the tractive resistances of the locomotive.

DP:

Tractive effort - sum oftractive resistance of locomotive.

Adhesion between the wheel tread of the locomotive and the steel rails is what permits the load to be

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started and kept in motion. Adhesive force depends on material of which the tread is made

condition of rails For estimating purposes for level track use

20Yo for cast iron treads 25Yo

for steel

Tractive Effort - total force delivered by the motive power of the locomotive through the gearing at the wheel treads. When the tractive effort force is greater than the product of the locomotive weight and the coefficient of adhesion between the wheels and rails, the wheels will slip. Tractive effort

Yo

of

adhesion x

: A
100

x 't x 2000

20AH lb/ton

Where:

W:

the weight of locomotive (tons)

A:

adhesioninYo.

Conditions % Adhesion

Dry rails2iYo
Dry rails (sanded rails) 33%
Wet rails 5-15% Braking dry rails20Yo

Force ofacceleration and deceleration

Force of acceleration is the force required to overcome the inertia of the body.

R"=Ma=\alg
where

R":

accelerating force, lb.

W:

weight, tons

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: :

acceleration, ff/sec2 acceleration of gravity

:32.2

ff/sec

lrphps=,ffi

t.4?ft/s2

Express force in terms of pounds per ton with an acceleration

of 1 mphps, we

get:

g x R. ' = 32.2 l? ft/sec2 = 913 h/ton of rehicle pr I

trElps

Therefore, the force required to impart an acceleration of

mphps to a weight of one ton is 91.3 lb.

In actual calculations, 100 lb/ton instead of 9l.l lblton are used as the force necessary to give I ton an acceleration of I mphps because rotational acceleration of the wheels, motors, gears requires approximately 8.7Ib. Total: (91.3 + 8.7) lbs or l00lb/ton.

If acceleration or deceleration is considered, they must be applied to both the trailing load
locomotive;

and the

Ra=1o0aWlb
or

R":

100a lb/ton

where a is the acceleration in miles per hour per second.

Braking Effort
The weight of the locomotive selected for starting and hauling the load should be investigated

for

stopping the train. When the power is shut offand the train allowed to coast down grade, it is aided by gravity to the extent of 20 lb/ton for each percent of grade. Plain bearings retard the train at 30 lb/ton.

Tractive effort :20Yo for cast iron thread

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:25Yo for steel thread

Breaking

effort:

80

to 85% of the tractive effort.

3. Distance to be traveled and tonnege per shift

Affect the size ofthe locomotive and the kilowatt-hr capacity ofthe locomotive selected.
4. Time per

trip
and

A consideration of this feature is necessary to determine the tonnage that will be handled per shift
thus the number of locomotives required for the work.

RAILROAD HAIILAGE CALCULATIONS

A. Against Loads (Eauting)
1.

Drawbar pull required by load on grades

against lods

--u*..Ulsin = 20b

/t /ahgr.

Jean Le.Rond D'Alembert (French Mathematician) D'Alembert's Principle: A mass develops an inertial force proportional to its acceleration and opposing it, Principle permits the equations of motion to be expressed as equations of dynamic equilibrium,

By D'Alembert's Principle, this can then be considered as a system in equilibrium and the balanced

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force equation can be written down Drawbar Pull, (DP)

any)

as:

: Grade resistance + Rolling resistance * Accn. resistance * curve resistance (if

DP:RsL+RRL+RaL+RL
DP DP

: 20 GL + RRL + l00al, + RcL

:
LQG + RR + 100 a * Rc) lb (hauling)
2. Tractive Effort - required for the total train is the sum of the various tractive resistances of both the locomotive and coupled load including the accelerati on resistance

loco

* cars train

a. Tractive effort required

for hauling on grades against loads

T.

+ ReL

.'-

LRa + LRC + WRs + RWW + rilRWa + \ryRWC

DP + sum of resistances

:20 AW
therefore, 20AW

20GL+ LR, + 100aL + RCL + 20GW + \ryRw + l00aW + RcW

W(204 -20G

-Rw- l00a-Rc)=L(20G+RL+ l00a+Rg)

b, The drawbar pull developed by locomotive while hauling on grades against loads is L(20G + RL +

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l00a + Rc) or W(204 - 20c-

- l00a - R")

c. The weight of locomotive required for handling coupled load against loads is

\4 -

L f20G+Rr+llllla+R.l
2OA

- 20G - Rw- ltllta -

Rc

3. Braking
a.

Drawbar Pull Required by Load while Braking on grades against loads

,5

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DP +

L\

LR*:

LR"

DP:LR"-LRs-LRR

DP:

L(Ra - Rs - RR) b. Tractive effort required while braking on

grades against loads

T. + LRr + LRc + WRg a WRy: LR" 1WR T,

LRu - LRL - LRC a WR - WR\M - WRg

= l00al - LRl, - 20 GL + 100 aW - tilR* - 20 GL

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L(100 u - RL - 20 G) +W(100 u - Rw(0) - 20 G)

WhenBraking

T.

and DP are opposite to the direction of the motion

R" is in the direction of motion or opposite to the direction of positive acceleration or opposite the drawbar pull.
B. fn Favor of Loads
1.

Drawbar pull required by load on grades in fevor of loeds

.$u"
""tt$"$-

...f'

,#

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DP

+Rr=R *Ra+RC

DP=RL+Ra-Rg*RC

LRL + l00al - 20GL + RL

DP

: L(\

+ 100 a -

20G

* \)

(lb) hauling
2. Trctive Effort required for hauling when grades are in favor of loads

T. * Rlg + Rrg T.

RW* RWu * RL + Rl" + RWC+ RrC

: L(\

- Rre

* RL"* RLc)+ (Rw * Rwe * Rw"* Rwc)\ry

Drawbar Pull developed by locomotive on grades in favor of loads

20 AW

: (LRr - 20 GL+ l00al, + LRs) a WRr - 20GW + 100aW + WRc

*
20G - l00a -

W(204 - Rw

\) : rr, - 20G + 100a + \)

Weight of locomotive required when hauling on grades in favor of loads

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= L fRr-20G+lltra+Rcl 20.4' - R$+ 20G - lflla - R

3. Braking on grades in favor of loeds:
a. Drawbar Pull

(lb) hauling

,#
rf

t'$

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DP + LRL: LRo + LRO

DP:LRo-LRr,aLRI

20GL - LRr + l00al,

DP:L(2OG-Rr*100a)

I
tlt

b. Tractive Effort

I--.

rS' t

7,F

T. + !VR* + LRL: WR, a WR + LRa * LRs

T" T"

: - WRW - LRr + WRg a WR + LRa * LRs : - WRw - LRr + 20GW + l00aW + l00al, + 20GL
:
W(206 - Rw(
o

T.

+ 100a) + L(20G - Rl
&

l00a)

R"

is zero when braking

R*:0

For hauling and braking the following cases should be considered

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(total of 12 cases)
a) Te required for hauling on grades against loads

b) TB required for hauling on grades in favor of loads

c) Drawbar pull developed by locomotive on grades against loads d) Drawbar pull developed by locomotive on grades in favor of loads
e) Drawbar pull required by load on grades against loads

f) Drawbar pull required by load on grades in favor of loads

DUTY CYCLE
Sufficient data pertaining to duty cycle and haulageway dimensions, curyes and grades are necessary to estimate adequate weight, horsepower and speed of a locomotive to perform satisfactorily under specified conditions.

MineJocomotive manufacturers have established by tests and experience certain practicalvalues for:
a. the coefficients

of adhesion between the threads ofthe locomotive driving wheels and the rail.

b. factors that influence train resistance such as tractive resistance and include

l. frictional

resistance of bearings in locomotives and cars, track resistance to rolling

2. grade resistance
3. track curvature resistance

4. acceleration resistance
When locomotives are powered by electric motors, it is also vital that they do not overheat during the duty cycle and cause insulation and brush failures.

In selecting a locomotive for haulage purposes, it is important that the duty cycle for the proposed conditions be calculated. The horsepower rating for the locomotive will depend on the duty it must
perform. Assuming that the locomotive weight is sufficient to handle the load under the most adverse conditions of starting, accelerating, stopping etc. it must in addition have a continuous motor capacity which will not overheat during the period in which it is in service. The motor capacity required is determined by calculating a duty-cycle for a round trip under operating conditions. For this purpose there must be available the profile of the route showing the grades curves,

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and level stretches of track, and the characteristic curves

ofthe motors in the proposed locomotive.

CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
The characteristic curves of the motors used in locomotive may be obtained from the manufacturers. These curves are determined for sea-level rating and a temperature rise of 75C from an ambient temperature of 25C. Ifthe locomotive is to be used under conditions other than these, corrections must be applied to the temperature rating at seaJevel.

Effect of Altitude and Tempereture on Motor Characteristic

Increased altitude has the effect of increasing the temperature rise of some types of machinery.

It is recommended that when

a machine is intended for service at altitudes above 3300ft, the permissible temperature rise at sea level shall be reduced by l% for each 330ft by which the altitude exceeds 3300ft.

Permissible temperature

?s

?S

-lf nhation 33oxloo ) I

gfOO

Suppose we have an elevation of 5280'

Permissible temperature

rise:

?s

- is f szgo - ss00l = [330xr00J

?5

- 4.s =

?0.s-

If the temperature under which the locomotive operates is greater than 25 a similar correction must applied to the ambient temperature, otherwise the estimated temperature will exceed 100.
of 35C which is l0 (35-25) higher than normal, then the temperature under which the machine would be rated is

be

If the locomotive is to operate under

70.5 - (35 - 25)

a temperature

70.5 - l0

: 60.5
CONTINUOUS CURRENT RATING

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The principal source of heat in locomotive haulage is the resistance of the conductor and it is proportional to the product ofthe square ofthe current flowing and the time during which the specific current flows.

It

is therefore necessa/ to estimate the average "continuous current" demands of the entire duty cycle and compare them to the "continuous current" rating of the motor chosen.

Estimate of "continuous-current" demand of duty cycle is obtained by the rms (root-mean-square) method by:
a. dividing duty cycle into main sections requiring different tractive effort values

b. selecting the corresponding amps and speed for each tractive effort value from the characteristic curve of the motor.
c. calculating from the specific mph and length of the section, the specific time for each section. d. adding the products of the squares of the specific amperes and the respective values of time (I2 x t)
e. dividing the sum by the effective time,

t.

t.

is usually calculated by locomotive manufacturers as total time + total idle or terminal time when

motors are cooled by forced ventilation or total running time + one-half idle or terminal time when self ventilating motors and specified.

r.m.s. current

I"
portl

,ffi
frce

s\g

=@t
Iltr

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age 5o ot'o3

L*-

Iftr * lfu *

13 +..-.. +

tt*te*b*---.+t1+

I/2 trle tirp for self cooled

motors

irlle timp
(or)

moton

cooled

hy

fored rcntilation

Irrrr. should be less than the continuous current rating for efficient service.

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Motor Performance Curves or Characteristic Curves

ESTIMATING CONTINUOUS CURRENT RATING

Suppose a haulage level is at 6600ft and the ambient temperature is 30C.

Correction for elevation

oo = l0 is f cooo - rsoo * t-( 33oo )

e/o

Temperatre

5C - (10%)(7 5C)

: 67 .5C
- 5C:

Correction for ambient temperature is 30C - 25C: 5C.

The temperature rise becomes 67.5C
62.5

For practical applications, the heating varies directly as the square of the current ever the time it is applied. A temperature rise curve must be constructed and the continuous rating of the motor for the new conditions must be determined from this.
The curve may be constructed as follows:

From the 75C curve points are chosen on the curve. For example, at 0.37hr, the current is 250 amps; at 0.6 hr, it is 200 amps; at I hr, it is 155 amps; at 1.5 hr, it is 128 amps; at2vs, it is 113 amps; at2.5 hr, it is 102 amps; at 3hrs, it is 96 amps; at 3.5hr, it is 90 amps; at 8 hrs, it is 60 amps.

By use ofthe formula

, we obtain values that are plotted against 75 in

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fig 166. From Fig 166 we find

vrlr * amn5 the r

values for the 62.5C curve. These

values with the actual motor amps may be solved for the time. oonstant temp is assumed

A continuous rating or
for 8 hrs.

to occur after the motor

has run continuously

The amperes for the 75C curve are plotted against their equivalent time in the 62.5C curve. We find that the thr rating has decreased to about 52 amps.

If the duty cycle requires a rating of 61.5 amp., then the locomotive selected is not large enough to perform the work satisfactorily unless auliary ventilation is used.

Time to rise to 75"

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Continuous current rating

[+J"

continrous crrent mting

at

75' -

continrors curert rating at

y'

Assume continous current rating at seaJevel is the vertical line tangent to 75 curve.

MOTOR HORSEPOWER

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Locomotive horsepower at any given instant

3?5 x efreruy

Efficiency is that of Transmission between motive polver and driving wheels. For spur gears, efficiency:0.95 or 95Yo
single reduction, eff

: :

0.95

double reduction, eff

0.90

won

gears,

eff:0.90 - 0.96

Kilowatt input to

motor:

HP x ?4 x I00

df xlfl00

SPEED TIME & DISTANCE (for a constant rate of acceleration)

t:(vl-"J/aIv:u+at]
D

: 0.5 ((rr - v )

ut

% at2l

1.467 is the conversion factor from mph to

s.

Rr:

(% resistance)(20), lb/ton

\:20,
R.:0.8

lblton
lb/ton

degree (applied

to load and locomotive)

Rr:20G
Ru:

lb/ton (applied to load and locomotive)

100a, lb/ton (applied to load and locomotive)

T":204W, ton

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MINE STORAGE BATTERIES

Ttvo Types
a. Edison or nickel-iron-alkaline combination

b. Lead or acid type Capacity ofBattery

lkwH:

33000

ft lh /min/HP x 0 mln/hr .?4krH/HP

2Lll x ftD

In practice, it is customary to consider an efficiency of

67Yo

lkwH

.67(2.654x tO6)

ftJb:

1,769,500 ft-lb

The battery capacity for each section of the haul is found from

Kw_hr

TxD0*20G)
r,76ftpoo

Where T

total tons hauled (including locomotive)

D: G:

distance of each section

gradeYo

Selection of Battery

l.

Determine number of plates

a. Lead Battery

voltagel2V cells
cells

b. Edison

Battery: voltage/I.2V

2. Determine number ofplates

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amD-hours: 1ItH

'vv

_ M

Number of plates

-anP

-hoTs

Duty Cycle
Duty cycle is important in selecting a locomotive for haulage purposes.
The h.p. rating for the locomotive will depend on the duty it must perform. Assuming locomotive weight is sufficient to handle the load under the most adverse conditions of starting accelerating, stopping etc, it must have in addition a continuous motor capacity which will not heat during the period in which it is in servi ce. The motor capacity required is determined by calculating a duty cycle for a round trip under operating conditions.

REGENERATION
Locomotives like belt conveyors could be driven by industrial internal combustion engines where electric power is not available. They could be driven,..
a. from a line shaft where steam power is available

b. by hydraulic motors or air turbines in gassy or explosive environments c. almost universally by electric motors.
an induction motor is driven by its load in the same direction as the rotation of the flux, its speed rises above synchronous speed. The motor acts as an induction generator, taking magnetizing current from the line and absorbing mechanical power through its shaft, Electric power is then fed back into

If

the power system. The motor will restrain the load with little rise in speed above synchronous as long as the load torque If maximum torque is exceeded, the motor

does not exceed the maximum torque of the motor. becomes unstable and runs away.

As the motor drains magnetizing current from the line, it follows that dynamic braking is possible when the connection between the motor starter and the power line is intemrpted. The motor serves as

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a generator feeding

power back into the system without special control.

In this case retardation must be effected by other braking methods.

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