Motivation

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Motivation
n Goal directed behavior n We never observe them directly n We infer from behavior things that are done or said n Motives helps us to make predictions about

behavior n As motives explain our behavior, so many theories of personalities are really theory about persons motives
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n Theories of motivation try to provide general

sets of principles to guide our understanding of the urges, wants, needs, desires, strivings, and goals that come under the heading of motovation.

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Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
nThe processes that account for an individuals

intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal specifically, an organizational goal. nThree key elements: n Intensity how hard a person tries n Direction effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goals n Persistence how long a person can maintain effort
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Early Theories of Motivation

These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
1.Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory 2.McGregors Theory X and Theory Y 3.Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory 4.McClellands Theory of Needs

Content Theories: things that motivates people

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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Physiological : Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex,

and other bodily needs. Safety: Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm. Social : Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship. Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention. Self-actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving KM, 2013, IIMIDR ones potential, and self-fulfillment.

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. Assumptions
Self-Actualization (capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving ones potential, and selffulfillment.) Esteem (internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.) Social (affection, belongingness, friendship, acceptance) Safety (physical & emotional harms) Physiological (bodily needs)

Higher Order Internal Lower Order External

Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied Must move in hierarchical order Cordial Relationship Job security Pay

Self Actualisation
n They were open to experience vividly, selflessly, with full

concentration and total absorption. n They were in tune with themselves, their inner beings. n They were spontaneous, autonomous, independent, with a fresh, unstereotyped appreciation of people and evets. n They devoted total effort to their goals, wanting to be first-rate, or at least as good as they could be. n They were dedicated, fully and creatively, to some cause outside themselves. n They related to a few specially loved others on a deep emotional plane. n They resisted conformity to the culture; they could be detached and private. Moments of true self-actualisation peak experiences highly KM, 2012, IIMIDR focused, vivid moments, there is often disorientation in time and space, a feeling of richness and unity.

Maslows Need Theory

n As a need becomes substantially satisfied, the next

need becomes dominant. No need is ever fully gratified; a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. n Major implication for Managers: n Understanding a persons level of needs, and focus on satisfying those or above that level.
n n n

Pay should cover lower order needs Safety and security in work place, and work itself Encouraging cordial relationships & sense of belongingness Incentive plans motivate to the extent it is linked to 9 KM, 2013, IIMIDR recognition, achievement, fulfilled (esteem needs)

ERG Theory
n Three groups of core needs:

Existence: basic material existence requirements n Relatedness: desire to maintain interpersonal relationship n Growth: intrinsic desire for personal development n Unlike Maslow, multiple needs operate as motivators at the same time n Frustration in attempting to satisfy a higher level need can result in regression to a lower level need
n
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McGregors Theory X & Theory Y

n Theory X assumptions are basically negative. a. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it. b. Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment. n Theory Y assumptions are basically positive. a. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. b. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.

Major implication for Managers: Participative decision making, responsible and challenging KM, 2013, IIMIDR 11 jobs and good group relations will maximize motivation.

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

n Hygiene factors consistently related to job

dissatisfaction: n Extrinsic factors like supervision, pay, company policies, working conditions, job security, relations with others n Motivator factors consistently related to job satisfaction:
n Intrinsic factors work itself, responsibility,

achievement, promotional opportunities, personal growth, recognition

n Major implication for Managers:

KM, 2013, IIMIDR n good work atmosphere, type of work, work responsibility, 12

etc influence the efficacy of incentive scheme

McClellands Three Needs Theory

n Need for Achievement (nAch)
n

The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

n Need for Power (nPow)

n

n Need for Affiliation (nAff)

n

n People have varying levels of each of the

three needs.
n

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Hard to measure

Performance Predictions for HighnAch People

n People with a high need for achievement are likely

to:
Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations n Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk n Not necessarily make good managers too personal a focus. Most good general managers are NOT high on nAch n Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success n Good research support, but not a very practical theory
n
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Content vs Process theories

n Content: explains specific factors that motivates

people. What motivates people.

n Process: the behavior is outcome of series of

process which can be understood and duplicated, provided certain constant necessary conditions are met. How motivation happens. Motivation: process that accounts for intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.
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Equity Theory
n Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-

to-inputs of relevant others.

n

When ratios are equal: state of equity exists there is no tension as the situation is considered fair When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
n n

Underrewarded states cause anger Overrewarded states cause guilt

Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity

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Equity Theory
n

Major implication for Managers:

n

Employees will compare with what others get, so transparency about pay may be better Performance input and expected incentive should be clearly defined. Issues about:
Distributive justice: fairness of outcome Procedural justice: fairness of outcome process

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Out-input ratio equity theory

n You compare with referent.
Self-inside: An employees experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization n Self-outside: An employees experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization n Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employees organization n Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employees organization There are four moderating variables to choose referent: gender, length of tenure, level in the organization, and amount of education or professionalism.
n
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Out-input ratio equity theory

n Six choices to bring back equilibrium:
n n n n n n

Change their inputs: dont bother about marks per se Change their outcomes: try harder for final placement Distort perceptions of self: may be I am smarter than others, or dumber than others Distort perceptions of others: he may get high salary but has to work in family owned company Choose a different referent: compare with those who got less salary Leave the field: just switch off, quit the race.

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Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Introduction of extrinsic reward such as pay for work effort that was previously intrinsically rewarding due to pleasure associated with content of work decreases overall motivation. may be due to loss of control over own behavior. Israeli school experience Managerial implication
n n n

Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are not independent Extrinsic rewards may decrease intrinsic rewards Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation; tangible rewards reduce it
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Self concordance theory

Degree to which a persons reasons for pursuing a goal is consistent with the persons interests and core values.
n

If people pursue their goal because of intrinsic interest, they are likely to attain their goals and are happy even if they do not achieve their goal. More satisfied with their jobs, feel they fit in well, may perform better Intrinsic reward is key, eg recognition, make work interesting, provide T&D.
KM, 2013, IIMIDR employees feel that what 21 Superior job design such that they do is within their control & a result of free choice

Managerial implication
n n

Goal-Setting Theory
n Basic Premise: goals play an important part in

determining behavior
n

That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance

n Relationship between goals and performance

depends on:
n

Goal commitment (the more public the better!):

n n

Believes that he can achieve the same Wants to achieve the goal

n n n

Task characteristics (simple, well-learned not novel, independent and not inter dependent) Self efficacy belief about having the capacity to perform KM, 2013, IIMIDR 22 Culture bound

Implementation of Goal-Setting: Management by Objectives

n MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting. n Corporate goals are broken down into smaller,

more specific goals at each level of organization. n Goals must be: SMART goals: n Tangible specific measurable n Verifiable attainable timely n Measurable n Four common ingredients to MBO programs: n Goal specificity n Participative decision making n Explicit time period n Performance feedback
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Self-Efficacy Theory
n Self-efficacy is an individuals belief that he or

she is capable of performing a task.

n

Higher efficacy is related to:

n n n

Greater confidence Greater persistence in the face of difficulties Better response to negative feedback (work harder)

Is he skilled? Does he get organisational support to work?

Self-efficacy complements goal-setting theory

Increased Confidence

Given Hard Goal

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Higher Performance
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Increasing Self-Efficacy
n Enactive mastery (apprenticeship/trainee) n Most important source of efficacy n Gaining relevant experience with task or job n Practice makes perfect n Vicarious modeling (mentorship) n Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task n Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to himor herself n Verbal persuasion n Motivation through verbal conviction n Pygmalion and Galatea effects self-fulfilling prophecies n Arousal n Getting psyched up emotionally aroused to complete task n Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
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Reinforcement Theory
n Similar to goal-setting theory, but focused on a

behavioral approach rather than a cognitive one.

n n

Behavior is environmentally caused Thought (internal cognitive event) is not important

n

Feelings, attitudes, and expectations are ignored

n n n

Behavior is controlled by its consequences reinforcers Is not a motivational theory but a means of analysis of behavior Reinforcement strongly influences behavior but is not likely to be the sole cause
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Reinforcement Theory
n Implications for managers; n Reward should follow behavior timing. n Reward should be tightly coupled to desired performance goals
n

Thus in sales incentive, we have some form of telescopic relationship with goal achievement

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Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of performance success Instrumentality of success in getting reward Valuation of the reward in employees eyes

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Expectancy Theory: multiplicative

n Major implication for Managers: n Expectancy: belief that ones effort will result in

performance
n n

Clear task definition Training such that the person expects that he can perform the work successfully

n Instrumentality: belief that ones performance will be

rewarded
n

Reward/pay and performance link is critical.

n Valence: perceived value of reward n Incentive should be large enough to excite. n People will choose behavior that leads to greater reward. KM, 2013, IIMIDR 29 n Cafeteria style of reward and benefit plans

Global Implications
n Motivation theories are often culture-bound.
n

Maslows hierarchy of needs theory

n

Order of needs is not universal nAch presupposes a willingness to accept risk and performance concerns not universal traits A desire for equity is not universal Each according to his need socialist/ communists

McClellands three needs theory

n

Adams equity theory

n n

n Desire for interesting work seems to be universal.

n

There is some evidence that the intrinsic factors of KM, 2013, IIMIDR Herzbergs two-factor theory may be universal

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Justice and Equity Theory

Procedural Justice Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome Fairness of outcome process

Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect

Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.

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An interesting model: grounded to our evolutionary heritage

n Focused on four commonly measured workplace

indicators of motivation:
n n

n n

Engagement: energy, effort and initiative employees bring to their jobs Satisfaction: extent to which they feel that the company meets their expectations at work and satisfies implicit and explicit contracts with them Commitment: extent to which employees engage in corporate citizenship Intention to quit: best proxy to employee turnover

Studies showed that organisations ability to meet these fundamental drives explains about 60% of employees 32 KM, 2013, IIMIDR variance on motivational indicators.

Four Drive Theory

n The drive to acquire
n Food, clothing, etc and social status and experiences like travel and

entertainment . Esteem needs. Foundation for competition. reward system

n The drive to bond

n Kinship, associations, attachment to closest cohorts, linked to +ve

emotions like love, caring, and ve emotions like loneliness, anomie (breakdown of social norms). culture

n The drive to comprehend (learn)

n Desire to make meaningful contribution, make sense of world around

us . Self actualisation need. job design

n The drive to defend:

n Fight or flight, quest to create institutions that defend our relationships,

our acquisitions, our belief systems. Explains our resistance to change KM, 2013, IIMIDR 33 Performance Management, Resource Allocation Process

Four Factor Theory

n Major implication for Managers:
n Explains the role of manager in motivation n Manager create a micro ecosystem where manager can play a

strong role in all the four motivating factors n Employees dont expect their managers to substantially affect the companys overall reward system, culture, job design or management systems n Employees expect managers to address all four within the constraints that the institution imposes n Emotion and rationality go hand in hand n We seek fulfillment of all drives n All drives are independent and often produce competing signals that require our attention we rely on in built skill set that take into account social norm, past experience and personal value.
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Four Drive Theory

n Major implication for Managers: n Motivation is result of rational thinking influenced by emotional markers (our perception is influenced by our emotions) every meaningful bit of information that we receive is quickly and unconsciously tagged with emotional markets that swirl around the conscious process of logically analysing that information. n Emotionality and rationality go hand in hand.

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