5

Bending Stresses in Beams

James M. Gere
Stanford University

5.1 5.2

Longitudinal Strains in Beams Normal Stresses in Beams (Linearly Elastic Materials)

A beam is a slender structural member subjected to lateral loads. In this chapter we consider the bending stresses (i.e., normal stresses) in beams having initially straight longitudinal axes, such as the cantilever beam of Figure 5.1(a). For reference, we direct the positive x axis to the right along the longitudinal axis of the beam and the positive y axis downward (because the deections of most beams are downward). The z axis, which is not shown in the gure, is directed away from the viewer, so that the three axes form a right-handed coordinate system. All cross-sections of the beam are assumed to be symmetric about the xy plane, and all loads are assumed to act in this plane. Consequently, the beam will deect in this same plane [Figure 5.1(b)], which is called the plane of bending. Pure bending refers to bending of a beam under a constant bending moment M, which means that the shear force V is zero (because V = dM/dx). Nonuniform bending refers to bending in the presence of shear forces, in which case the bending moment varies along the axis of the beam. The sign convention for bending moments is shown in Figure 5.2; note that positive bending moment produces tension in the lower part of the beam and compression in the upper part. The stresses and strains in a beam are directly related to the curvature k of the deection curve. Because the x axis is positive to the right and the y axis is positive downward, the curvature is positive when the beam is bent concave downward and negative when the beam is bent concave upward (Figure 5.2).

5.1 Longitudinal Strains in Beams

Consider a segment DE of a beam subjected to pure bending by positive bending moments M [Figure 5.3(a)]. The cross-section of the beam at section mn is of arbitrary shape except that it must be symmetrical about the y axis [Figure 5.3(b)]. All cross-sections of the beam (such as mn) that were plane before bending remain plane after bending, a fact that can be proven theoretically using arguments based on symmetry. Therefore, plane sections remain plane regardless of the material properties, whether elastic or inelastic, linear or nonlinear. (Of course, the material properties, like the dimensions, must be symmetric about the plane of bending.)1 With positive bending moments, the lower part of the beam is in tension and the upper part is in compression. Therefore, longitudinal lines (i.e., line segments parallel to the x axis) in the lower part of
1This chapter contains selected material (text and gures) from Gere, J. M. and Timoshenko, S. P. 1990. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd ed. PWS, Boston. With permission.

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P A B x

(a)

P B

(b)

FIGURE 5.1 Bending of a cantilever beam.

O
Positive bending moment Negative bending moment

+M

+M

Negative curvature

Positive curvature

FIGURE 5.2 Sign conventions for bending moment and curvature.

m c2

D
+M

E
+M

c2

c1

c1

n y
(a)

y
(b)

FIGURE 5.3 Beam in pure bending. (a) Side view of segment of beam showing bending moments M and typical section mn. (b) Cross-section of beam at section mn.

the beam are elongated and those in the upper part are shortened. The intermediate surface in which longitudinal lines do not change in length is called the neutral surface of the beam. We place the origin O of coordinates in this plane, so that the xz plane becomes the neutral surface. The intersection of this surface with any cross-sectional plane is called the neutral axis of the cross-section, for instance, the z axis in Figure 5.3(b). Because plane sections remain plane, the longitudinal strains ex in the beam vary linearly with the distance y from the neutral surface, regardless of the material properties. It can also be shown that the strains are proportional to the curvature k. Thus, the strains are given by the equation

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e x = -k y

(5.1)

The sign convention for ex is positive for elongation and negative for shortening. Note that when the curvature is positive (Figure 5.2) and y is positive (Figure 5.3), the strain is negative.

5.2 Normal Stresses in Beams (Linearly Elastic Materials)

Since longitudinal line elements in the beam are subjected only to tension or compression (elongation or shortening), they are in a state of uniaxial stress. Therefore, we can use the stressstrain diagram of the material to obtain the normal stresses sx from the normal strains ex. If the shape of the stressstrain curve can be expressed analytically, a formula can be derived for the stresses in the beam; otherwise, they must be calculated numerically. The simplest and most common stressstrain relationship is for a linearly elastic material, in which case we can combine Hookes law for uniaxial stress (s = Ee) with Equation (5.1) and obtain s x = Ee x = - Ek y (5.2)

in which E is the modulus of elasticity of the material. Equation (5.2) shows that the normal stresses acting on a cross-section vary linearly with the distance y from the neutral surface when the material follows Hookes law. Since the beam is in pure bending (Figure 5.3), the resultant of the stresses s x acting over the crosssection must equal the bending moment M. This observation provides two equations of statics the rst expressing that the resultant force in the x direction is equal to zero and the second expressing that the resultant moment is equal to M. The rst equation of statics leads to the equation

y dA = 0

(5.3)

which shows that the rst moment of the cross-sectional area with respect to the z axis is zero. Therefore, the z axis must pass through the centroid of the cross-section. Since the z axis is also the neutral axis, we arrive at the following conclusion: The neutral axis passes through the centroid C of the cross-section provided the material follows Hookes law and no axial force acts on the cross-section. Since the y axis is an axis of symmetry, the y axis also passes through the centroid. Therefore, the origin of coordinates O is located at the centroid C of the cross-section. Furthermore, the symmetry of the cross-section about the y axis means that the y axis is a principal axis. The z axis is also a principal axis since it is perpendicular to the y axis. Therefore, when a beam of linearly elastic material is subjected to pure bending, the y and z axes are principal centroidal axes. The second equation of statics leads to the moment-curvature equation M = -k EI in which I= (5.4)

dA

(5.5)

is the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area with respect to the z axis (that is, with respect to the neutral axis). Moments of inertia have dimensions of length to the fourth power, and typical units are in.4, mm4, and m4 for beam calculations. The quantity EI is a measure of the resistance of the beam to bending and is called the exural rigidity of the beam.

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Compressive stresses 2 +M

c2

x
Positive bending moment

c2

Tensile stresses 2 M

x
Negative bending moment

c1

c1

n y

1 Tensile stresses

n y

1 Compressive stresses

FIGURE 5.4 Bending stresses obtained from the exure formula.

The minus sign in the moment-curvature equation is a consequence of the sign conventions we have adopted for bending moments and coordinate axes (Figure 5.2). We see that a positive bending moment produces negative curvature and a negative bending moment produces positive curvature. If the opposite sign convention for bending moments is used, or if the y axis is positive upward, then the minus sign is omitted in Equation (5.4) but a minus sign must be inserted in the exure formula [Equation (5.6)] that follows. The normal stresses in the beam can be related to the bending moment M by eliminating the curvature k between Equation (5.2) and Equation (5.4), yielding sx = My I (5.6)

This equation, called the exure formula, shows that the stresses are directly proportional to the bending moment M and inversely proportional to the moment of inertia I of the cross-section. Furthermore, the stresses vary linearly with the distance y from the neutral axis, as shown in Figure 5.4. Stresses calculated from the exure formula are called bending stresses. The maximum tensile and compressive bending stresses occur at points located farthest from the neutral axis. Let us denote by c1 and c2 the distances from the neutral axis to the extreme elements in the positive and negative y directions, respectively (see Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4). Then the corresponding maximum normal stresses s1 and s2 are s1 = in which S1 = I c1 S2 = I c2 (5.8) Mc1 M = I S1 s2 = Mc 2 M =I S2 (5.7)

The quantities S1 and S2 are known as the section moduli of the cross-sectional area. From Equation (5.8) we see that a section modulus has dimensions of length to the third power (for example, in.3, mm3, or m3). If the cross-section is symmetric with respect to the z axis, which means that it is a doubly symmetric cross-section, then c1 = c2 = c, and the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal numerically: s 1 = -s 2 = in which Mc M = I S (5.9)

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b h/2 C h/2 z d C z

y
(a)

y
(b)

FIGURE 5.5 Doubly symmetric cross-sectional shapes.

S=

I c

(5.10)

is the section modulus. For a beam of rectangular cross-section with width b and height h [Figure 5.5(a)], the moment of inertia and section modulus are I= bh3 12 S= bh 2 6 (5.11)

For a circular cross-section of diameter d [Figure 5.5(b)], these properties are I= p d4 64 S= p d3 32 (5.12)

The properties of many other plane gures are listed in textbooks and handbooks. The preceding equations for the normal stresses apply rigorously only for pure bending, which means that no shear forces act on the cross-sections. The presence of shear forces produces warping, or out-ofplane distortion, of the cross-sections, and a cross-section that is plane before bending is no longer plane after bending. Warping due to shear greatly complicates the behavior of the beam, but detailed investigations show that the normal stresses calculated from the exure formula are not signicantly altered by the presence of the shear stresses and the associated warping. Thus, under ordinary conditions we may use the exure formula for calculating normal stresses even when we have nonuniform bending. The exure formula gives results that are accurate only in regions of the beam where the stress distribution is not disrupted by abrupt changes in the shape of the beam or by discontinuities in loading. For instance, the exure formula is not applicable at or very near the supports of a beam, where the stress distribution is irregular. Such irregularities produce localized stresses, or stress concentrations, that are much greater than the stresses obtained from the exure formula. With ductile materials and static loads, we may usually disregard the effects of stress concentrations. However, they cannot be ignored when the materials are brittle or when the loads are dynamic in character. Example The beam ABC shown in Figure 5.6 has simple supports at A and B and an overhang from B to C. A uniform load of intensity q = 3.0 kN/m acts throughout the length of the beam. The beam is constructed of steel plates (12 mm thick) welded to form a channel section, the dimensions of which are shown in Figure 5.7(a). Calculate the maximum tensile and compressive stresses in the beam due to the uniform load.

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q = 3.0 kN/m A B y
3.0 m 1.898 kN . m 1.5 m

M
0 1.125 m 3.375 kN . m

FIGURE 5.6 Beam dimensions.

b = 300 mm O d = 80 mm c1 c2 z

t = 12 mm y
(a)

A1 Z y2 A2 O

y1

c2 Z z d1 A3 c1

y
(b)

FIGURE 5.7 Cross-section of beam.

Solution The maximum tensile and compressive stresses occur at the cross-sections where the bending moments have their maximum numerical values. Therefore, we construct the bending-moment diagram for the beam (Figure 5.6) and note that the maximum positive and negative moments equal 1.898 kN m and -3.375 kN m, respectively. Next, we determine the position of the neutral axis by locating the centroid of the cross-sectional area shown in Figure 5.7(a). The results are as follows: c1 = 61.52 mm; c2 = 18.48 mm The moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about the neutral axis (the z axis) is calculated with the aid of the parallel-axis theorem for moments of inertia; the result is

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I = 2.469 106 mm4 Also, the section moduli for the bottom and top of the beam, respectively, are S1 = I = 40 100 mm3 c1 S2 = I = 133 600 mm3 c2

At the cross-section of maximum positive bending moment, the largest tensile stress occurs at the bottom of the beam (s1), and the largest compressive stress occurs at the top (s2): st = s1 = M 1.898 kN m = = 47.3 MPa S1 40 100 mm3 M 1.898 kN m == -14.2 MPa S2 133 600 mm3

sc = s2 = -

Similarly, the largest stresses at the section of maximum negative moment are st = s 2 = s c = s1 = -3.375 kN m M == 25.3 MPa S2 133 600 mm3

M -3.375 kN m = = -84.2 MPa S1 40 100 mm3

A comparison of these four stresses shows that the maximum tensile stress due to the uniform load q is 47.3 MPa and occurs at the bottom of the beam at the section of maximum positive bending moment. The maximum compressive stress is -84.2 MPa and occurs at the bottom of the beam at the section of maximum negative moment.

Dening Terms
Bending stresses Longitudinal normal stresses sx in a beam due to bending moments. Flexure formula The formula sx = My/I for the bending stresses in a beam (linearly elastic materials only). Neutral axis of the cross-section The intersection of the neutral surface with a cross-sectional plane; that is, the line in the cross-section about which the beam bends and where the bending stresses are zero. Neutral surface The surface perpendicular to the plane of bending in which longitudinal lines in the beam do not change in length (no longitudinal strains). Nonuniform bending Bending in the presence of shear forces (which means that the bending moment varies along the axis of the beam). Plane of bending The plane of symmetry in which a beam bends and deects. Pure bending Bending of a beam under a constant bending moment (no shear forces). Section modulus A property of the cross-section of a beam, equal to I/c [see Equation (5.8)].

References
Beer, F. P., Johnston, E. R., and DeWolf, J. T. 2001. Mechanics of Materials, 3rd Ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. Gere, J. M. 2001. Mechanics of Materials, 5th Ed. Brooks/Cole, Pacic Grove, CA. Hibbeler, R. C. 2000. Mechanics of Materials, 4th Ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
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Lardner, T. J. and Archer, R. R. 1994. Mechanics of Solids, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York. Popov, E. P. and Balan, T. A. 1999. Engineering Mechanics of Solids, 2nd Ed., Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

Further Information
Extensive discussions of bending, with derivations, examples, and problems, can be found in textbooks on mechanics of materials, such as those listed in the References. These books also cover many additional topics pertaining to bending stresses in beams. For instance, nonprismatic beams, fully stressed beams, beams with axial loads, stress concentrations in bending, composite beams, beams with skew loads, and stresses in inelastic beams are discussed in Gere [2001].

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