III

Dynamics and Vibrations

12 Dynamics of Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics Bruce Karnopp and Stephen Birn Dynamics of Particles Newtons Second Law Moment of Momentum Relations Momentum Integrals of Newtons Second Law WorkEnergy Integral of Newtons Second Law Conclusion Dynamics of Rigid Bodies: Kinematics and Kinetics Ashraf A. Zeid and R. R. Beck Kinematics of Rigid Bodies Kinetics of Rigid Bodies Free Vibration, Natural Frequencies, and Mode Shapes Daniel A. Mendelsohn Basic Principles Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems Continuous Systems (Innite DOF) Forced Vibrations Arthur W. Leissa Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems Lumped versus Distributed Parameter Systems Bulent A. Ovunc Procedure of Analysis Continuous Mass Matrix Method Consistent Mass Matrix Method Lumped Mass Matrix Method Free Vibration of Frames Forced Vibration Practical Applications Linear Structures without Additional Effects Linear Structures with Additional Effects Applications of Structural and Dynamic Principles Anthony J. Kalinowski Base Conguration Loaded Applications Structural Conguration Loaded Applications Additional Information Base Motion Excitation for Multiple D.O.F. Problems Vibration Computations and Nomographs Daniel J. Inman Models for Numerical Simulation Numerical Integration Vibration Response by Computer Simulation Commercial Software for Simulation Computing Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes Nomograph Fundamentals Test Equipment and Measuring Instruments Terrence W. Baird Vibration and Shock Test Machines Transducers and Signal Conditioners Digital Instrumentation and Computer Control 13 14

15 16

17

18

19

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12
Dynamics of Particles: Kinematics and Kinetics
12.1 Dynamics of Particles
Cartesian Coordinates Natural (Path) Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates Kinematics of Relative Motion

Bruce Karnopp
University of Michigan

12.2 Newtons Second Law 12.3 Moment of Momentum Relations 12.4 Momentum Integrals of Newtons Second Law
Impulse-Momentum and Angular Impulse-Moment of Momentum Relations

Stephen Birn (Second Edition)

Moog Inc. Aircraft Group

12.5 WorkEnergy Integral of Newtons Second Law

The WorkEnergy Relation for a Conservative Force

12.6 Conclusion

12.1 Dynamics of Particles

The dynamics of particles consists of ve main parts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Kinematics of a point (the geometry of a point moving through space) Newtons second law Moment of momentum equation Momentum integrals of Newtons second law Work-energy integral of Newtons second law

The concept of a particle is an abstraction or model of the actual physical situation. The moon in motion about the earth might be modeled as a mass point. In fact, the motion of any nite body in which the rotation effects are not important can properly be described as a particle or point mass. Although it is possible to derive all the fundamental equations in a purely vector format, in order to describe any particular problem in dynamics, it is crucial that a specic coordinate system be employed. The coordinate systems that will be considered in this chapter are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Cartesian coordinates Natural (path) coordinates Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates Relative motion

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z P

z s P en et

k i j y x

z y x x

FIGURE 12.1 Cartesian coordinates.

FIGURE 12.2 Natural coordinates.

The fundamental equation that is encountered in dynamics is Newtons second law, F = ma, where F is the total force acting on a particle and a is the resulting acceleration. Thus the geometric problem of dynamics consists of nding the position, r, the velocity, v, and the acceleration, a, of a point mass. In order to use any coordinate system, the equations for the position r, the velocity v, and the acceleration a as expressed in that coordinate system must be known. In order to achieve these results, the derivatives of the unit vectors of the coordinate system must be determined.

Cartesian Coordinates
Consider the path of point P with respect to the Cartesian coordinate system shown in Figure 12.1. The position, velocity, and acceleration are expressed in Table 12.1.

Natural (Path) Coordinates

Natural or path coordinates are useful to understand the intrinsic nature of the velocity and acceleration vectors. Natural coordinates are dened by the actual trajectory of the point P as it moves through space. Consider the trajectory as shown in Figure 12.2. The distance or arc length along the path (from some convenient starting position) is denoted by s. The velocity and acceleration of P are dened in terms of the path characteristics: the unit vector et tangent to the path, the unit vector en normal to the path, the radius of curvature, R, and the derivatives and s . The quantity R is the radius of curvature, and t is the of the arc length with respect to time, s torsion of the curve. Table 12.2 lists the natural coordinate equations. Struik [1961] contains a proof of the derivatives of the unit vectors.
TABLE 12.1 Equations of Cartesian Coordinates
r = x i + y j + zk i + y j + z k v= x i + y j + z k a= x

TABLE 12.2 Equations of Natural Coordinates

Velocity and Acceleration e t v=s 2 s e R n Derivatives of Unit Vectors de t s = en dt R de n s t e b = - et + s dt R de b t e n = -s dt

e t + a=s

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z P

e e

r O x r

z y k er e x O

FIGURE 12.3 Cylindrical coordinates.

FIGURE 12.4 Spherical coordinates.

TABLE 12.3 Equations of Cylindrical Coordinates

Position, Velocity, and Acceleration r = r e r + zk e +z e r + rJ k v=r J 2 )e + (rJ + 2r )e + z - rJ J k a = (r J r Derivatives of Unit Vectors e r = J e J e J = -J e r =0 k

Cylindrical Coordinates
Cylindrical coordinates are used when there is some symmetry about a line. If this line is taken to be the z axis, the coordinates appear as in Figure 12.3. The parameters of cylindrical coordinates are introduced by dropping a line from the point P to the xy plane. The distance from the origin O to the intersection in the xy plane is denoted by the scalar r. Finally, the angle between the x axis and the line from O to the intersection is J. Thus the parameters that dene cylindrical coordinates are {r, J, z}, and the unit vectors are {er, eJ, k}. See Table 12.3.

Spherical Coordinates
Spherical coordinates are particularly useful in problems with symmetry about a point. The coordinates are dened by the three parameters r, f, and J and the corresponding unit vectors er, ef, and eJ. Refer to Figure 12.4 and Table 12.4.

Kinematics of Relative Motion

The equations of relative motion are used when it is convenient to refer the motion to a coordinate system that is in motion. In general, such a coordinate system cannot be used to write the equations of
TABLE 12.4 Equations of Spherical Coordinates
Position, Velocity, and Acceleration r = r er sin f e e + rJ e r + rf v=r f J 2 sin 2 f)e 2 - rJ - rf a = (r r 2 sin f cos f)e - rJ + rf + (2rf f sin f)e cos f + rJ sin f + 2rfJ + (2rJ J Derivatives of Unit Vectors sin f e e +J r = f e f J cos f e e +J f = -f e r J sin f e - J cos f e J = -J e r f

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Z K z1

P... fixed to {x1, y1, z1} z r Z y1 Y i1 J Y k ro x1 i z1 P j O y y1

k1

j1

I X

x1 X

FIGURE 12.5 Angular velocity.

FIGURE 12.6 Relative motion.

dynamics since it will not be an inertial reference frame. The crucial concept in this regard is the angular velocity vector, w. Consider Figure 12.5. The angular velocity vector w is introduced through the equation v=wr for any point P that is embedded in the moving frame {x1, y1, z1 }. Then dr dx dy dz = i + j k + xw i + yw j + zw k dt dt dt dt or dr dx dy dz = i+ j+ k + w (xi + yj + zk ) 4 2444 3 dt 1 dt 44 dt dt3 144 4 2444 The rst block of terms is the velocity as seen from the moving frame that is, the velocity as it would appear to an observer whose feet are rmly planted in the moving frame {x, y, z}. It is convenient to r/ d t. The second block of terms is just w r. Thus, denote this as dr dr dr = +wr dt dt (12.2) (12.1)

Equation (12.2) gives an operator equation for computing time derivatives with respect to a xed or moving frame: d d = +w dt dt (12.3)

Now suppose the origin of the moving frame has a motion. Then if vo is the velocity of the moving origin (see Figure 12.6), v = vo + dr +w r dt (12.4)

In order to interpret this, it is instructive to rearrange the terms:

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TABLE 12.5 Equations of Relative Motion

r = ro + r v = (v o + w r) + dr dt d 2r dr + 2w dt dt 2

r] + a = [a o + w (w r) + w

v=

dr (v o + w r) + 14 243 dt443 1442 Convective velocity Relative velocity

The relative velocity is that which is seen by an observer xed to the moving frame. The convective velocity is the velocity of a xed point that instantaneously shares the position of the moving point. This process is repeated to determine the acceleration. That is, the operator of Equation (12.3) is applied to Equation (12.4) to get a = dv/dt. The result is arranged as follows: d 2r dr r] + a = [a o + w (w r) + w + 2w 2 1444 4 24444 3 dt 3 t 44 d 4 244 4 2 3 14 Convective acceleration 14 Coriolis Relative acceleration acceleration

(12.5)

Again, the relative acceleration is that which a moving observer in {x, y, z} would see. The convective acceleration is the acceleration of the xed point of {x, y, z} that shares the instantaneous position of the moving point under consideration. The equations of position, velocity, and acceleration are summarized in Table 12.5.

12.2 Newtons Second Law

In order to write Newtons second law for a particle, m, F = ma the terms of the equation must be evaluated: 1. The force, F, is obtained from a free-body diagram of the particle. It should be noted that the freebody diagram will appear unbalanced because the particle is not in static equilibrium. 2. The mass, m, can be obtained from the weight of the particle: Weight = mg (12.7) (12.6)

3. The acceleration is written in some convenient nonaccelerating coordinate system (from the equations in Section 12.1). Any equation must ultimately be expressed in some unit system. The fundamental units of dynamics are force, mass, length, and time. The units for these quantities are shown in Table 12.6. Conversion of units is shown in Table 12.7.

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TABLE 12.6 Unit Systems Used in Dynamics

Unit System English (large) English (small) MKS metric CGS metric Metric large Metric small Type Gravitational Gravitational Absolute Absolute Gravitational Gravitational Force Pound (lb) Pound (lb) Newton (N) Dyne (dyn) Kilogram (kg) Gram (g) Mass Slug lb s2/ft lb s2/in. Kilogram (kg) gram (g) kg s2/m g s2/cm Length Foot (ft) Inch (in.) Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Meter (m) Centimeter (cm) Time Second (sec) Second (sec) Second (sec) Second (sec) Second (sec) Second (sec)

TABLE 12.7 Conversion of Units

Force units 1.0 lb 1.0 lb 1.0 lb 1.0 lb 1.0 in. 1.0 in. 1.0 in. 1.0 ft 1.0 ft 1.0 ft 1.0 lb s2/ft 1.0 lb s2/ft 1.0 lb s2/ft 1.0 lb s2/ft 1.0 lb s2/ft 1.0 lb s2/ft = 4.448 N = 4.448 105 dyn = 0.4536 (kgf ) = 4.536 102 (g force) = 0.08333 ft = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m = 12 in. = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m = 12 lb s2/ft = 1.2162 kg = 1.2162 103 g = 0.08333 lb s2/in. = 14.594 kg = 1.4594 104 g

Length units

m v r F

Mass units

Inertial Reference Frame

1.0 slug =

FIGURE 12.7 Moment of momentum and moment of force.

12.3 Moment of Momentum Relations

The moment of a force is determined by the (vector) cross product: Mo = r F See Figure 12.7. The linear momentum of m is p = mv and the moment of momentum (sometimes called the angular momentum) is ho = r p = r mv Computing the time derivative of h gives d h o dr = mv + r ma dt dt The rst term is v mv. This is the cross product of two vectors in the same direction. Thus this term is zero. From Equation (12.6) and Equation (12.8), the remaining term is the moment of the force, F, about the point O. Thus: (12.10) (12.9) (12.8)

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Mo =

dho dt

(12.11)

12.4 Momentum Integrals of Newtons Second Law

Newtons second law, Equation (12.6), can be integrated over time or space. When the former is done, the result is called an impulse or an angular impulse. When the integration is performed over space, the result is the work. This will be demonstrated later.

Impulse-Momentum and Angular Impulse-Moment of Momentum Relations

Recall Newtons second law, F = ma. Suppose we write a = dv/dt. Then

t1

Fdt = m

to

t1

to

dv dt = m[v(t 1 ) - v(t o )] dt

(12.12)

Equation (12.12) is called the impulse change of linear momentum theorem. Similarly, taking Equation (12.11) as the basis of the time integration gives

r1

ro

M o dr = m

t1

to

dh o dt = h o (t 1 ) - h o (t o ) dt

(12.13)

Equation (12.13) is called the angular impulse change of angular momentum theorem. Equation (12.12) and Equation (12.13) are particularly interesting when the left-hand side is zero. Then we say that linear momentum is conserved or that the moment of momentum (angular momentum) is conserved. Two important examples that utilize these conservation laws are collision problems [Karnopp, 1974] and central force motion problems [Goldstein, 1959].

12.5 WorkEnergy Integral of Newtons Second Law

In deriving the momentum laws, Newtons second law is integrated over time. In the workenergy relation, the integration takes place over space. Recall Newtons second law, F = ma = m(dv/dt). An instantaneous quantity is the power of the force F: P =F v The power, P, is a scalar quantity. The units of power are listed in Table 12.8.
TABLE 12.8 Units of Power
English ft lb/s in. lb/s 1.0 horsepower = 550 ft lb/s N m/sec 1.0 watt = 1.0 N m/sec 1.0 N m/sec = 0.7376 ft lb/s 1.0 ft lb/s = 1.3557 N m/sec 1.0 horsepower = 746 watts 1.0 watt = 1.34048 10-3 hp

(12.14)

Metric Conversion

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F mv ro r

r1

dr

FIGURE 12.8 Work of a force.

The work of a force is the time integral of the power of the force. Work is also a scalar quantity: W=

t1

Pdt

(12.15)

to

With Equation (12.14), and recalling that v = dr/dt the work W (see Figure 12.8) becomes W=

r1

F dr

(12.16)

ro

Equation (12.16) is what is called a path or line integral. That is, the value of the work is dependent, in general, on the particular path that is traversed between positions ro and r1. Recall from Equation (12.6) and Equation (12.14) that F = ma = m(dv/dt) and P = F v. Inserting Equation (12.13) into Equation (12.14) gives P=m Now consider that 1 d (mv v) = 2 dt 1 dv dv dv m v + mv = m v 2 dt dt dt (12.16b) dv v dt (12.16a)

Dening the kinetic energy of a particle to be 1 1 T = mv v = mv 2 2 2 Equation (12.16a) and Equation (12.16b) give P= d T dt (12.18) (12.17)

That is, the power of the force F equals the time rate of change of the kinetic energy T. Finally, from Equation (12.18), the work of F in moving the particle from r0 to r1 equals the change in kinetic energy between ro and r1. The workenergy theorem is derived in Table 12.9. While Equation (12.16) gives a way to compute the work of a force, there is a very special and important class of forces that give a very simple way of computing work. These are called conservative forces. A force is conservative if it can be derived from a potential energy function through differentiation.
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TABLE 12.9 The WorkEnergy Theorem

The work of a force F is

W=

r1

F dr

ro

The kinetic energy of a particle is

1 1 T = mv v = mv 2 2 2
And the workenergy relation is
1 Wrr = T(r1 ) - T(ro ) o

TABLE 12.10 Conservative Forces

Force Gravity Universal gravitationa F=Spring force F = -mgk gMm e r2 r Potential Energy V = mgz V =gMm r

F = -kd

1 V = kd 2 2

For motion about the earth gM e = 1.255 103 mi3 / h2 = 5.2277 103 km3 / h2.

F = -V

(12.19)

where V is the potential energy function for F and is the del operator. In Cartesian coordinates, Equation (12.18) becomes F=V V V ijk x y y

The general form for conservative forces, Equation (12.19), is usually overly complex. Conservative forces are listed in Table 12.10.

The WorkEnergy Relation for a Conservative Force

1 Recall the equation for the work of a force, W = r ro F dr. Suppose F is conservative. Then, by Equation (12.19), F = -V . And, nally, recall the equations of natural coordinates to write the expression for dr: v = (dr/ds)(ds/dt) = (ds/dt)et. Thus,

dr = Finally, the work, by Equation (12.16), becomes W=

dr ds = et ds ds

r1

ro

-(V et )ds

The term inside the parentheses is just the directional derivative dV/ds that is, the derivative that is taken tangent to the path. Thus the work becomes
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TABLE 12.11 Units of Energy

English ft lb in. lb N m = joule dyn cm = erg Conversion 1.0 joule = 1.0 joule = 1.0 joule = 1.0 erg = 1.0 erg = 1.0 N m 1.0 N m 1.0 N m 1.0 dyn cm 1.0 dyn cm 1.0 ft lb 1.0 ft lb 1.0 in. lb 1.0 in. lb = 107 dyn cm = 107 erg = 0.07376 ft lb = 0.88512 in. lb = 7.376 10-9 ft lb = 8.851210-8 in. lb = 1.3557 N m = 1.3557 107 dyn cm = 0.11298 N m = 0.11298 107 dyn cm

Metric

W=

r1

ro

dV - ds = ds

r1

ro

-dV = -V (r1 ) + V (ro )

(12.20)

The crucial thing to note in Equation (12.20) is that the work of a conservative force depends only on the end positions of the path. Thus the workenergy relation derived in Table 12.9 becomes, in the case of conservative forces: T(r1) + V(r1) = T(ro) + V(ro) = constant For conservative and nonconservative forces:
1 [T(ro ) + V (ro )] + Wrr = [T(r1 ) + V (r1 )] o 1 where Wrr is the work of the nonconservative forces. o Units of energy are shown in Table 12.11. The workenergy theorem is used when what is sought is the speed of a particle as a function of position in space. The impulse momentum theorems, on the other hand, will give the velocity as a function of time. Both relations are derived from Newtons second law and are called rst integrals. The workenergy problem solving method presented has ve advantages for solving dynamics problems:

1. Coordinate system origins are arbitrary, so the problem can be simplied by choosing them carefully. 2. Accelerations do not need to be calculated. 3. Problem modications or updates are easily made; parameterizing the dynamics problem for system layouts and case studies is also easy. 4. Scalar quantities are summed, even though the paths of motion may be complex. 5. Forces that do no work are ignored. The main disadvantage to the energy method approach is the recognition that accelerations and work cannot be calculated for forces that do no work. In these cases, Newtons second law must be used.

12.6 Conclusion
The notion of a mass point or particle forms the basis of Newtonian mechanics. Although many systems can be modeled as a point mass, others cannot. Rigid congurations of systems, deformable systems,
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and so forth all require more elaborate geometrical (kinematic) description. The kinetic equations (Newtons law, momentum, moment of momentum, etc.) must be expanded in these cases. Still, the equations for particle dynamics form the basis of these discussions.

Dening Terms
Acceleration The (vector) rate of change of velocity. Angular velocity The rate of change of orientation of a coordinate system. Kinematics The geometry of motion. Particle A point mass. Position The location of a point in space. Power The dot product of the force and the velocity. Velocity The (vector) rate of change of position.

References
Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R. 1984. Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Statics and Dynamics, 4th ed. McGrawHill, New York. Goldstein, H. 1959. Classical Mechanics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Hibbler, R. C. 2001. Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics, 9th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Karnopp, B. H. 1974. Introduction to Dynamics. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. Meriam, J. L. and Kraige, L. G. 1997. Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Struik, D. J. 1961. Differential Geometry. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.

Further Information
Synge, J. L. and Grifth, B. A. 1959. Principles of Mechanics. McGraw-Hill, New York.

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