14

Free Vibration, Natural Frequencies, and Mode Shapes

14.1 Basic Principles 14.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems
Equation of Motion and Fundamental Frequency Linear Damping

Daniel A. Mendelsohn
Ohio State University

14.3 Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 14.4 Continuous Systems (Innite DOF)

14.1 Basic Principles

In its simplest form, mechanical vibration is the process of a mass traveling back and forth through its position of static equilibrium under the action of a restoring force or moment that tends to return the mass to its equilibrium position. The most common restoring mechanism is a spring or elastic member that exerts a force proportional to the displacement of the mass. Gravity may also provide the restoring action, as in the case of a pendulum. The restoring mechanism of structural members is provided by the elasticity of the material of which the member is made. Free vibration is a condition in which there are no external forces on the system. Cyclic or periodic motion in time is described by the property x(t + t) = x(t), where t is time and t is the period, that is, the time to complete one cycle of motion. The cyclic frequency of the motion is = 1/t, usually measured in cycles per second (Hz). The special case of periodic motion shown in Figure 14.1 is harmonic motion, x(t ) = A sin(wt ) + B cos(wt ) = X sin(wt + f) (14.1a) (14.1b)

where w = 2p is the circular frequency, typically measured in radians (rad)/sec, X = (A2 + B2)1/2 is the amplitude of the motion, and f = tan1 (B/A) is the phase angle. Many systems exhibit harmonic motion when in free vibration but do so only at discrete natural frequencies. A vibrating system with n degrees of freedom (DOF) has n natural frequencies, and for each natural frequency there is a relationship between the amplitudes of the n independent motions, known as the mode shape. A structural elastic member has an innite number of discrete natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes. The fundamental frequency and associated mode shape refer to the smallest natural frequency and associated

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x/X 1 sin t 2

FIGURE 14.1 Time history of undamped periodic or cyclic motion.

mode shape. The study of free vibrations consists of the determination of the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a vibrating system as a function of geometry, boundary conditions, mass (density) of the components, and the strength of the restoring forces or moments. Although the natural frequencies and mode shapes are valuable to know by themselves, they have perhaps their greatest value in the analysis of forced vibrations, as discussed in detail in the following chapter.

14.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

Equation of Motion and Fundamental Frequency
The system shown in Figure 14.2(a) consists of a mass, m, that rolls smoothly on a rigid oor and is attached to a linear spring of stiffness k. Throughout this chapter all linear (or longitudinal) springs have stiffnesses of dimension force per unit change in length from equilibrium, and all rotational (or torsional) springs have stiffnesses of dimension moment per radian of rotation from equilibrium (i.e., force times length). The distance of the mass from its equilibrium position, dened by zero stretch in the spring, is denoted by x. Applying Newtons second law to the mass in Figure 14.3(a) gives the equation of motion: d2x d2x m + kx = 0 dt 2 dt 2

-k x = m

(14.2)

Alternatively, Lagranges equation (with only one generalized coordinate, x) may be used to nd the equation of motion: d L L =0 dt (dx /dt ) x

(14.3)

The Lagrangian, L, is the difference between the kinetic energy, T, and the potential energy, U, of the system. The Lagrangian for the system in Figure 14.2(a) is 1 dx 1 L T - U = m - kx 2 2 dt 2
k x (a) c m k (b) x m k x (c)
2

(14.4)

FIGURE 14.2 Typical one-degree-of-freedom system: (a) without damping, (b) with viscous damping, and (c) with frictional damping.

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mg cx kx N (a) kx

mg

mg

kx Nsgn(x) N (b) N (c)

FIGURE 14.3 Free-body diagrams of the single-degree-of-freedom systems in Figure 14.2.

Substituting Equation (14.4) into Equation (14.3) gives the same equation of motion as in Equation (14.2). Using the harmonic form in Equation (14.1) for x, Equation (14.2) is satised if w takes on the value w = k /m (14.5)

which is therefore the natural frequency of the system. If the displacement and velocity are known at some time (say, t = 0), then the constants in Equation (14.1) may also be evaluated, A= 1 dx (0); w 0 dt B = x(0) (14.6)

and the corresponding displacement history is shown in Figure 14.1. The natural frequency for conservative systems can also be found by the energy method. As the mass passes through equilibrium, U = 0 and T = Tmax, while at its maximum displacement where the mass has zero velocity, T = 0 and U = Umax. Since the total energy is constant, w is the frequency for which Tmax = Umax. Using Equation (14.1a) and the system in Figure 14.2(a), this principle gives 1 1 Tmax = m(wX )2 = kX 2 = U max 2 2 (14.7)

which in turn gives the same result for w as in Equation (14.5). Table 14.1 contains the equation of motion and natural frequency for some single-DOF systems. Gravity acts down, and displacements or rotations are with respect to static equilibrium. The mode shapes are of the form in Equation (14.1) with w given in Table 14.1.

Linear Damping
Figure 14.2(b) and Figure 14.3(b) show an example of viscous damping caused by a dashpot of strength c (force per unit velocity) that acts opposite the velocity. Newtons second law then gives -kx - c which has the solution x(t ) = e -zw 0t [ A sin(w dt ) + B cos(w dt )] = Xe -zw 0t sin(w dt + f) dx d2x d2x dx = m 2 m 2 + c + kx = 0 dt dt dt dt (14.8)

(14.9)

where the damped natural frequency, wd, damping factor, z, and critical damping coefcient, cc, are given by

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TABLE 14.1 Equations of Motion and Natural Frequencies for some Single-DOF Systems
System k x m m Equation of Motion d 2x + kx = 0 dt 2 Natural Frequency k m

k y m

d2y + ky = 0 dt 2

k m

(mL2 ) L m

d 2q + (mgL)q = 0 dt 2

g L

L/2 G L/2

L 1 2 d 2q mL 2 + mg q = 0 2 dt 2

3g 2L

bar has mass m, center of gravity G

L/2a G

L/2

I0 k1

d 2q + [k1a2 + k2(L - a)2]q = 0 dt 2 1 L mL2 + m - a 2 12

2

k2

I0 =

k a2 + 2 (L - a)2 k1 k1 m 1 L2 - aL + a2 3

3 2 R d 2q mr - 1 2 + (mgr)q = 0 r dt 2 m r = radius of mass m

2 g 3 (R - r )

R = r

w d w 1- z2 ;

c ; cc

c c 2mw = 2 mk

(14.10)

respectively. If c < cc, then wd is real and Equation (14.9) represents exponentially damped oscillation, as shown in Figure 14.4. If c cc, then the system is supercritically damped and decaying motion but no vibration occurs. The frictional effects in Figure 14.2(c) and Figure 14.3(c) are characterized by a Coulomb frictional force F = mN = mmg, where m is the coefcient of sliding friction. The equation of motion is then

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x x/X 1 sin et dt 2 2 t x0 x0 (2/)t

FIGURE 14.4 Time history of viscously damped vibration.

FIGURE 14.5 Time history of frictionally damped vibration.

d2x dx + (m mg )sgn + kx = 0 dt dt 2

(14.11)

where sgn(dx/ dt) is equal to +1 or -1 for positive or negative values of dx/ dt, respectively. This equation must be solved separately for each nth half period of the oscillation of frequency, w, dx x(t ) = [x 0 - (2n - 1)g ]cos(wt ) - sgn g dt

(14.12)

where g = (mmg/k) is the minimum initial displacement to allow motion, and w is the undamped natural frequency, Equation (14.5). Figure 14.5 shows x(t) for an initial displacement of x0 = 20g.

14.3 Multiple-Degree-of-Freedom Systems

For each DOF in an n-DOF system there is a coordinate, xi(i = 1,2,, n), which is a measure of one of the independent components of motion. The motion of the system is governed by n, generally coupled, equations of motion, which may be obtained by a Newtonian approach requiring complete free-body and acceleration diagrams for each mass. For systems with many DOFs, this approach becomes very tedious. Alternatively, applying Lagranges equations, with no damping present, d L L = 0, i dt xi x

(i = 1, 2,..., n)

(14.13)

to the particular system yields the n equations of motion in the n unknown coordinates xi, d2x [M ] 2 + [K ]{x } = {0} dt (14.14)

As stated before, the Lagrangian, L = T - U, is the difference between the kinetic and potential energies of the system. [M] and [K] are the n n mass and stiffness matrices, with elements mij and kij, which multiply the acceleration and displacement vectors of the masses, respectively. Writing xi in the form of Equation (14.1), Equation (14.14) yields n homogeneous equations, [A]{X} = {0}, in the n amplitudes Xi. The elements of [A] are aij = kij - mijw2. If a solution exists, the determinant of [A], an nth order polynomial in w2, must be zero. This yields the frequency or characteristic equation, whose n roots are the natural frequencies squared, (wi)2. Each mode shape may written as a vector of n - 1 amplitude ratios:

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 X 2 X3 Xn , ,..., , X 1 (i ) X1 X1

(i = 1, 2,..., n)

(14.15)

The ratios are found by eliminating one equation of [A]{X} = {0}, dividing the remaining n - 1 equations by X1, and solving. Then setting w = wi gives the ith mode shape. Equations of motion, natural frequencies, and mode shapes for some two-DOF systems undergoing small amplitude vibrations are in Table 14.2. Gravity acts down, and displacements and rotations are taken with respect to the position of static equilibrium.

14.4 Continuous Systems (Innite DOF)

The equations of motion of structural members made up of continuously distributed elastic or exible materials are most easily obtained by a Newtonian analysis of a representative volume element. As an example, consider the longitudinal vibration of an elastic rod (Youngs modulus E, density r) of crosssectional area A. A free-body diagram of a volume element A dx, with normal stresses [sx](x) and [sx + (sx/x)dx](x) acting on the cross-sections is shown in Figure 14.6(a). A circular section is shown but the analysis applies to any shape of cross-section. If u(x) is the displacement in the x direction of the cross-section at x, then Newtons second law gives s 2u -s x A + s x + x dx A = (rAdx) 2 x t (14.16)

Simplifying, letting dx go to zero, and noting uniaxial Hookes law and the denition of the strian, ex, s x = Ee x = E Equation (14.16) can be written as 2u r 2u = x2 E t 2 (14.18) u x (14.17)

which is the equation of motion for standing modes of free vibration and for wave propagation along the rod at velocity c = E / p . If u(x, t) = U(x)[A sin(wt) + B cos(wt)], then Equation (14.18) gives d 2U - l2U = 0, dx 2 l2 = rw 2 E (14.19)

which has solution U(x) = C sin(lx) + D cos(lx). Now as an example, consider the xed-xed bar of length L shown in Figure 14.6(b) that has boundary conditions (BCs) U(0) = 0 and U(L) = 0, which give, respectively, D = 0 and either C = 0, which is not of interest, or np np wn = L L E r

sin(lL) = 0 l = l n =

(n = 1, 2,3,...)

(14.20)

This is the frequency equation and the resulting innite set of discrete natural frequencies for the xedxed beam of length L. The mode shapes are Un(x) = sin(lnx).

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TABLE 14.2 Equations of Motion, Natural Frequencies, and Mode Shapes for some Two-DOF Systems
Symbol k1 x1 m1 k2 x2 m2 k3 Equation of Motion d 2 x1 0 dt 2 k1 + k2 + m2 d 2 x 2 -k2 2 dt Natural Frequencies and Mode Shapes w1 = A= k 2m1 A-B, w2 = k 2m2 A+B

m1 0

-k2 x1 0 = k2 + k3 x 2 0

m1(k2 + k3 ) + m2(k1 + k2 ) m1k2 m2 m1 (k1 + k2 )(k2 + d3 ) - 1 2 k2 i = 1, 2

B = A2 - 4

X2 k1 m1 2 X = 1 + k - k wi ; 1 i 2 2 d 2q1 0 dt 2 m1 gL1 + ka2 2 + 2 m2 L2 2 d q2 -ka dt 2 q 2 L1

k a L1 a 1 m1 2

a L2 a m2

m1L2 1 0

-ka2 q1 0 = m2 gL2 + ka2 q2 0

w1 =

A-B,

w2 =

q 2 L1

A+B

A =1+

L1 ka2 m1L2 1 + 1+ 2 L2 m1L1 g m2 L2

ka2 m2 L2 B = A2 - 4 1 + 1 + m L m 1L1 g 1 1 Q2 m1L1 2 Q = -1 + ka2 (w i L1 - g ); 1 i d 2q1 0 dt 2 (m1 + m2 )g + m2 L2 d 2q2 -ka2 dt 2 q 2 L1 q 2 L1 i = 1, 2

L1 1 m1 L2 2 m2

m1L1 m2 L1

-m2 g q1 0 = -m2 g q2 0

w1 =

A-B,

w2 =

A+B

m L A = 1 + 1 1 + 1 m2 L2 m L B = A2 - 41 + 2 1 m1 L2 Q2 m1 w i2 L1 Q = 1 + m (1 - g ); 1 i 2 i = 1, 2

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xA

A dx

[x +

x dx]A x x

L A (b)

(a)

FIGURE 14.6 Longitudinal vibration of a rod of circular cross-section: (a) free-body diagram of representative volume element and (b) a clamped-clamped rod of length L.

The transverse motion y(x, t) of a taut exible string (tension T and mass per unit length r), the longitudinal motion u(x, t ) of a rod (Youngs modulus E), and the torsional rotation f(x, t) of a rod of circular or annular cross-section (shear modulus G) all share the same governing equations Equation (14.18) and Equation (14.19) but with different l values: l2 = rw2/T, rw2/E, and rw2/G, respectively. Table 14.3 and Table 14.4 contain frequency equations, nondimensional natural frequencies, and mode shapes for various combinations of BCs for a rod of length L. Only the xed-xed conditions apply to the string.

TABLE 14.3 Longitudinal and Torsional Vibration of a Rod

System Frequency Equation sin(l n L) = 0 sin(l n L) = 0 k tan(l n L) = - g (l n L)1 Natural Frequencies (l n L) = np (l n L) = (2n - 1)p /2 See Table 14.4 Normalized Mode Shape U n (x) = sin(l n x) U n (x) = sin(l n x) U n (x) = sin(l n x)

(l n L)tan(l n L) = g 2 sin(l n L) = 0

See Table 14.4

U n (x) = sin(l n x) U n (x) = cos(l n x) U n (x) = cos(l n x) U n (x) = cos(l n x)

(l n L) = np See Table 14.4

(l n L)tan(l n L) = - g 3 tan(l n L) = - g (l n L)4 I PG kL I PrL I0

m AE ; kL rAL ; m kL ; AE

See Table 14.4

g long = g long = g long = g long =

g tor =

g tor = g tor =

kL I PG

I m ; g tor = 0 I PrL rAL Note: long denotes longitudinal vibration and tor denotes torsional vibration; A = crosssectional area, L = rod length, E = Youngs modulus, G = shear modulus, k = force per length (long) or moment per radian (tor), r = mass per unit volume, IP = polar moment of inertia of A about rod axis, I0 = mass moment of inertia of attached mass; the denition of ln is in the text.
4

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TABLE 14.4 Nondimensional Natural Frequencies (lnL)a

|g | n 0 .5 1 2 5 10 100
b

For Longitudinal and Torsional Clamped/Spring and Free/Mass BCs 1 2 3 p 2p 3p 2.289 5.087 8.096 2.029 4.913 7.979 1.837 4.814 7.917 1.689 4.754 7.879 1.632 4.734 7.867 1.577 4.715 7.855

p/2 3 p/2 5 p/2

For Longitudinal and Torsional Clamped/Mass and Torsional Free/Spring BCsc 1 2 3 0 p 2p 0.653 3.292 6.362 0.860 3.426 6.437 1.077 3.644 6.578 1.314 4.034 6.910 1.429 4.306 7.228 1.555 4.666 7.776 p /2 3 p /2 5p /2

For Longitudinal Free/Spring BCsd 1 2 3

a b c d

p 2p 3p

2.975 6.203 9.371

2.798 6.121 9.318

2.459 5.954 9.211

1.941 5.550 8.414

1.743 5.191 8.562

1.587 4.760 7.933

p/2 3 p /2 5 p /2

For the nonclassical boundary conditions in Table 14.3. See Table 14.3, cases 1 and 4. See Table 14.3, cases 2 and 3. See Table 14.3, case 3.

The transverse deection of a beam, w(x, t), is governed by the equation of motion, 4w rA 2w = x 4 EI t 2 which, upon substitution of w(x, t) = W(x)[A sin(wt) + B cos(wt)], leads to d 4w - l4W = 0, dx 4 l4 = rAw 2 EI (14.22) (14.21)

This equation has the general solution W(x) = c1 sin(lx) + c2 cos(lx) + c3 sinh(lx) + c4 cosh(lx). The frequency equation, natural frequencies, and normalized mode shapes are found by applying the BCs in the same manner as above. The results for various combinations of simply supported (SS: W = W = 0), clamped (C: W = W = 0), and free (F: W = W = 0) BCs for a beam of length L and exural rigidity EI are given in Table 14.5.

Dening Terms
Cyclic and circular frequency The cyclic frequency of any cyclic or periodic motion is the number of cycles of motion per second. One cycle per second is called a hertz (Hz). The circular frequency of the motion is 2p times the cyclic frequency and converts one cycle of motion into 2p radians of angular motion. The circular frequency is measured in radians per second. Degree of freedom (DOF) An independent motion of a moving system. A single mass rolling on a surface has one DOF, a system of two masses rolling on a surface has two DOFs, and a continuous elastic structure has an innite number of DOFs. Free vibration The act of a system of masses or a structure vibrating back and forth about its position of static equilibrium in the absence of any external forces. The vibration is caused by the action of restoring forces internal to the system or by gravity.

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TABLE 14.5 Transverse Vibrations of a Beam

BCs C-F Frequency Equation 1 + cos b cosh b = 0 sin b = 0 tanh b - tan b = 0 b1 b2 Asymptotic to (2n + 1)p /2 np (4n + 1)p / 4 Normalized Mode Shape (cosh l n x - cos l n x) - g n (sinh l n x - sin l n x), sin l n x (cosh l n x - cos l n x) - g n (sinh l n x - sin l n x), gn = cosh bn - cos b sinh bn - sin b cosh bn - cos b sinh bn - sin b gn = cosh bn + cos b sinh bn + sin b

1.875 4.694 p 2p

SS-SS

C-SS

3.927 7.069

F-SS

tanh b - tan b = 0

3.927 7.069

(4n + 1)p / 4

(cosh l n x + cos l n x) - g n (sinh l n x + sin l n x),

gn =

C-C

1 - cos b cosh b = 0

4.730 7.853

(2n + 1)p /2

(cosh l n - cos l n x) - g n (sinh l n x - sin l n x),

gn =

sinh bn + sin b cosh bn - cos b sinh bn + sin b cosh bn - cos b

F-F

1 - cos b cosh b = 0

4.730 7.853

(2n + 1)p /2

(cosh l n + cos l n x) - g n (sinh l n x + sin l n x),

gn =

SS: F: C:

Fundamental frequency The smallest natural frequency in a system with more than one DOF. Mode shape The relationship between the amplitudes (one per DOF) of the independent motions of a system in free vibration. There is one mode shape for each natural frequency, and it depends on the value of that natural frequency. For a continuous elastic structure, the mode shapes are the shapes of the structure at its maximum deformation during a cycle of vibration. Natural frequency The frequency or frequencies at which a system will undergo free vibration. There is one natural frequency per DOF of the system. Natural frequencies depend on the geometry, the boundary conditions (method of support or attachment), the masses of the components, and the strength of the restoring forces or moments.

References
Clark, S. K. 1972. Dynamics of Continuous Elements, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Den Hartog, J. P. 1956. Mechanical Vibrations, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Gorman, D. J. 1975. Free Vibration Analysis of Beams and Shafts, John Wiley & Sons, New York. Leissa, A. W. 1993a. Vibrations of Plates, Acoustical Society of America, New York. (Originally issued by NASA, 1973). Leissa, A. W. 1993b. Vibrations of Shells, Acoustical Society of America, New York. (Originally issued by NASA, 1973). Magrab, E. B. 1979. Vibrations of Elastic Structural Members, Sijthoff and Noordhoff, Leyden, The Netherlands. Meirovitch, L. 1967. Analytical Methods in Vibrations, Macmillan, New York. Thomson, W. T. 1988. Theory of Vibrations with Applications, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Timoshenko, S. P., Young, D. H., and Weaver, J. W. 1974. Vibration Problems in Engineering, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

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Further Information
Several excellent texts discuss the free vibrations of discrete systems (nite number of DOFs). In particular, the books by Den Hartog [1956], Timoshenko et al. [1974], and Thomson [1988] are recommended. Extensive data for the natural frequencies of beams that have elastic supports (translational or rotational), end masses, multiple spans, discontinuities in cross-sections, axial tension or compression, variable thickness, or elastic foundations may be found in the monograph by Gorman. Other important structural elements are plates and shells. Plates are at, whereas shells have curvature (e.g., circular cylindrical, elliptic cylindrical, conical, spherical, ellipsoidal, hyperboloidal). A summary of natural frequencies for plates obtained from 500 other references is available in the book on plate vibrations by Leissa [1993a]. Extensive frequency data for various shells taken from 1000 references is also available in the book on shell vibrations by Leissa [1993b].

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