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R. R. Beck
U.S. Army Tank Automotive Research Development and Engineering Center
xA A: t in po f o on i t i s Po
vA
vB B
vA A vA
y
FIGURE 13.2 Curvilinear translation.
vB B vB
Translation
All points on a rigid body in pure translation will have the same velocity and the same acceleration at any given instant. Figure 13.1 and Figure 13.2 show examples of two different types of translational motion and a possible choice of a xed reference frame whose axes are denoted as x and y with corresponding unit vectors i and j, respectively. When a body is undergoing rectilinear translation, as shown in Figure 13.1, the velocities and accelerations of all points are identical in both magnitude and direction for all time. v A = vB a A = a B for all t where {A, B, } are arbitrary points on the body. In Figure 13.2, the velocities of any two points A and B on the body are identical and parallel at any instant of time; however, unlike in rectilinear translation, the velocity and acceleration directions are not constant. For curvilinear translation, the velocity equation holds at any instant of time but not necessarily throughout the entire motion:
(13.1)
Center of rotation O
v A = vB a A = aB t
1 t 2
(13.2)
Rotation
The angular position of a body in pure rotation is completely dened by the angle between an arbitrary xed reference line that passes through the center of rotation and any arbitrary line xed to the body and passing also through the center of rotation, as shown in Figure 13.3. The rotation angle q may be measured in degrees or radians, where 1 revolution = 360 degrees = 2p radians (13.3)
The rotation angular velocity w is dened as the rate of change of the angular position angle q with respect to time. It is expressed in radians per second (rps ) or in revolutions per minute (rpm ), as follows: dq dt
w=
(13.4)
The rotational angular acceleration a is the time rate of change of the angular velocity resulting in the following relationship: dw d 2q dw dq dw = = =w dt dt 2 dq dt dq
a=
(13.5)
In pure rotational motion, the relation between the rotational position, velocity, and acceleration are similar to pure translation. The angular velocity is the integral of the angular acceleration plus the initial velocity; the angular displacement is equal to the initial displacement added to the integral of the velocity. That is,
w = w 0 + at 1 q = q 0 + wt = q 0 + w 0t + at 2 2 (13.6)
In general, the angular velocity and angular acceleration are three-dimensional vectors whose three components are normally projected on a coordinate system xed to the body that is translating and rotating in space, which is the general behavior of rigid bodies as discussed in later sections. For planar motion, two of the components of the angular velocity vector are equal to zero and the third component points always outward from the plane of motion. Therefore, the position of any point B on a body in pure planar rotation is determined by the distance rB/A of that point from the center of rotation A times the magnitude of the angle of rotation expressed in radians q. Thus the distance s that a point xed on a rigid body travels during a rotation q is given by: s = rB/ A q (13.7)
Similarly, the linear velocity of that point will depend on the distance rB/A and on the angular velocity w and will have a direction perpendicular to the line between the center of rotation and the point, as follows: r r r v = w rB/ A (13.8)
where indicates cross product. The angular acceleration of a point on a rigid body can be decomposed into a tangential and a normal component. The tangential component is the time rate of change of the linear velocity v and is in the direction of the linear velocity, namely, along the line perpendicular to the radius of rotation rB/A. r r dv r r at = = a rB/ A dt (13.9)
The normal acceleration depends on the time rate of change of the velocity in the tangential direction and on the angle of displacement, which gives the equation r r r r a n = w w rB/ A (13.10)
Similarly, the velocity of a rigid body in general plane motion can be separated into a velocity due to pure translation vA together with a velocity due to pure rotation vA/B. r r r v B = v A + v B/ A (13.12)
r r v v where v B/ A = w rB/ A and v A is the velocity vector of point A. The velocity vector n B/ A is called the relative velocity vector of point B with respect to point A.
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r B/A B y x
X1 A rB at time t1
rA B
Y1
O = A at time to
(13.13)
r The acceleration of a point located by variable vector rB/ A on a moving rigid body is given by the following relation: r r dr d 2r r r r r a B/ A = a A + w w rB/ A + a rB/ A + 2w B/ A + B2/ A dt dt
(13.14)
r where the vector rB/ A and its time derivative are measured in a xed reference frame namely, its r components are [Xr, Yr] as shown in Figure 13.5. If the vector rB/ A is known by its components in a body-xed coordinate [xr, yr], then they can be transformed to the inertial coordinates as follows: X r = x r cos q - y r sin q Y r = x r sin q + y r sin q This is a coordinate transformation and is orthogonal, that is, its transpose is equal to its inverse. In matrix form the transformation of coordinates in Equation (13.15) can be written as follows: X r cos q = Y r sin q - sin q x r x r cos q y and y = cos q r r - sin q sin q X r cos q Y r
(13.15)
(13.16)
If we use the prime symbol to denote that the vector components are measured in a body-xed coordinate, then Equation (13.16) can be written in a more compact form as follows: r rB/ A = Tz rB / A and rB / A = Tz rB/ A
T
(13.17)
where TzT is the transpose of the rotation matrix around the z axis (which would point outward from the page).
Space Motion
Three angles, called Euler angles, may be used to describe the orientation of a rigid body in space. These angles describe three consecutive rotations around the three coordinates of the frame xed in a moving body with respect to an inertial xed frame. Twelve combinations of rotation sequences can be chosen; here we choose the rotation around the z axis, y, followed by a rotation around the body-xed y axis, q, and nally a rotation around the body-xed x axis, f.
z = cos
z
Z=
z =
y
(a)
x
(b)
X
z
z
Z
y
x = sin
(c)
x = sin +
FIGURE 13.6 Three consecutive rotations of a body-xed coordinate system (x, y, z ) around the inertial-xed axis (X, Y, Z).
Figure 13.6(c) shows the nal position of a body which has a xed coordinate system [x, y, z]. Originally, the body was oriented such that its xed coordinate [x, y, z] corresponded to the inertial xed coordinate system [X, Y, Z]. The body was then rotated by an angle y around z, as shown in Figure 13.6(a), followed by a rotation of an angle q around y, as shown in Figure 13.6(b), and nally by a rotation through an angle f around z. If the components of a vector are known in the body-xed coordinate system, then the components of that vector can be obtained in the inertial reference frame by multiplying the vector by a transformation matrix. This transformation is obtained from the sequential product of the three successive rotation matrices around axis z, then y, and then x, respectively. As an example, the transformation matrix for the rotation in the order shown in Figure 13.6 is as follows: cos q cos y = - cos f sin y + sin f sin q cos y sin f sin y + cos f sin q cos y cos q sin y cos f cos y + sin f sin q sin y - sin f cos y + cos f sin q sin y - sin q sin y cos q cos f cos q
Tz ,y ,x
(13.18)
In order to transform any vector rB / A known by its components in a body-xed coordinate system into the corresponding vector whose components are given in inertial xed coordinates, rB/A, and vice versa, the vector would be multiplied by the transformation matrix as follows: rB/ A = Tz ,y ,x rB / A and rB / A = TzT ,y ,x rB/ A (13.19)
where the superscript T denotes the transpose of the matrix. Because the transformation matrix is orthogonal, its transpose is equal to its inverse, as shown by Equation (13.19). The time derivatives of the Euler angles can be obtained from the components of the angular rotation matrix w expressed in body coordinates. For the sequence of rotations shown in Figure 13.6, the angular
velocity vector can be expressed in terms of the rate of change of the Euler angles as follows. In Figure 13.6(a) we have wx = 0 wy = 0 wz = In Figure 13.6(b) we have wx = wy = wz = Finally, in Figure 13.6(c) we have wx = wy = wz = dy df sin q + dt dt dy sin q dt dy dt
dq dt dy cos q dt
(13.20)
dy = (w y sin f + w z cos f)/cos q dt dq = w y cos f - w z sin f dt df = w x + (w y sin f - w z cos f)tan q dt In vector form the above equation may be written as follows: w=E where the matrix E is given by: - sin q E = cos q sin f cos q cos f and 0 cos f - sin f 1 0 , 0 w r x w = w y , w z d d or = E -1w dt dt (13.21)
0 -1 E = 0 1
(13.22)
Note that the matrix E is not orthogonal, so its transpose is not equal to its inverse.
In its most general case, the motion of a rigid body in space can be solved only through numerical integration, except for very few simple problems, such as gyroscopic motion.
(13.23)
For a system of rigid bodies, the linear momentum vector does not change in the absence of a resultant linear impulse. Similarly, the angular momentum vector does not change in the absence of an angular impulse. Space Motion The momentum vector of a rigid body moving in space has a linear component G and an angular component H. The linear component represents the DAlembert principle as described by the following equations: r dmv x = (F1 )x + (F2 )x + L dt r dmv y = (F1 )y + (F2 )y + L dt r dmv z = (F1 )z + (F2 )z + L dt
(13.24)
where the velocity and the force vectors are expressed in their inertial [X, Y, Z] components. If these vectors are expressed in a body-xed coordinate system, the time derivative should include the effect of the rotation vector, as in the case of the angular momentum. The angular momentum vector H is dened as follows: r r H = Iw (13.25)
where H and w are expressed by their components in the body coordinate [x, y, z]. When a vector is expressed in a body coordinate, its time derivative should include the effect of angular rotation. For this reason and because normally the position vector of the point of application of a force Fi from a center r of rotation A, denoted by rBi / A , is known by its components in a body coordinate system the equation stating that the time rate of change of the angular momentum is equal to the sum of the moments would be written as follows: dIw T + w Iw = TzT 1/ A TzT 2 / A TzT ,y ,x M 1 + Tz ,y ,x M 2 + L + rB ,y ,x F1 + rB ,y ,x F2 + L dt
(13.26)
where I is the matrix of inertia relative to a coordinate system xed in the body and moving with it and the center of the coordinate system is located at point A. The forces and the moments are assumed to be known by their components in an inertial xed coordinate system, and w is the angular velocity of the body given by its components in the body-xed coordinates. If the body-xed coordinate system is chosen along the principal axis of the body, then the term w Iw can be written in matrix form as follows:
0 w Iw = w z -w y
-w z 0 wx
w y I xx -w x 0 0 0
0 I yy 0
(I yy - I zz )w y w z 0 w x 0 w y = - (I zz - I xx )w z w x I zz (I - I )w w w z xx yy x y
and the equation of motion can be reduced to the Eulers equations as follows: x = (I yy - I zz )w y w z + M x I xxw y = (I zz - I xx )w z w x + M x I yy w z = (I xx - I yy )w x w y + M z I zz w In general, Equation (13.25) and Equation (13.26) are solved by numerical integration, except for the cases where they are simplied, for example in gyroscopic motion. The Euler angles used in the transformation matrix T are obtained from the numerical integration of Equation (13.20). Impulsive Motion and Eccentric Impact The principle of conservation of momentum is useful in solving the problem of impacting bodies. If the colliding of two bodies is such that the collision point is on a line that joins their mass centers, then the collision is centroidal, the two bodies can be considered particles, and impulsive motion of particle dynamics can be used. If the collision is noncentroidal, rotational motion will occur. In this case the projection of the velocity differential of the bodies point of contact on the line normal to the contact surface after collision is equal to the same projection of the differential velocity prior to collision times the coefcient of restitution. This vector relation can be used to nd the velocity after impact. Rotation Around a Fixed Point and Gyroscopic Motion When a rigid body spins at a rate w about its axis of symmetry and is subjected to a couple of moment M about an axis perpendicular to the spin axis, then the body will precess at a rate W about an axis that is perpendicular to both the spin and the couple axis. The rate of precession omega is equal to M = I wW . A well-known example of gyroscopic motion is the motion of a top (see Figure 13.7), in which the couple moment M due to gravity is expected to force the top to fall. However, the top does not fall and rather precesses around the y axis. (13.27)
Dening Terms
Acceleration The rate of change of the velocity vector. Absolute acceleration of a rigid body is the rate of change of the velocity vector of the mass center of the body. Relative acceleration is the acceleration of a point on a body due to the angular velocity of that body only. DAlembert forces Force and moment vectors due to the linear and angular accelerations of the body. Free-body diagram An essential sketch used to solve kinetics problems that involves sketching the rigid body together with all internal, reaction, and external force vectors. Gyroscopic motion Describes the motion of a rigid body that is spinning with a very large angular velocity around one axis when the couple of a moment is applied on the second axis. The resultant motion, called precession, is an angular velocity around the third axis. Kinematic analysis Starts from the geometry of constraints and uses differentiation to nd the velocity and acceleration of the constrained points on a rigid body. Kinetic energy The accumulation of work of forces on a rigid body between two instants of time; includes kinetic energy due to translation and kinetic energy due to rotation.
Z Precession axis
Spin axis
X
FIGURE 13.7 Gyroscopic motion.
W = mg
Rotation Centroidal rotation is the motion of a rigid body around an axis that passes through its mass center. In noncentroidal rotation the body rotates around an axis that passes through a point not corresponding to its mass center and which may not be on the body; this point is called the instantaneous center of rotation. Translation Rectilinear translation occurs when the velocities of any two points on the body remain equal in direction and magnitude throughout the entire duration of the motion. Curvilinear translation occurs when the velocity vectors of any two points are equal at any instant of time but change from one instant to another. Velocity Absolute velocity is the rate of change of the position vector of a point on a body measured from a xed reference coordinate. Relative velocity is the rate of change of the position vector of a point on a rigid body measured from a moving reference frame.
References
Meriam, J. L. and Kraige, L. G. 1992. Engineering Mechanics, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Beer, F. P. and Johnston, E. R. 1987. Mechanics for Engineers Dynamics, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Crandal, S. H., Karnopp, D. C., Kurtz., E. F., Jr., and Pridmore-Brown, D. C. 1968. Dynamics of Mechanical and Electromechanical Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York. Haug, E. J. 1989. Computer-Aided Kinematics and Dynamics of Mechanical Systems. Volume I: Basic Methods, Allyn and Bacon, Boston. Nikravesh, P. 1988. Computer-Aided Analysis of Mechanical Systems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. Shabana, A. A. 1994. Computational Dynamics, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Further Information
Detailed treatment of the subject can be found in Meriam and Kraige [1992] and Beer and Johnston [1987]. A classical presentation of the subject can be found in Crandal et al. [1968]. Computer-aided analysis of the kinematics and dynamics of constrained rigid bodies in space motion can be found in Haug [1989] and Nikravesh [1988].